Agriculture Form1

Excel & Succeed
Junior Secondary
Agriculture
Form 1
Anthony Maurice Ngomwa

Crispus Maribie
Jonathan Kyungu
Distributed throughout Malawi by
Grey Matter Ltd.

P.O. Box 2608
Lilongwe, Malawi
Tel: 01755411/01920788
Fax: 01755430
Email: [email protected]
Under agreement with the publishers
Longhorn Publishers
Funzi Road, Industrial Area,
P.O. Box 18033, Nairobi, Kenya
© A.M. Ngomwa, C. Maribie and J. Kyungu, 2012
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
otherwise without the prior written permission of the copyright owner.
First published 2012
Acknowledgements:
Typesetting: Peter Mwendwa
Dennis Ochieng’
ISBN 978 9996 014 185
Printed by English Press Ltd

Off Enterprise Road, Industrial Area,
P.O. Box 30127 - 00100, Nairobi, Kenya
Table of Contents
Unit 1: Agriculture and the Environment
Natural resources
Depletion of natural resources
Effects of increased population on natural resources
Revision Excercise 1A
Conservation of natural resources
Revision Excercise 1B
Unit 2: Farm Business Management Concepts
Basic concepts of farm business management
Main factors of production
Other factors of production
Revision Excercise 2
Unit 3: Agricultural Marketing
Market forces
Relationship between supply and price
Price determinants
Market functions
Unit 4: Classes of Farm Animals
Main classes of farm animals
Digestive system of a goat
Digestive system of a pig
Digestive system of poultry
Livestock management
Broiler production
Breeding
Unit 5: Crop Production I
Crop requirments
Revision Excercise 5A
Vegetable production
Preparation of seedbed
Control of pests and diseases in vegetables
Revision Excercise 5B
Unit 6: Animal Production
Egg production
Rabbit production
Unit 7: Agricultural Technology
Farm structures
Crop processing structure
Animal housing structures
Farm equipment
Livestock production tools and equipment
Workshop tools and equipment
Roads and bridges
Farm safety
Irrigation
Unit 8: Agricultural Experimentation
Meaning of agricultural experimentaion
Importance of agricultural experimentaion
Unit 9: Crop Production II (Agronomic practices)
Land preparation
Primary cultivation
Secondary cultivation
Tertiary operations
Selection of crop varieties according to climatic and soil factors
Unit 10: Challenges in Agricultural Development
Population growth and food security
Food supply
Gender roles in food production
Food security I
Unit Agriculture and the Environment
1
Specific objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
(a) Describe the natural resources that influence agricultural production.
(b) Identify and appreciate ways in which the natural resources can be
depleted or exhausted.
(c) Explain the effects of population increase on natural resources and
the environment.
(d) Define the term conservation and explain methods of conserving
soil, water and forests.
Natural resources
Introduction
Man has practiced farming for a few centuries only. Deliberate plant
cultivation is however thought to have began around 8000 B.C., whereas
animal domestication started much earlier. Agriculture is believed to have
started in the Middle East from where it spread to Europe and Africa. The
term Agriculture is derived from two Latin words, ager which refers to field
or land, and cultura which means cultivation.
Environment refers to the immediate surroundings of living organisms and
include both living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic) factors.
Natural resources that influence agricultural
production
Natural resources are things obtained from the physical environment to
meet needs of living organisms. Examples of natural resources found in the
environment are water, soil, vegetable, air and sunlight.
(a) Water
Water is an essential component of all living things. It forms a large part of
plant and animal tissues. The survival of livestock and crops largely depend
on water.
Importance of water
• It is a medium through which plant nutrients are transported from the soil
to the plant tissues.
• It is a means of transport for farm produce in large water bodies through
the use of motor boats and steamships for example in Lake Malawi.
• It is used to generate electric power.
• It is a source of power to grind maize in a water mill.
• It has a cooling effect in both plants and animals as a result of
transpiration and sweating respectively.
• It is used in processing of various farm produce in factories for example
tea, coffee and sugarcane.
• It is used in the dilution of chemicals.
• It is used in irrigation of crops.
• It is a habitat for rearing fish.
Though water is important in agricultural activities, it also can cause several
problems. Stagnant water contributes in spread of diseases like malaria and
bilharzias. It is an agent of soil erosion. When rivers flood due to heavy
rains it can damage crops, farm structures and infrastructure and cause
displacement of people from homes.
There are three main sources of water namely:
• Rain water.
• Surface water; rivers, streams, dams, lakes, ponds and ocean.
• Underground water; springs, wells and bore holes.
Water from the above bodies evaporate into the atmosphere, condense and
cause precipitation (rainfall). This forms a cyclic activity called
hydrological cycle (water cycle).
Fig. 1.1: Hydrological cycle.
(b) Soil
Soil is the loose natural material covering the earth’s surface and on which
plants grow. It is a medium for plant growth. Soil is important for the
following reasons:
• It provides plants with nutrients necessary for their growth.
• It provides plants with water.
• It provides air to plant roots and soil organism for their respiration.
• It is a habitat for soil organisms responsible for decomposition of organic
matter.
• It anchors plant roots.
• It provides raw material for construction of agricultural infrastructures.
Soils have five main constituents namely:
• Mineral matter – These are fragments of varying sizes forming clay
particle, silt, sand and gravel. The varying proportion of these particles
determines the soil texture that influences drainage, nutrient retention
and water holding capacity. It comprises of soluble and insoluble
mineral matter and occupies 45% of total soil volume.
• Organic matter – It is a major source of plant nutrients and influences
soil structure, soil colour, water holding capacity, habitat and food for
soil organisms. It occupies 5% of the total soil volume.
• Soil air – It occupies the pore spaces, between the soil particles. It is
essential for root and soil organisms’ respiration. It influences drainage
of a soil. it occupies 25% of the total soil volume.
• Water – It contains dissolved minerals from weathering of rocks and
decomposition of organic matter. It is a solvent of plant nutrients and
aids in their uptake. It occupies 25% of the total soil volume.
The relative proportion of the above constituents determines productivity of
the soil as well as crops growth.
(c) Vegetation
Plants consistitute vegetation needed for survival of other living organisms.
They release oxygen needed by other organisms and provide food for
animals. They control soil erosion by slowing down overland flow and by
binding soil particles together.
(d) Air
Air refers to a mixture of gases found both in the atmosphere and in the
soil. The gases are carbon dioxide, oxygen, nitrogen and inert gasses. The
proportion of these gases varies between the atmosphere and the soil.
Carbon dioxide is necessary for photosynthesis in plants. Oxygen is usually
necessary for respiration in both plants and animals. Nitrogen in the
atmosphere is usually fixed into nitrates in the soil by bacteria and
lightning.
The proportion of air in the soil will influence creation of the soil which in
turn influences roots respiration, activity of soil organisms and
decomposition of organic matter.
(e) Sunlight
Sunlight is the source of energy for photosynthesis in green plants. Light is
absorbed by the green pigment (chlorophyll).
Chlorophyll and light energy are used to combine carbon dioxide and water
into carbohydrates rich in energy. Animals derive their energy from plants.
Without light, animals would be deprived of their food. There are three
aspects of light that affect plant growth namely; light intensity (quantity),
light duration and light wavelength (quality). Shading and clouds affects
light intensity while day length affect light duration and will also influence
types of plants in an area and their yielding ability.
Influence of natural resources on agricultural

production
The farming enterprises a farmer will adopt on his farm will be influenced
by the available natural resources. These natural resources influence what
crops the farmer will grow and livestock to keep. They will also determine
where to grow crops on the farm and keep livestock.
Rainfall distribution, amount and reliability determine the types of crops
grown. In areas of high rainfall amount, crops like bananas and coffee will
do well while in areas of low amount of rainfall, crops like sorghum will do
well. Where rainfall is low, farmers use irrigation as an intervention
measure. Soils that are well drained, fertile and aerated, support growth of a
wide variety of crops unlike poor soils. Crops will also do well when there
is adequate light. Shading reduces light among crops and hence can be
improved through pruning, thinning, weed control, wider spacing, propping
and trellising.
A farmer will benefit more by choosing the right crop or livestock to keep
in a given ecological area.
Depletion of natural resources

Natural resources can either be renewable or non-renewable. The renewable
resources are those that are in plenty supply and cannot be exhausted for
example, sunlight (solar energy), tides, rain, geothermal energy and
biomass. These resources can be available for use in limitless period.
Nonrenewable resources on the other hand, are resources in limited supply
and are exhaustible. Once these resources are used, they cannot be replaced.
They include fossil fuels (petroleum, coal, natural gases) hydro electric
power from flowing water and nuclear power (from radioactive minerals).
Some renewable resources can be exhausted through man activities. Such
resources include vegetation, soil water, biomass/wood and wildlife.
How natural resources are depleted

Natural resources have been depleted through man’s activities in effort to
exploit there resources for agricultural production and other economic
benefits. The natural resources have been depleted in the following ways:
(a) Deforestation.
(b) Improper use of agricultural inputs and industrial chemical.
(c) Poor farming practices.
(d) Rapid population growth.
(e) Urbanisation.
(a) Deforestation
Deforestation is the indiscriminate cutting down of trees. This is done to
provide land for agriculture for the ever increasing population. Clearing of
forests can also be done to create room for buildings construction, roads and
railways construction. Furthermore, forests can be cleared as raw material
for paper industries, source of fuel and construction material. Accidental
fires especially during the dry spells can result to destruction of forests.
Fig. 1.2: Sheet erosion.
Loss of vegetation cover through deforestation has led to upset of

equilibrium in the following ways:
(i) Loss of habitat for the organisms. This has led to death or migration of
some organisms. It has also led to increased human- wildlife conflict
endangering both the life of human beings and wildlife.
(ii) Loss of water catchment areas hence drying up of rivers, streams and
springs. This affects the hydrological cycle that will affect water
supply for both crops and livestock.
(iii) Loss of soil fertility as plant debris and residues are important sources
of minerals on decomposition.
(iv) Soils become prone to erosion when exposed leading to loss of fertile
soils. Soils are exposed to agents of erosion such as wind, water,
animals and desiccation from sun.
(v) Climate change: This has been observed through increased
temperatures that affect the rainfall patterns. Global warming has
resulted in increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere which would
have been used by trees during photosynthesis.
(b) Improper use of agricultural inputs and

industrial chemicals
Reduction of arable land due to increased population growth has led to
intensive agriculture. This form of agriculture has led to increased use of
chemical fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides to improve soil fertility,
control pests, diseases and weeds. The continued use of these inputs in large
quantities has led to their residual build up in the soils. The chemicals build
up to toxic levels affects soil fertility and microbial activity to even their
death.
When these chemicals dissolve in soil water, they are washed down into
water bodies through run-off causing pollution. This has led to increased
growth of water plants (eutrophication) and decreased oxygen levels in the
water. Eventually this leads to loss of fish habitat.
Discharge of industrial effluents into land and water bodies will have
similar effects.
(c) Poor farming practices

Soil is the major natural resource that is highly affected by poor farming
practices. This happens when soil is exposed to erosion agents leading to
loss of top fertile soil. These poor farming practices include:
(i) Ploughing along slopes (up and down the slope).
Fig. 1.3: Gulley erosion.
(ii) Indiscriminate burning of vegetation leading to loss of ground cover

and loosening of soil due to loss of moisture and organic matter hence
exposed to erosive agents.
(iii) Overstocking leading to overgrazing hence land becoming bare
exposing soil to erosive agents.
(iv) Overcultivation of soil leading to pulverization and hence becomes
easily eroded.
(v) Shifting cultivation causes deforestation of large areas of land, hence
soil erosion.
(d) Rapid population growth

The ever increasing human population has increased demand for arable land
to produce food for the population. This has led to increased pressure on
natural resources to sustain this population.
(e) Urbanisation
Development of cities, large settlements and road infrastructures cause large
parts of forests to be depleted. Soils also loosen up, hence soil erosion.
Practical Activity 1.1

1. Visit degraded areas inside or near the school environment and
identify forms of land degradation and their causes.
2. View a video of a degraded land and record the forms of degradation
and their causes.
3. Discuss the forms of land degradation and causes as observed from
the visit and/or video. Write a report.
4. Plant grass and trees on a degraded area in your locality.
5. Apply manure on a planted field to improve soil fertility.
Effects of increased population on natural

resources
Population increase
The human population in the world has continued to increase with the
highest growth rates recorded in developing world. Malawi population
growth rate is currently at 3.2% per annum. Continued human population
growth has put pressure on the limited natural resources with increased
demand for arable land and land for construction. There is further demand
of water for domestic and industrial use, tree products and fish. There has
been a steady decline in land productivity and reduction in forest cover due
to the increased population. This indicates that environment has been
damaged and hence decreased capacity for its sustainable use. This has
been brought about by over-exploitation of natural resources that has led to
land degradation, pollution, deforestation, encroachment of wetlands and
marginal lands, and desertification.
Land degradation
Land degradation refers to use of a resource to a point where it begins to
shrink and becomes exhausted. Examples of natural resources that are
degradable are soil, water, grasslands, forests, fisheries and wildlife.
Population increase in Malawi has led to land degradation in several ways:
(i) Construction of buildings and roads on the productive farmlands
leading to shortage of arable land hence shortage of food.
(ii) Intensive soil cultivation leading to soil erosion and loss of fertility
hence reduced land productivity.
(iii) A reduction in wood and fish harvests.
(iv) Overstocking leading to overgrazing hence hard ground exposing soil
to erosion agents.
Pollution
Population increase has resulted to increased pollution of air, water and land
from agricultural chemicals used to improve soil productivity.
Growth of urban cities and industries to support the growing population has
resulted in increased volumes of both organic and chemical wastes from
households and industries that pollute the environment making it hazardous
to people, livestock and natural vegetation.
Cultivating marginal lands

Intensification of agriculture by increased human population, has led to
cultivation of marginal land that are not originally suited for cultivation.
These include very steep slopes on the hills and river banks which exposes
land to soil erosion agents. Cultivation of wetlands has led to loss of habitat
for aquatic lives and destruction of water catchment areas. It has also led to
polluting the water hence endangering the life of humans, livestock and
wildlife.
Deforestation
Increased population has resulted to conversion of forest land to arable land
for settlement and farming. This has led to indiscriminate cutting down of
the trees. Further, high demand for wood for construction, firewood and
charcoal has led to deforestation. This exposes soil to erosion agents
leading to loss of top fertile soil and create water run-off hence reducing the
underground water storage. Deforestation has led to spread of deserts hence
shortage of water since water catchment areas are destroyed and eventually
soils become infertile.
Desertification
This is conversion of once vegetated land to bare land. It results from
human activities such as overgrazing due to overstocking, deforestation and
poor agricultural practices such as slash and burn system. Desertification
leads to loss of land productivity hence increased drought, famine and
eventually death of livestock, wildlife and human due to shortage of food.

1. Visit a local area where increased population has led to
desertification.
2. Watch a video on effects of increased population on natural
resources. Discuss in class the effects and ways of controlling them.
Revision Exercise 1A
1. State the natural resources that influence agricultural production.
2. Identify four ways in which natural resources can be depleted.
3. List four effects of population increase on natural resources.
4. (a) What is deforestation?
(b) State three causes of deforestation.
5. State two effects of desertification.
Conservation of natural resources

Meaning of conservation
Conservation is the act of protecting and taking care of the natural resources
to avoid their decline, exhaustion and degradation of the environment.
Deliberate action must be taken to avoid species decline and extinction.
Why conserve?
It is necessary to utilize the natural resources in the environment in a
sustainable way to ensure economic benefits for the current and future
generations. Conservation of wildlife has continual benefits on man through
agriculture where insects act as pollinators of crops and others are predators
of crops pests. Conservation of soil and water enhances agricultural
production. Conservation of forests protects water catchment areas which
ensure continued provision of water for man, livestock and wildlife. It also
maintains and modifies the rainfall and climate patterns. Conservation of
natural resources help maintain a balanced environment between continued
exploitation of resources by man as well as maintaining its beauty.
In agriculture, deliberate effort must be made to conserve soil, water and
forests inorder to maintain land productivity and to ensure food security.
Methods of soil and water conservation

Soil conservation can be done by adopting the following practices.
• Biological control method.
• Physical control method.
Biological control method

This can be done by adopting the following:
(a) Controlled logging – This is highly applicable on plantation forests
where trees are cut down only when mature and young trees are left
growing.
(b) In trees that can regenerate for example Eucalyptus, coppicing can be
done.
(c) Afforestation – This refers to planting of trees where there were none
before. Farmers should be encouraged to practise agro-forestry by
planting trees on the steep slopes prone to erosion, on pasture lands
and on the farm. On the farm, the trees can be planted on terraces,
embankments and farm boundaries. The government and local
communities should plant trees on the marginal lands such as hill tops
that are not suitable for cultivation.
(d) Reafforestation – This refers to planting of trees where forests have
been cleared. For every tree that is cut, new one should be planted.
Where logging has been done, new trees should be planted. When
farmers harvest trees on their farms, they should be encouraged to
replace them.
Physical control method

This can be done by adopting the following:
(a) Legislation and law enforcement – The government should legislate
and enforce laws prohibiting illegal settlement on forest land and seek
alternative settlement for its people. Marginal lands on the hilltops and
river banks should be reserved for tree planting.
(b) Fire breaks – Fire breaks are established to protect trees from
spreading fire. Fire breaks are bunds of bare land which divide forests
into distinct blocks. They prevent fire from jumping from one block of
trees to the other. If any vegetation establishes on fire breaks, it should
be cleared to the soil level.
(c) Introduction of alternative fuel supply for example use of paraffin,
electricity and biogas.
Revision Exercise 1B
1. State four economic benefits of forests.
2. Explain how trees help to conserve soil and water.
3. Outline the biological measures used to conserve soil and water.
4. (a) Differentiate afforestation from reafforestation.
(b) Other than afforestation and reafforestation, name three other ways
of conserving forests.
Unit Farm Business Management
2 Concepts
Specific objectives
(a) Identify basic business management concepts, main factors of
production and explain how each factor influences agricultural
production.
(b) Recognise other factors of production.
Introduction
Farming is a business enterprise. Therefore for maximum productivity, all
concepts applied to maximise production should be used.
Basic concepts of farm business management

The following are basic concepts of farm business management:
(a) Production
It involves utilization of available resources to come up with a product(s).
Resources used are known as inputs (agro-chemicals, planting materials and
farm machinery). Products obtained are known as output (for example, crop
produce, animal produce). For maximum productivity to occur, factors of
production must be well harmonized and utilized.
The primary importance of agricultural production includes:
• Provision of food for rural and urban population.
• Source of direct and indirect employment.
• Produce raw materials for industries (for example cotton for textile
industries).
• Provide market for industrial goods (for example farm machinery, and
agrochemicals).
• Earn foreign exchange after exporting our farm produce.
• Source of revenue or capital obtained when a farmer sales his/her farm
produce.
• Improves the standards of living of the farmer’s household.
(b) Financing
Finance refers to money used to run a business, an activity or a project.
Financing involves making available money or funds for setting up an
enterprise, project or a programme.
Finances (money) is needed to buy land, hire labour, and buy agricultural
inputs.
The farmer may get finances in form of loans or credits from loan giving
agencies such as:
• Commercial banks.
• Self-savings.
• Grants/donations.
• Co-operative societies.
• Agricultural financial organization.
(c) Budgeting
A budget is an estimate of the future expenses and income of a proposed
farm plan. Budgeting is the process of estimating the results of a proposed
farm plan. It is the translation of a physical plan into financial terms.
Importance of budgeting
• It assists farmers to estimate the required production resources such as
labour, and capital.
• It is a useful document for negotiation of credit from financial
institutions.
• It helps to improve predictability in the farming process.
• It helps farmers to identify progress or recess in the farm business based
on the set objectives.
• It assists farmers in making sound and urgent decisions when comparing
various alternative enterprises.
• It encourages hard work and efficiency so as to meet the set objectives.
Types of budgeting
There are two types of budgeting, that is partial budgeting and complete
budgeting.
Partial budgeting
This is the simplest form of farm budgeting. It shows the financial
implications of proposed minor changes in the farm.
Complete budgeting
This involves both variable and fixed inputs. It is drawn when there are
major changes in farm or new farm is being planned for.
(d) Record keeping

Farming is just like any other business where several transactions are
carried out. It would be very difficult, if not impossible, to recall all the
transactions, their dates, and the people involved without the reference.
Farm managers must therefore keep systematic entries of various activities
and transactions carried out within the farm. Entries showing statements of
all transactions within the farm are referred to as farm records.
Importance of farm records

• Maintenance of good records over a period of time helps the farmer to
carry out proper business planning in future.
• They provide a basis for comparison between successive financial years
and with neighbouring farms or with set standards.
• They help a farmer to determine the profitability of various enterprises
and to decide on which enterprises to expand or do away with.
• They provide a history of the farm in case the farmer intends to sell it.
• They help the farmer to avoid being overtaxed as tax calculation is based
on actual performance of the farm.
• They form the basis for credit worthiness evaluation of a farm when
seeking credit facilities.
• They help to determine whether the farm business is solvent or in deficit.
• They remind the farmer about his or her debtors and creditors so that
necessary follow up is done.
Types of farm accounts records

Farm accounts records are basically categorized into three:
a) Financial documents.
b) Books of accounts.
c) Financial statements.
(e) Business decision making

Decision refers to choice or judgment, that you make after thinking and
talking about what is the best thing to do.
A farmer should make an informed or the best choice from the available
plans/actions for maximum productivity.
The salient objective in any production is to minimize costs and maximize
profits.
Main factors of production

These are resources (inputs) required in the production process. They
directly contribute towards the quality and quantity of output. There are
four factors of production in agriculture namely; land, labour, capital and
management.
Land
Land is normally considered in its physical nature without any
improvement. In agricultural economics, land is the most important factor
of production. However, its importance is underscored in the following
aspects:
(a) Productivity: This is the ability of land to sustain crop and livestock
production. The size of the land is not as critical as its ability to sustain
high crop yields and livestock production. Land productivity is
influenced by the soil fertility and climatic conditions of an area. Land
productivity, however, can be improved through capital investment and
modern farming techniques, such as, fertilizer application, pest and
disease control, irrigation and soil conservation.
(b) Land may also be viewed in terms of space for construction of farm
buildings, agro-industries, dams and mineral deposit reserves. Under
these considerations, the size of land over-rides its productivity.
Sometimes the economies of scale put demand on the size of the land
rather than on its productivity.
Farmers can acquire land by various methods:
• Inheritance from relatives or well wishers.
• Buying land from willing sellers.
• Leasing from landlords where the tenant pays a specified amount
of money as rent for a given period of time.
• Allocation by the government through settlement schemes.
Labour
This refers to human, physical and mental services employed in the
production process. As a factor of production, labour is considered on the
basis of the output of an individual and not on the number of people
employed.
Types of labour
Labour is categorized into:
(i) Family labour

This consists of the farmer and the members of family. The head of the
family is normally the supervisor of this labour and is usually responsible
for assigning duties. These duties are assigned according to the age and
ability of the family members.
(ii) Hired labour

This is the labour employed outside the family. Hired labour can either be
permanent or casual.
Permanent labour is employed throughout the year regardless of the
activities on the farm. Employees hired as permanent labourers earn a
salary at the end of the month.
Casual labourers are employed on temporary basis, usually at labour peak
periods, for example, during harvesting and planting. Casual labour
supplements the permanent labour or family labour.
Labour could either be skilled or non-skilled. For skilled labour, the
labourers have to undergo training in order to do specialised tasks. This sort
of labour is limited and relatively expensive to employ.
Measuring labour efficiency / output

As we have learnt earlier, the number of labourers employed is not as
important as the labour productivity. This is the amount of work done
within a specified period of time. Labour productivity is expressed in terms
of man-hours, man-days, man-weeks, man-months, and man-years. For
example, 10 man-hours indicate a piece of work which can be carried out
by:
(i) One person within a period of ten hours.
(ii) Ten people within a period of one hour.
Ways of improving labour efficiency

The capacity of labour to produce can be improved by:
(i) Training the labour force.
This can be done in various agricultural training institutes, for example
farmers training centres. Training can also be done on demonstration
farms, in agricultural workshops and seminars and agricultural shows.
(ii) Farm mechanisation.
Machines help labourers to perform tasks faster and more efficiently.
The machines must be maintained properly for enhanced efficiency.
For example, using machinery such as milking machines, combine
harvesters, chemical sprayers and planters help the various farm
operations to be carried out faster and more efficiently.
(iii) Giving incentives.
Incentives are things done or given to the labourers to motivate them
to work harder and increase production. Incentives can include
provision of proper housing, transport allowance, work cloths, and
protective wear, rewarding good workers, proper remuneration and
medical insurance.
(iv) Assigning specific tasks.
In a farm, labour force should be assigned particular tasks which must
be completed before embarking on another. The task assignment is
governed by the labour skills. This helps workers to know clearly their
duties and responsibilities thus making them more accountable and
more efficient.
Capital
These are assets that are essential in the production process. In agricultural
production, capital includes tools and equipment, farm inputs, farm
machinery, and money. Without capital, all other factors of production will
be of no importance.
Types of capital
1. Liquid capital or circulating capital

This is money, but it only becomes capital when it enables the farmer to
purchase real assets to be used in the process of production. It is very vital
in the production process, without which production may fail to start or may
end abruptly. It is regarded as either cash at hand or cash in the bank.
2. Working capital
These are resource inputs used in the production process. They include
fertilizers, animal feeds, veterinary drugs, pesticides, herbicides and fuel.
They are usually completely consumed in the process of production.
3. Durable capital/fixed capital

These are assets used in the production process, but are not consumed in the
production process. They can be re-used again. However, these assets
depreciate in value due to wear and tear as well as age thus they must be
replaced after a period of time. Durable capital includes farm machinery,
buildings, water systems and perennial crops.
Note: The quantity and quality of capital available influences

the quantity and quality of output realised.
Sources of capital
Farmers can acquire capital in various ways.
1. Credit facilities
Farmers can borrow capital either in cash or in kind, that is, in form of
inputs. Credit may be obtained from commercial banks, co-operatives,
statutory boards, private organisations, or even friends/relatives. Financial
institutions however, demand security in exchange for credit offered.
2. Self-savings
A farmer can set aside part of his/her income to accumulate over a period of
time. When enough accumulative savings have been made, the farmer uses
it to buy capital assets needed for the production process.
3. Inheritance
One may inherit capital from relatives or close friends.
4. Grants / donations
Individual farmers or a group of farmers may be awarded grants by
sponsors or well wishers. These donations can assist farmers to start
agricultural projects.
Management
Management refers to the process of allocation of scarce resources to attain
the desired goals. In successful management, sound planning and good
decision-making are crucial. In agricultural production, management helps
to organise the other factors of production to produce the desired products
at maximum profit with minimal cost. Management is a very important
factor of production. Without proper management, all the other factors of
production will not realise their potential regardless of their quality and
quantity. The person involved in the management of farming project is
called a farm manager.
The role of a farm manager

(a) Acquisition of knowledge or information relevant to the farm business
This can be obtained from agricultural extension services, research
stations, agricultural journals, radio and TV programmes. The
information would be necessary on the technical aspect of raising
crops and livestock, market price trends, disease and pest control, new
crop varieties and breeds, as well as, demand and supply trends.
(b) Implementing farm management decisions
It involves translation of decisions made on the farm into action. If the
plan calls for planting of five hectares of tea, the farm manager ensures
that the seedlings are obtained and planted.
(c) Bearing risk
In agricultural production, there are many variables (factors) which are
beyond the farmer’s control. Perfect prediction is rarely realised,
hence, there is always an element of uncertainity on the outcome of
decisions made. If the predictions come true, profit is realised and the
manager’s efforts are rewarded. However, if there is deviation, serious
losses may result. Whatever the outcome, the manager bears the
responsibility and risk of decisions made.
(d) Keeping up-to-date farm records
These are used for reference during analysis of the progress of the
farm business. They must be clear and concise.
(e) Comparing the farm performance with neighbouring farms or
recommended standards
This helps to establish whether the farm is performing well or
underperforming.
Other factors of production

While the four major factors of production (land, labour, capital and
management) will influence agricultural productivity greatly, there are other
factors which also have a share in productivity.
These include:
• Market.
• Climate.
• Risks and uncertainties.
• Quota.
• Economy.
• Government policy.
Market
A market is a place where goods and services are exchanged as a situation
where there exist buyers and sellers of a particular produce.
Marketing refers the processes involved in the transformation and flow of
goods and services from the producer to the consumer.
A farmer would like to sell all his produce. If the buyers cannot buy all
produce in the market, there may be spoilage of some crop produce
particularly the perishable produce such as vegetables, fruits and milk. Poor
means of transport for example roads, may not allow farmers to sell their
farm produce at the right time. This may also lead to reduction in quality of
the farm produce thus lowering its marketability.
Farmers should pull their resources together and form unions and co-
operatives to raise their bargaining power.
Climate
Climate is defined as the daily atmospheric condition recorded for a long
period of time over 20 years. Different farming enterprises do well in
different climatic regions for example wheat and tea require low
temperatures hence do well in high altitudes while crops such as millet,
sorghum cotton and sisal require high temperatures. The same applies to
livestock production.
Risks and uncertainties

Risks are defined as the divergence between expectation and actual
outcome. It is the difference between what a farmer could predict and the
actual outcome.
Types of risks include:
• Fire.
• Theft.
• Accidents to employees or employer.
• Disease and pest outbreaks.
• Farmer’s and his household’s health.
• Variation in crop yield.
Risk can be insured against.
Uncertainties
This refers to a state of imperfect knowledge about future event or outcome.
Types of uncertainties:
• Price fluctuations.
• Uncertainty of physical yield.
• Uncertainty associated with new production techniques.
• Obsolescence.
• Ownership uncertainty.
• Transport reliability.
• Breach of contract.
• Unavailability of labour.
• Unavailability of agricultural inputs.
Agricultural production is quite peculiar compared to industrial or factory
production. In a factory, conditions can be set at an optimum and thus
production will be almost constant. However, in agriculture there are so
many factors beyond the farmers control like weather, pests and diseases
outbreak and price fluctuations. These unpredictable events make the
farmer to work in a situation of uncertainty of the future outcome. The state
of not being sure of the future outcome is known as uncertainty. This
uncertainty may bring about differences in what the farmer expects to
happen and what actually happens. This is known as risk, that is the
differences between the expected outcome and the actual outcome.
There are several risks and uncertainties that commonly face farmers. They
include:
1. Changes in price of commodities

This may happen in the course of the production period. If the price of
commodities fall, the farmer gets less profit than what he had expected. The
longer the production period, the greater the risk.
2. Failure of physical production

The process of production may fail due to several factors which include:
• Attack by pests (for example, army worms, locusts) and diseases such as
headsmut and blight.
• Bad weather, for example, drought, excessive rain, floods, frost,
hailstones or violent storms.
• Theft for example, of crops, livestock, farm implements and machinery.
3. Change in government policy

• Devaluation of currency: When the value of the currency is lowered, a
farmer who has savings in the bank will get less value for the money
than before.
• Repossession of land: The government may reposess farmers’ land for
the purposes of developing social projects, for example, schools,
hospitals, dams and conservation of water catchment areas.
4. Personal circumstances
In case of death or sickness of the farmer, a family member or the farmer’s
employee may neglect land for some time. This results to change in the
expected output.
5. Obsolescence
Invention can cause production of certain agricultural produce to become
obsolete or irrelevant. For example, with the advent of production of
synthetic fibres and polythene packaging materials, there has been reduced
demand for gunny bags made of sisal or cotton. This has subsequently
lowered production of sisal and cotton.
6. Development of new technology

New production techniques are developed at faster intervals. These
techniques may lower the cost of production but increase the output.
Farmers who are not aware of such techniques will be at a disadvantage as
their produce will be less competitive in the market.
Ways of adjusting to risks and uncertainties

At individual level, a farmer can reduce the effects of risks and
uncertainties using different methods. The government can also play an
important role in minimising the effects of risks and uncertainties to
farmers.
Farmer’s role in minimising the effects of risks and uncertainties

(i) Diversification of enterprises
A farmer can invest in several enterprises on the farm. In case one
investment fails, the farmer can rely on the other ones.
(ii) Selecting more reliable enterprises
The degree of fluctuation of commodity prices varies from one product
to another. It would be wise for a farmer to invest in an enterprise
which is not prone to high price fluctuations though less profitable,
rather than invest in one which is more profitable but with high price
fluctuations. Enterprises with shorter production periods may be better
than those with long production periods.
(iii) Contract production
This is where a farmer enters into a contract with consumers or
processors before undertaking production. The contract terms spell out
the length of the contract and the price of the commodity. It guarantees
the farmer a fixed market price for his produce even when market
forces do not allow. In most cases contract prices are usually slightly
lower than the market prices.
(iv) Input rationing
Farmers may apply less inputs than the recommended rates for
particular enterprises. In case of product failure or price falls the
farmer will suffer less loss. This occurs in the event of misfortunes
such as, poor marketing prices.
(v) Flexibility in production
Physical structures which can be used for different purposes are less
subjected to uncertainty due to their flexibility. Such structures can
easily be used for another enterprise with minimum modification. For
example, a poultry house can be designed such that in case of poor
market for poultry products, it can easily be converted for pig rearing
or goat keeping.
(vi) Adopting modern production techniques
Possible losses can be avoided by incurring extra costs to embrace
modern techniques of production, for example:
• Vaccination of animals.
• Irrigation during dry periods.
• Dipping of livestock against external parasites.
• Use of pesticides to protect crops from pest attack.
(vii) Taking insurance cover
A farmer may pay small premiums to insurance companies against
production of a particular enterprise. In case of loss due to fire or other
calamities, the insurance cover will compensate for the losses.
Government role in minimising risks and uncertainties

(i) Weather forecasting
Prediction of the onset of rains helps the farmer to prepare land and
plant at the right time.
(ii) Research and extension services
Farmers are given necessary information which can help them in:
• The proper selection of high yielding and disease resistant crop
varieties.
• Adopting new techniques of production for example, biotechnology,
grafting.
• Selecting new varieties and breeds of livestock in the market.
(iii) Subsidisation of input prices
The government can offer subsidies on inputs and services such as
fertilisers, tractor hire services and veterinary services. The
government departments can avail these inputs/services at relatively
lower prices than the market price.
(iv) Market regulation
Market regulation protects the farmer from exploitation. For instance,
in the coffee industry, marketing agents are vetted and registered by
the government.
Quota
This refers to the limited amount (quantity a farmer or a country is allowed
to produce and market for example coffee and tobacco.
Quotas are put in place to control farmer’s production in terms of quantity
and quality.
Others factors
• Health.
• Cultural practices.
• Economy.
• Transport and communication.
• Market forces.

1. Visit a nearby co-operative society or union and find out some of the
services they offer to their members.
2. Carry out a class project on vegetable growing. Do the planning and
budgeting for the project.
Revision Exercise 2
1. Define the term agricultural production.
2. State the role of agriculture in national development.
3. Name the factors of production in agriculture.
4. In which ways can a farmer improve labour output on the farm?
5. Outline the various types of labour in a farm.
6. List the roles of a good farm manager.
Unit Agricultural Marketing
3
Specific objectives
(a) Define and explain the terms marketing and agricultural marketing.
(b) Review the principles and describe the relationship between demand
and price.
(c) Describe how market forces determine price.
(d) Describe marketing functions.
Introduction
For most farmers, it is normally assumed that agricultural production is
complete upon harvesting the produce. However, the goods and services
produced must reach the consumers for successful agricultural production.
The various processes involved in ensuring that the produce reaches the
consumers, constitute agricultural marketing. Agricultural marketing is
carried out by various agents and organisations.
Marketing
Marketing refers to all the processes involved in the transformation and
flow of goods and services from the producer to the consumer. It
encompasses various activities that create awareness of the existence of
products or services among the consumers. It facilitates the availability of
the products in an acceptable form or condition.
Importance of agricultural marketing
Agricultural marketing involves a chain of activities that help move goods
and services from the farmer to the consumer. These activities include
buying, selling, transportation, processing, grading, packing and packaging.
There are accrued benefits in undertaking the above activities which
include:
(a) Farmer or producer gain income from the sale of their produce or
service.
(b) Creation of employment opportunities in transportation, advertising,
brokerage, storage and financing services.
(c) Export of the farm produce earns the country much needed foreign
exchanges for import of other goods.
(d) Taxation of the produce at various stages of the marketing contributes
to the gross national income which helps fund government budget of a
country
(e) Marketing of goods distributes wealth across the nation’s population
from the farm through marketing organizations to the consumer which
encourage economic growth all over the country.
Market forces
A market is a place where goods and services are exchanged. In this
context, a market is a physical place and it can range from kiosks, shops
and supermarkets, to open air places. A more comprehensive definition of a
market is “a situation where there exists buyers and sellers of a particular
product”. The buyers and sellers may meet physically, although sometimes
buying and selling may be done electronically (e-commerce). Market forces
include demand and supply.
Demand
Demand refers to the quantity of goods and services that the consumers are
willing and able to buy at a particular price within a given period of time in
a particular place.
Demand can only exist when there is the desire for that commodity and the
ability to purchase it. Where there only exists the desire and no purchasing
power, there is no demand, for example, a student may have a desire for
several commodities in the school canteen, such as, cakes, loaves, sweets,
juice, pens and pencils. If the student has enough money to buy a pen only,
he/she creates a demand for a pen and not for the other commodities.
Likewise, one may have the ability to purchase but does not have the desire
for the commodity.
Supply
Supply is the quantity of goods or services that the producers are willing to
offer at a given price over a period of time in a particular market.
Relationship between demand and price

There exists a direct relationship between demand and the price of goods
and services. When the price is high, consumers tend to buy less and when
the price is low, they are willing to buy more.
The law of demand states that the quantity of products demanded varies
inversely with the price. The relationship between demand and price is
known as the demand schedule.
Table 3.1: Demand schedule for meat
When represented graphically, a demand curve is realised.

Fig.3.1: Demand curve for meat.
From the graph:

• More meat is demanded when the price falls, for example, only 20 kg
meat is bought at MK 160, but at MK 80, 100 kg of meat is bought.
• The quantity of meat bought is maximum when the price is lowest.
• When the curve cuts the vertical axis, the quantity demanded is zero and
nobody is willing to buy at that price.
• When the curve cuts the horizontal axis, the price is zero. This indicates
the excess quantity that could be given free without paying.
• The demand curve rises from right to left.
Factors which influence demand

Demand is mainly influenced by the price of a commodity where the
change in demand is along the demand curve only. However, there are other
factors that can cause a change in demand even without price change. These
factors cause a shift of the demand curve, either to the left, or to the right.
They include:
(i) Price of related goods or services
Related goods can substitute each other. When the price of a substitute
increases, the demand of the commodity increases, for example, the demand
for fish may increase if the price of beef is increased.
(ii) Population
The size and composition of the population will influence the demand for
commodities. When population size increases, the demand for goods and
services will also increase. The population structure (such as children,
youth, working people, or the aged), affects consumption of various
commodities. If the population has a high proportion of children, the
demand for children’s items and services will increase.
(iii) Income level of consumers

Consumers’ ability to buy given quantities of commodities is affected by
their income levels. The purchasing power of the consumers is greatly
influenced by change in their income level which subsequently causes a
change in consumption, either positively or negatively. An increase in the
level of consumers’ income will cause an increase in demand for normal
and luxury commodities.
(iv) Taste and preferences of the consumer

A change in consumers’ tastes and preferences affects the demand of
particular commodities. Change in tastes and preferences may be influenced
by level of education, religion, sex and environment.
(v) Price expectations

If there is a speculation of a decrease in price of certain commodities, the
tendency of the consumers is to stop buying those commodities until their
prices fall, thus lowering their demand. However, when speculation is about
an increase in the prices, consumers will buy in large quantities before the
prices increase. This increases the demand for these commodities.
(vi) Government policy

The government may impose tax on certain goods leading to an increase in
their prices. The consequence is a likely decrease in demand. The
government may sometimes subsidise the price of certain goods which
increases demand for such goods.
(vii) Advertisements
The demand for a given commodity can be increased through vigorous
advertisement. Advertisement creates more awareness of commodity
existence in the market, hence, consumers will tend to demand more of that
particular commodity.
Sometimes the price of a commodity can remain unchanged but the demand
may still be affected by other factors. From the graph below, the price P1 is
constant, however, the demand changes. In this situation, the demand curve
(dd) may shift to either demand curve d1 d1 or d2 d2. The price will remain
constant but the quantity demanded will either shift from Q to Q1 or Q to
Q2.
Fig.3.2: Change in demand at constant price.
Relationship between supply and price

The producers are normally willing to supply more quantities when the
price is high. However, it is very clear that supply does not refer to total
production or output but rather the quantity of output which the producers
are willing to supply due to response of particular prices in the market. This
relationship between the price of a commodity and quantity supplied in the
market is termed as the law of supply which states that “as the price of
goods or services increases, the corresponding quantity of goods or
services offered for sale increases and vice versa.”
The relationship between supply and price is referred to as the supply
schedule. When the supply schedule is represented graphically, a supply
curve is obtained.
Supply schedule for eggs
Fig.3.3: Supply schedule for eggs.
Fig.3.4: Graph showing change of supply at changing price.
From the graph:

• Suppliers avail to the market a higher quantity of eggs when the price is
high.
• As the price increases, the quantity of eggs supplied increases.
• The supply curve rises from left to right.
Factors which influence supply
Although supply is mainly influenced by price, there are certain situations
when supply changes while price remains constant. Change in price
normally causes a change along the supply curve, but changes in supply due
to other factors involve a shift of the supply curve either to the right or left.
These factors include:
1. Number of sellers
When the number of sellers dealing with the same product increases, the
supply of the same product will increase.
2. Price of related goods
The related goods could be substitutes or complementaries. When the
price of a substitute of a commodity increases, the supply of the
commodity decreases. This is because the producers will be willing to
supply more of the substitute of the commodity that fetches a higher
price than the actual commodity, for example if the price of margarine
increases in comparison with that of butter, suppliers will increase the
supply of margarine and reduce that of butter.
When goods complement each other for example, maize and beans
which are usually intercropped, the price increase of one may lead to
increase in supply of the other.
3. Change in technique of production
Invention of new technology in production may lower the cost of
production of a particular commodity and consequently increase the
supply of that commodity. For example, use of tissue culture in banana
production or grafting in orange production may result in higher yields.
4. Changes in weather
Agricultural production mainly relies on weather conditions. Favourable
weather conditions encourage high production of certain commodities
increasing their supply. Unfortunately, weather conditions such as
drought, flood and frost usually result in low production and subsequent
low supply of the produce.
5. Price expectation
When sellers suspect that the price of a commodity will increase, they
supply less awaiting the price rise. If the price of a commodity is
expected to fall, more of that commodity will be supplied for sale before
the price fall.
6. Government policy
Government imposition of tax on a commodity raises its cost of
production, thus, fewer farmers are willing to produce it. This lowers
the supply of that particular commodity. But when the government
provides subsidies on the production of a commodity, more farmers will
be willing to produce that particular commodity hence its supply
increases. Government price control may affect the supply of a
commodity. If the government increases the price of a particular
commodity, more will be supplied into the market and vice versa.
Fig.3.5: Graph showing change of supply at constant price.
Price determinants
Price is the amount of money paid for goods bought or services rendered.
Price determinants refer to how demand and supply interact to determine
price of commodities. The producers influence the supply and the
consumers influence the demand of a commodity. Demand and supply
influence the price of a commodity in a given market at a particular time.
Producers are normally prepared to sell the largest quantity of a product
when the price is at its highest. The consumers on the other hand, are
willing and able to buy the highest quantity when the price is at its lowest.
When the quantity demanded is equal to the quantity supplied, the price of
the product at this point is known as equilibrium price or market price
while the quantity at that point is known as equilibrium quantity.
Price per kg Quantity demanded Quantity supplied

(MK) (kg) (kg)
320 200 1000
280 300 900
240 400 800
200 500 700
180 600 600
140 700 500
100 800 400
60 900 300
40 1000 200
20 1100 100
From the schedule above, the equilibrium price is MK 180. At this point,
the quantity supplied and the quantity demanded is 600 kg. This is called
the equilibrium quantity. A rise in price would change both the quantity
supplied or demanded.
When the schedule is represented graphically, the demand curve and the
supply curve intersect at some point. The point of intersection of the normal
demand curve and normal supply curve denotes the equilibrium price.
Fig. 3.6: Graph showing demand and supply in price determination.
Marketing functions
Marketing refers to all the processes involved in the transformation and
flow of goods and services from the farm to the consumer. The processes
involved in marketing are known as marketing functions.
The marketing functions are:
(i) Exchange functions

Buying and assembling
Most traders buy agricultural produce either in small quantities, or in large
quantities from farmers and store in warehouses for sale later on. The
buying is usually carried out by individual traders or marketing boards.
These produce are usually assembled in the stores.
Selling
This refers to the activities that assist in presentation of the product to the
consumer for eventual buying. Selling involves bargaining for better prices
and displaying the produce in the market. Selling is only complete when the
consumer accepts the product and pays for its value.
Transportation and distribution

This is the physical movement of the products from one point to another.
The produce may be transported from:
(a) Buying centres to the factory for processing.
(b) Buying centres to the consumers either within or outside the country.
(c) Processing factories to the wholesalers or retailers.
Distribution ensures consumers get the produce at the right time and
within easy reach.
(ii) Physical functions

Packing
Packing refers to putting produce in containers such as sacks, crates, boxes
or baskets. Packing aims at facilitating transportation of the produce,
protects the produce against damage and bad weather conditions, prevents
theft and adulteration. Packing also assists in quantification of produce into
appropriate weights or amounts which can be easily handled.
Storage
Agricultural produce is seasonal. It is characterised by excess supply during
harvesting and scarcity during inter-harvest periods. To ensure availability
of the produce between harvest seasons, storage is necessary. Storage
protects the produce against damage by pest and from deterioration due to
bad weather. It also allows agro-based industries to get raw materials
throughout the year or throughout the manufacturing period.
Processing
This refers to changing the state of a product into a more acceptable or
usable form. For example, wheat is ground into flour; raw milk changed
into powder milk, yoghurt or cheese; hides and skin into leather. Processing
also increases the shelf life of most produce and allows consumers to
choose a wide variety of forms for certain produce, for example, fresh meat
or canned meat.
Grading and standardisation

Grading refers to sorting the produce in terms of quality. It makes it easy to
assign a price tag to the produce depending on its quality. Grading enables
consumers to buy the quality they prefer. Grading is usually done according
to various market standards.
Advertisement
This is the art of informing, stimulating and educating the consumer on the
particular product. The consumers are made aware of the presence and
advantages of a particular commodity in the market. Advertisement aims at
persuading the consumer to buy the product at the expense of competing
products.
Packaging
This is carried out after processing of the produce. Packaging is the
wrapping of the produce with the materials in which it is finally presented
to the consumers to buy. Packaging eases transportation of a product and
makes the product presentable to consumers. Packaging also helps to keep
the product safe from any contamination.
(iii) Facilitating functions

Collection and analysis of market information
This involves gathering information on the market situation for particular
products. The information aids in price determination, where and when to
sell or buy. This helps to sell the produce at the best price in the markets.
Financing
Capital is needed to finance all the market functions right from purchase of
the raw materials to the final sale of the finished goods. After procuring
goods, marketing agencies need time to prepare them for the consumer
before they can earn any returns. Sometimes, farmers expect to be paid
before the produce is sold. Marketing agencies therefore require money to
carry out the various activities.
Risk bearing
The time period between buying of the produce (i.e. raw materials) from the
farmer to the time when it is sold may sometimes be very long. During this
period, other unforeseen happenings can occur, such as price fluctuations,
change in government policy, theft of the produce and change in consumers
preferences. Therefore, it is prudent for the marketing agency to be ready
for such risks. Some of these risks can be insured against by purchase of
insurance premiums.

Visit a local market near your school, interact with the traders, observe,
record and report on the marketing functions.
Revision Exercise 3
1. Define the term marketing.
2. (i) State the law of demand.
(ii) State the law of supply.
3. Other than price, what other factors affect the:
(a) Supply of a commodity in the market?
(b) Demand of a commodity in the market?
4. (a) Define the term marketing functions.
(b) State the various marketing functions.
Unit Classes of Farm Animals
4
Specific objectives
(a) Classify farm animals and distinguish the digestive systems of
ruminants and non-ruminants.
(b) Explain the functions of different parts of digestive systems of
ruminants and non-ruminants.
(c) Describe four main activities in livestock management.
(d) Explain the housing requirements and construction of broiler house.
(e) Explain how to feed broilers and prevention of diseases and
parasites.
Introduction
Animal production involves raising different types of livestock on the farm,
for different purposes.
Main classes of farm animals

Based on their digestion and digestive systems, farm animals (livestock) are
classified into two categories namely:
• Ruminant (polygastric) animals.
• Non-ruminant (monogastric) animals.
Ruminants
These are animals that chew cud (that is they push back feed from stomach
back to mouth for further chewing- regurgitate) their stomach is divided
into four chambers that is, rumen, reticulum, omasum and abomasums.
Examples are cattle, sheep, and goats.
Non-ruminants
These are animals which do not chew cud and have one simple stomach.
They include pigs, poultry, rabbits, camels, donkeys and horses.
Comparison between digestion in ruminants and non ruminants
Differences
Ruminants Non-ruminants
1. Chew cud. 1. Do not chew the cud.
2. Have four stomach 2. Have one stomach chamber
chambers. (monogastric).
(polygastric).
3. Regurgitate food. 3. Cannot regurgitate food once swallowed.
4. Have micro- 4. Have no microorganisms in the stomach
organisms in the hence cannot digest cellulose except
rumen that digest those animals with micro-organism in
cellulose. caecum.
5. Have no ptyalin in 5. Have ptyalin in the saliva hence
saliva hence no enzymatic digestion starts in the mouth.
enzymatic digestion
in the mouth.
6. Most digestion and 6. Most digestion and absorption occur in
absorption take the small intestines.
place in the rumen.
7. Have alkaline saliva 7. The saliva is neutral in pH.
due to presence of
ammonia.
Similarities
• Digestion in young ruminants is similar to that in non-ruminants since
they have not developed the rumen- rectum complex.
• The last stage of protein digestion occurs in small intestines in both
cases.
• Absorption of water occur in colon in both ruminants and non-ruminants
Digestive system and digestion in farm animals
(a) Digestive system of a goat

Ruminants belong to the group of polygastrics with a complex stomach
which is divided into four compartments:
• 1st stomach or Rumen (Paunch),
• 2nd stomach or Reticulum (Honeycomb),
• 3rd stomach or Omasum (Manyplies or book), and,
• 4th stomach or Abomasum (True stomach).
Ruminants for example, cattle, sheep and goats, chew the cud. The relative
size of the four stomachs varies with age and animal species. The first three
stomachs are small in young ruminants. After weaning, the rumen of the
young ruminants develop and by the time the animal reaches maturity, it
accounts for 80% of the total stomach capacity.
Digestion in the mouth

Fig. 4.1 (i): Digestive system of a goat.
Fig. 4.1 (ii): Four compartments stomach.
The food is chewed in the mouth with the help of teeth, mixed with saliva
and then passed onto the rumen. There is no enzymatic digestion in the
mouth as these animals do not have ptyalin enzyme in the saliva. Ruminants
produce a lot of saliva which acts as a lubricant.
Digestion in the rumen

The rumen is the largest compartment in a mature ruminant. It serves as a
temporary store for food ingested by an animal. During the storage, food is
churned, mixed and softened with water. Micro-organisms (bacteria and
protozoa) act on cellulose, fermenting it. Much of the dry matter of the food
is digested in the rumen. There is no secretion of digestive enzymes in the
rumen.
The micro-organisms carry out the following functions:
1. Digestion of carbohydrates: There is digestion of cellulose which
produces volatile fatty acids such as propionic acetic and butyric. The
fatty acids are absorbed through the rumen wall into the blood stream
and provide energy to the animal. Some of the fatty acids in the rumen
are utilised by the microorganisms for the synthesis of important
nutrients.
2. Digestion of fats: Fat present in the food is broken down into fatty acids
and glycerols by the micro-organisms.
3. Digestion of proteins: Micro-organisms split proteins into peptides and
amino acids.
4. Synthesis of essential amino acids from nitrogen compounds such as
urea.
5. Synthesis of Vitamin B complex and Vitamin K.
From the rumen, improperly chewed food is regurgitated for proper re-
chewing in the mouth (chewing the cud). The micro-organisms in the rumen
derive their energy from fatty acids and simple sugars which are the
products of carbohydrate digestion. Gases such as methane and carbon
dioxide are produced as a result of the digestion in the rumen. These gases
must be belched out as their accumulation can cause bloating.
Digestion in the reticulum

The reticulum sieves and separates fine materials from coarse ones in the
food. Fine materials pass on to the next compartment whereas coarse
materials are retained. Foreign materials such as stones or hard pieces of
wood are also retained here. There is no enzymatic action in the reticulum.
Digestion in the omasum

The main function of the omasum is to absorb water from the food as it
passes to the abomasum. There is no secretion of digestive juices in the
omasum. it is also used to grind and sieve food particles by means of its
folds. Food is stored temporarily in the omasum.
Digestion in the abomasum
This is the true stomach in which most of the digestion takes place.
Hydrochloric acid and enzymes, pepsin and renin, are produced in the
abomasum. Pepsin and renin completes the protein digestion while
hydrochloric acid kills microorganisms within the food substances that
come from the omasum. Hydrochloric acid also provides a suitable medium
for pepsin enzyme to function.
After digestion in the abomasum, the food passes on to the other parts of the
digestive system where digestion proceeds normally like in other animals.
The caecum has micro-organisms that assist in further digestion of
undigested cellulose.
(b) Digestive system of a pig

The pig is an example of a non-ruminant animal and has one simple
stomach.

Pigs use the pointed lower lip and teeth to ingest and masticate food. The
food is mixed with saliva. The ptyalin contained in the saliva does not get
enough time to act on the food hence its action is insignificant.
Digestion in the stomach

The stomach is a simple compartment used for the storage of food. There is
slight digestion of food by the ptyalin brought in with food from the mouth.
There is also secretion of gastric juice which contains hydrochloric acid
and two enzymes; pepsin and rennin. The hydrochloric acid provides an
acidic medium which creates an optimum condition for pepsin to work
well. Pepsin breaks down proteins into smaller molecules called peptides.
Rennin causes the curdling of milk protein (casein) in new borns. In young
pigs, rennin acts on casein and converts it into curdled milk which remains
in the stomach long enough to be broken down into amino acids.
Digestion in the small intestines

In the duodenum, there is secretion of pancreatic juice which contains three
enzymes; trypsin, lipase, and amylase that act on proteins, fats, and
carbohydrates respectively. Bile from the gall bladder emulsifies fat,
breaking it down into small globules and thus providing a large surface area
for lipase to act. In the ileum, intestinal juice is secreted containing erepsin,
invertase, and amylase, which complete the digestion. Most absorption of
food nutrients take place here.
Fig. 4.2: Digestive system of a pig.
Digestion in the large intestines

The caecum and colon are large and contain the micro-organisms which
help in breaking down cellulose into fatty acids. The fatty acids include
acetic acid, propanoic acid and butyric acid. They are volatile and are
absorbed in the large intestines.
The micro-organisms also act on undigested protein to produce various
products which include amino acids and gases such as hydrogen sulphide,
indole and skatole. Indole and skatole gases are responsible for the smell of
faeces. The micro-organisms also synthesize vitamin B though in relatively
small quantities.
(c) Digestive system of poultry

The digestive system of poultry differs from that of other farm animals in a
number of ways. Poultry have the following features:
• A beak instead of a normal mouth.
• Lack teeth, hence no chewing of food.
• A crop is found between the mouth and the stomach.
• Proventriculus.
• The ventriculus (gizzard).
• Two caecae each with a blind sac. The caecae have no digestive
importance.
• The large intestine is short in length.
• The cloaca is used for both excretion of urine and faeces. It is also the
opening for the genital system.
Fig. 4.3: Digestive system of poultry.

Poultry peck food and swallow it whole to the crop. Ptyalin enzyme found
in saliva hardly acts on food because the food is quickly swallowed. The
saliva acts as a lubricant and helps in the swallowing of food.
Digestion in the crop

The crop is an enlarged part of the oesophagus and it functions as a
reservoir for holding, moistening and macerating the food. The food is
stored for 2 hours but the storage of grains can take 12-15 hours. However,
some food may pass to the next stage without being stored here. There is
secretion of mucous for softening and moistening the food. The food is
forced to the proventriculus by the contraction of the crop.
Digestion in the proventriculus (glandular stomach)

This is similar to the stomach in other animals. The glands of the
proventriculus secrete gastric juice containing pepsin and hydrochloric acid.
There is minimal digestion here because the proventriculus has a small
cavity. The food is quickly forced down into the gizzard by the contraction
of the proventriculus.
Digestion in the gizzard

The gizzard is equipped with tough muscles on each side. The movement of
these muscles enables the food to be crashed into powder. The grinding of
food is aided by the presence of grit. There is no secretion of digestive
enzymes in the gizzard. From here, the food moves to the intestines.
Digestion in the duodenum and intestines

In the duodenum, food is mixed with the pancreatic juice and bile from the
pancreas and the gall bladder respectively. The pancreatic juice contains
amylase, trypsin, and lipase enzymes which act on carbohydrates, proteins
and fats, respectively. The bile helps to emulsify fats.
In the small intestines, food is mixed with the intestinal juice containing
enzymes erepsin, invertase, and amylase, which complete protein and
carbohydrate digestion. Absorption of food takes place here through villi of
the small intestine.
In the caecum, the enzymes amylase and cellulase are present. Cellulase
helps in the digestion of cellullose breaking it into simple carbohydrates on
which amylase further acts to complete its digestion.
The undigested food (faeces) is passed from the intestines into cloaca and
out the vent.
Livestock management
Proper livestock management guarantees high quality and quantity
production. The major areas of serious consideration in livestock
management include:
• Feeding.
• Housing.
• Breeding.
• Disease and parasite control.
Feeding
Livestock food is called feed. The principle objective of feeding animals is
to provide enough food for the animal to meet specific needs beside
production. Feeding is one of the major livestock management aspect in
production. For an animal to grow well or produce well, it must be fed on a
balanced diet or on correct quantity of ration.
A balanced ration refers to the daily feed allowance per animal in the
correct amount and having all the nutrients in the right proportions. Such
rations contain carbohydrates, proteins, minerals, vitamins, fats and water in
their right proportions.
There are two types of rations. These are:
(i) Maintenance ration- which is a daily feed allowance per animal for
sustaining all the body processes without losing or increasing weight.
(ii) Balanced ration- which is a daily feed allowance per animal in correct
amounts and nutrients for the purpose of production.
The amount of feed given to an animal depends on the following factors:
(a) Level of production.
(b) Physiological condition of the animal.
(c) Body size or weight of the animal.
(d) Purpose for which the animal is kept.
(e) Environmental condition within which the animal is.
Housing
Livestock should have good housing to:
• Protect them against draught.
• Protect them against hot weather.
• Protect them against wild animals/predators.
• Protect them against transmission of parasites and diseases.
• Allow the farmers to carry out mixed farming with minimized problems.
• Allow for carrying out animal husbandry practices such as dehorning,
drenching and castrating.
Some of the livestock structures include crushes, dips, spray race, calf pens,
milking shed and parlor.
Disease and parasite control

Disease is any alteration in the state of the body of an animal or its organs
which interfere with the proper performance of its function. It is therefore a
deviation from the animal’s healthy conditions. Parasites are animals that
live in livestock or on other animals (host) and derive their livelihood from
the host and at the same time deprive their host of some of its well being.
Both diseases and parasites lower productivity in terms of quality and
quantity
General methods of disease control

The control of a disease can be curative or preventive. A curative treatment
is one that tries to restore a sick animal to health. This may be done by
carrying out good feeding programme and provision of a clean
environment.
The preventive treatment is the one that stops the disease from occurring
when the likelihood is imminent.
1. Curative treatment
This is the use of medicines or drugs to control diseases. It is a direct
control measure. Drugs kill the disease causing organisms for example,
bacteria and protozoa.
2. Preventive treatment
These measures involve carrying out various animal husbandry practices
which help to curb outbreak and spread of livestock diseases. This method
is effective in treating livestock diseases which have no cure. It is done in
various ways:
(a) Prophylaxis: This is the administration of drugs to prevent an
infection. The drugs can be incorporated in the feeds or drinking water.
For example, use of coccidiostat drugs in chicken feeds or drinking
water for control of coccidiosis in poultry.
(b) Use of antiseptics and disinfectants: Antiseptics such as tetramycin
sprays are used on open wounds. Disinfectants contain germicidal
chemicals. Cleaning of poultry houses or calf pens with disinfectant
helps to control certain diseases such as scours in calf, fowl typhoid
and coccidiosis. Animal handling equipment should be disinfected
regularly.
(c) Isolation: This is the keeping of a sick animal away from the
uninfected ones in order to prevent the spread of a disease. It is an
effective measure in controlling highly contagious diseases such as
anthrax, rinderpest and scours.
(d) Quarantine: This is the restriction of movements of animals or sale of
their products in or out of an area which is suspected to be affected by
an outbreak or imminent outbreak of a notifiable disease. Examples of
such diseases are foot and mouth, anthrax and black quarter.
(e) Mass slaughter or culling of animals and destruction: Animals
suspected to be suffering from certain dangerous diseases (zoonotic
diseases) like anthrax should be mass slaughtered to control the
disease. Viral diseases, such as, rinderpest, Newcastle, some strains of
foot and mouth disease, and ‘mad cow’ disease, are controlled by the
mass slaughtering of the affected herd of farm animals and burning or
burying them.
(f) Vaccination: Animals are usually vaccinated against certain diseases
such as foot and mouth disease, rabies, blackquarter, anthrax,
brucellosis, tetanus and fowl typhoid. Vaccines provide animal body
with immunity against a particular disease.
(g) Control of vectors: Disease carrying agents, like tsetse flies and ticks,
are controlled by use of appropriate insecticides or acaricides.
(h) Use of healthy breeding stock or artificial insemination (AI):
Healthy animals should be selected for use as breeding stock. Any
animal known to be susceptible to some disease should be culled.
Artificial insemination will help to prevent the spread of certain
diseases, for example brucellosis.
(i) Proper nutrition: Well nourished animals are healthy and do not suffer
from nutritional diseases, for example anaemia in piglets. Well fed
animals are able to resist many infections.
(j) De-worming: Most internal parasites cause diseases in their host.
Routine drenching of farm animals helps to control internal parasites
such as tapeworms, roundworms and liver flukes. Roundworms cause
ascariosis, while flukes cause fascioliasis in cattle.
(k) Rearing of disease-resistant breeds: Some livestock breeds are more
tolerant to diseases than others for example, Zebu cattle are tolerant to
East Coast Fever.
(l) Feed livestock on dry roughage before providing succulent
roughages: This helps to minimise occurrence of diseases like bloat.
(m) Trimming of hooves to minimise occurrence of foot rot disease:
Ensure there are no sharp objects like cut wires in pasture lands.
(n) Proper housing: This helps prevent diseases like pneumonia. Observe
hygiene in animal houses. Ensure proper ventilation and control
overcrowding in animal houses.
(o) Ensure there are no sharp objects like cut wire in pasture lands.
Broiler production
Broilers are birds kept for meat production. They are also called table birds.
They are rich sources of proteins. They grow fast such that by 8 weeks, they
have reached slaughter stage of about 2kg. The most recommended hybrids
in Malawi for broilers are:
• Indian rives.
• Starbro.
• 300 – 180.
• Shaves.
Housing broilers
They are usually reared indoors, mainly using deep litter system. The
system is intensive. In deep litter system, birds are confined within a big
house. The house usually has no partition and the floor is covered with
absorbent litter.
Qualities of a good broiler house
• It should be located in a well drained area.
• It should be constructed up to 60 cm above the ground.
• It should be well ventilated preferably with adjustable windows.
• It should have well spread litter. The litter should be spread to 15-30 cm
deep and kept dry and dirt free always.
• It should have movable perches for even spreading of droppings.
Fig 4.4: Housing broilers
Construction of a broiler house

(i) Site
The land where the house is located should be well drained. A trench
should be dug around the house to drain away excess water around the
poultry house.
(ii) House
• The wall should be made of solid material up to at least 60 cm above the
ground surface. This helps to maintain the litter in good condition, stop
entry of external water, prevent loss of litter and eliminate floor
draughts.
• The height of walls should be 2.5m high. The wall can be constructed
using timber, stones, bricks or sheets of metal.
• The building should be well ventilated, preferably with adjustable
windows near the roof top.
• Ensure the roof is leak-proof; use of corrugated iron sheets is
recommended. The floor can be earthen or concrete. Earthen floors are
the best as they absorb moisture and heat. They are also cheap to
construct.
(iii) Litter
Use litter of good absorbent ability. The following are the recommended
litter materials:
• Combination of 50% sawdust and 50% wood shavings.
• Combination of 25% cut straw and 75% sawdust.
• Coffee husks, 100%.
• Crushed maize cobs, 100%.
It should be spread to 15 – 30 cm deep. Always keep the litter dry and dust
free. Scatter some grains on it. Shift the perches occasionally to spread
droppings all over the litter.
(iv) Perches/Roosts
Provide roosts in the poultry house. Roosts are wooden frames on which
birds sit on to rest. The perches should allow a space of 22 – 30 cm per bird
and should be 1 – 1.2 m high. It should be movable to allow even spreading
or easy removal of droppings outside the building for regular cleaning.
Fig. 4.5: Roosts and perches.
(v) Droppings pit

Make a trench within the poultry house along the walls. The trench should
not be more than 60 cm deep and should be covered by wire netting. Place
feeders and waterers above it. The droppings are removed once a year. This
facility is only necessary in wet climatic regions. In dry climatic areas, it
can easily become a breeding ground for rats.
(vii) Feeders and waterers

Provide feeders and waterers in the poultry house. They should be easy to
refill and always clean. The waterers should not leak. Where possible, use
automatic feeders that allow feed to flow by gravity. The feeders and
waterers should have pointed tops to discourage birds from perching on
them.
Fig. 4.6: Pointed top trough feeder.
Feeding broilers
Broilers are kept for meat production. They exhibit high growth rate and
have a high feed conversion ratio. They usually achieve a weight of 2kg in
49 – 56 days.
• Chicks kept for broilers production are fed on broilers starter mash
(pellets). The feed has 20 – 24 % crude protein content, is high in
energy, and is highly digestible. Provide the feed ad libitum.
• Provide clean water.
• From 4 -5th week, gradually introduce broiler finishers meal. This broiler
finisher meat encourages development of lean meat that is, discourages
overfattening. Provide the feed ad libitum.
Breeding
The quality of an animal depends on the genetic characteristics inherited
from the parent stock and the prevailing conditions under which the animal
is raised. The farmer must therefore be concerned with the parent stock
from which she expects to produce progeny (or the young ) and must carry
out good routine management practices on the animals. However, what an
animal may become largely depends upon what is in the egg cell from the
female parent and the sperm cell from the male parent. This is the essence
of breeding.
What is breeding?
Breeding refers to the process of genetic improvement of animals. It is a
system in which mating or reproduction is controlled. Animal breeding is a
long term activity, hence the farmer needs valuable information before the
breeding programme is started.
Aims of breeding
Major aims of breeding livestock are:
(a) To obtain high quality of animal products such as milk, meat and wool.
(b) To increase production capacity of the animal that is, its production
potential.
(c) To increase the disease resistance of the animal.
(d) To increase the animals’ tolerance to high ambient temperatures and to
other adverse environmental conditions.
Terms used in breeding
An animal’s body consists of cells. Each cell has a nucleus. Within the
nuclei of cells are structures called chromosomes which carry the units of
inheritance called genes. Different animal species have different number of
chromosomes contained in their cells. For example cattle have sixty while
pigs have thirty-eight. The genes determine characteristics of the individual.
Genes are arranged along chromosomes in a very definite manner, which

has enabled the scientists to be able to determine the position loci of genes.
A gene found on one chromosome is matched by another gene at the same
position, on the other chromosome forming a pair, that is, homologous
chromosomes. A pair of alternative forms of a gene which define a
characteristic is called an allele.
Variation in animal characteristics is caused by dominance or epistatic
deviation of the alleles.
The crossing of two superior animals of different breeds usually results in:
(a) An increase in growth rate.
(b) An increase in fertility.
(c) Improvement in body conformation.
(d) An increase in production.
Epistasis
Fig.4.7: Different types of combs in poultry.
Breeding systems
(a) Inbreeding
Inbreeding is defined as the mating of individuals who are closely related,
within 4 – 6 generation.
Examples:
• A brother and a sister.
• A son and a mother.
• A father and a daughter.
The level of inbreeding depends on the closeness of the relationship

between the parents. This system should, however, only be used by breeders
and not ordinary or inexperienced farmers due to the undesirable
characteristics which arise in the inbred offsprings.
Advantages
• It concentrates desirable genes and retains known merits within a
population.
• It helps expose undesirable recessive genes early within a herd so that
such animals may be culled.
• It promotes uniformity in a population.
• It is useful in testing male animals for abnormalities that is, testing
whether they are carriers of hereditary defects.
Disadvantages
• It leads to weak, inferior animals by concentrating too many recessive
gene pairs in the progeny. Recessive gene pairs expression may result in
cryptorchidism, low fertility and high embryonic mortality.
• There is reduced performance in the animal (that is, inbreeding
depression).
• There is reduction in vitality.
(b) Line breeding (line crossing)

This involves the mating of distantly related individuals whose ancestors
trace back to the same individual.
Examples:
• Half brother and half sister.
• Grandsires and grand daughters.
• Uncle and niece.
• Nephew and aunt.
• Cousins.
Line breeding is accomplished through breeding of animals that are related
but not as closely related as those used for inbreeding. This system
increases the number of ancestors. It aims at avoiding decrease in fertility
and loss of vigour that results from inbreeding.
Advantages
• It preserves the qualities of a superior ancestor resulting in maintaining
uniformity of type and production in the herd.
• It builds up homozygosity of desirable genes within the herd.
Homozygosity is when a pair of identical alleles carrying the same trait
come together.
• The system is useful where there is likely to be an occurence of epistasis.
Disadvantages
• It may reduce the survival ability of the animal due to low resistance to
diseases.
• It can also produce inferior animals if too many recessive gene pairs are
concentrated for example, stunted in growth.
(c) Cross breeding

This is the mating of two animals belonging to different breeds or grades.
Examples: Hereford bull and Aberdeen Angus cow.
Large White boar and Landrace sow.

White Leghorn and Hampshire Red.
Advantages
• The crossbred offspring has an average performance midway between
the parent breeds. The first crossed animals usually exhibit hybrid
vigour.
• It increases heterozygosity in all crossbred offsprings hence improving
the quality that is, introduces new gene pool into the herd.
• Crossbred animals can adapt better to harsh environments.
• It helps in pooling of several important gene characteristics found
separately in two different breeds (parents).
Disadvantages
• Obtaining semen from pure breeds for use in cross-breeding is very
expensive to most farmers.
• Certain desirable traits in a family of animals are broken up.
• It is not possible for a farmer to know at what stage of cross each animal
is.
(d) Upgrading
This is the practice of breeding pure-bred sires of a given breed to
indigenous female breeds and their female offsprings. The first generation
offspring carries 50% of the inheritance of the pure breed. The second
offspring carries 75% of the hereditary material of the pure breed. In
subsequent generations, the remaining proportion of inheritance is halved
with each cross. After five and six crosses with purebred sires, the upgrade
animals carry 96.9% and 98.4% respectively of the hereditary material of
the pure breeds. The offspring of the final crossing is essentially a pure
breed. However, the quality and productivity of the resulting grade depends
entirely upon the genetic quality of the purebred sires chosen.
Advantages
• It enables farmers to improve low-grade stock using purebred bulls or
semen from such bulls with highly productive strains.
• The method is used to replace one breed by another or to introduce
desired characteristics like polledness into horned breeds.
• It is more economical to upgrade the local breeds rather than purchasing
pure breeds.
• The resulting breeds are more tolerant to harsh environments and have
high resistance to diseases.
Disadvantages
• The method takes long to produce pure bred animals since upgrading
must be done on every generation on line.
• One cannot predict the performance of the upgraded animals.
(e) Out-crossing (line crossing)

This is the mating of unrelated pure bred animals within the same breed. It
involves mating bulls with the cows of the same breed. The success of this
system depends on how well the two strains complement each other when
they are brought together. It is commonly used in dairy cattle. Example,
mating a Holstein Friesian bull with a British Friesian cow. The offspring of
such a mating is known as an outcross.
Advantages
• Results in genetic improvement which enhances vigour.
• The method is suitable for beginners in breeding.
• It brings desirable traits into the herd by overshadowing undesirable
traits that are already present.
Disadvantage
It is expensive to import semen for individual farmers.
Parasites and disease control in broilers

The following should be observed to control parasites and diseases in
broilers.
• Dust the birds with appropriate pesticides to control external parasites.
• Vaccinate against common diseases. For example Newcastle disease
vaccination is done in the 3rd – 4th week.
• Protect birds from bad whether.
• De–worm regularly.
• Dispose of dead chicken properly.
• Disinfect your feet at the entrance before entering the house.
• Keep the feed, eater and their containers clean at all times.
• Disinfect the home and keep it clean.
Practical Activity 4
Construct a traditional khola for poultry.
Revision Exercise 4
1. Differentiate between ruminants and non ruminants
2. Briefly explain the roles of each of the following stomach chambers in
digestion.
(i) Rumen.
(ii) Reticulum.
(iii) Omasum.
(iv) Abomasum.
3. What happens to food in ‘crop’ of a poultry digestive system?
4. Which organ performs the role of ‘teeth’ in poultry?
5. Name three farm animals that are ruminants and three that are non
ruminants.
6. State five reasons for proper livestock housing.
7. List any six structures useful in livestock production.
8. (a) What is breeding?
(b) Give three aims of breeding in livestock.
9. What is hybrid vigor/Heterosis”?
10. Briefly state the meaning of each of the following breeding systems.
(i) Inbreeding.
(ii) Line breeding.
(iii) Cross breeding.
(iv) Upgrading.
11. What do each of the following terms refer to?
(i) Disease
(ii) Parasite
(iii) Healthy
12. What are broilers?
13. What is the best method for broiler production?
14. State the two types of concentrates given to broilers as food.
Unit Crop Production I
5
Specific objectives
(a) Describe factors for crop growth and development.
(b) Explain the importance of vegetables.
(c) Classify vegetables into indigenous and exotic.
(d) Select a suitable site for vegetable growing and construct a vegetable
garden fence.
(e) Prepare seedbeds, sow and care for indigenous and exotic
vegetables.
(f) Control pests and diseases.
(g) Harvest vegetables.
Crop requirements
Introduction
Farming methods and systems vary from one part of the country to another.
Although two regions may have similar ecological conditions, their
productivity may still differ. The differences in level of agricultural
productivity are affected by the major factors. These are human factors,
biotic factors, climatic factors and edaphic (soil) factors.
Climatic factors influencing agriculture
Climate refers to weather conditions of a particular place which have been
observed and recorded for a period of over thirty years. It is the average
atmospheric condition of a place. The weather elements (conditions)
considered are rainfall, temperature, wind, light and relative humidity.
These factors affect agriculture adversely. In fact, they are among the major
determinants of successful agricultural production of a given area in most
countries.
Rainfall
Rainfall provides water necessary for any form of life. Plants require water
for various processes for example, for photosynthesis. Lack of water may
lead to wilting and subsequent death of the plants. Water is also a major
component of plant cells making them turgid. In animals, water is equally
important for biochemical reactions and for digestion. Lack of water in
animals may result in dehydration and indigestion.
There are four aspects of rainfall which affect agricultural production

namely: amount, distribution, reliability and intensity of rainfall.
Rainfall amount
This refers to the quantity of rain received in an area for a period of one
year. Rainfall amount is measured in millimetres per annum (that is,
mm/p.a). A rain gauge is used to record the amount of rainfall. It is through
adding these volumes for all the days in a year that annual rainfall amount
is calculated. Different parts of Malawi receive varying amounts of rain.
Crops also have different rainfall requirements. Most of the country
receives between 763–1143 mm rainfal per year.
The amount of rainfall determines the crops grown in an area. It also
determines how well a plant grows.
Where rainfall is inadequate, irrigation is necessary to supplement the short
supply.
Rainfall distribution
This refers to the spread of rainfall over the year. In Malawi, rainfall
distribution is very poor, that is, it is not evenly distributed. In some months
there is too much rainfall, while the rest of the year it can be dry.
90% of rainfal occurs between December to March with almost no rain
between May to October over most of the country.
Where irrigation is not practiced, the success of crops depends on good
distribution of rainfall.
Rainfall intensity
This refers to the strength with which rain falls. Intensity of rainfall is
measured in terms of amount of rainfall per hour (mm/hr).
High rainfall intensity is characterised by heavy storms and can destroy
crops. It also has high erosive power causing loss of topsoil. Farm
structures and infrastructure are also occasionally destroyed by heavy down
pours. Landslides, especially in hilly cultivated areas, are common during
high intensity rainfall. Rainfall of low intensity improves water infiltration
into the soil and reduces soil erosion.
Rainfall reliability
This refers to the certainty with which a given amount of rain is expected in
a given place. In reliability, a farmer considers the possibility of receiving
rainfall at a particular time of the year.
Farmers rely on rainfall to grow off-season crops such as vegetables so as to
fetch good market prices for their produce.
Temperature
This refers to the degree of hotness or coldness of a place. It is measured in
degrees Celcius (°C) using a thermometer. Temperature is influenced by
altitude and topography. Temperature decreases with increase in altitude,
such that for every 300 metre rise in altitude above sea level, temperature
decreases by 1.7°C – 2.2°C. In shaded parts on hilly grounds, there is little
sun rays reaching the surface and this reduces temperature.
Each crop has a temperature range within which it can grow. This is
referred to as the cardinal range of temperature. For crops to grow well and
produce high yields, they require a narrower temperature range within this
cardinal range. This is referred to as optimum range of temperature.
The lowest temperature at which a crop can survive is called the minimum
temperature, while the highest temperature is called the maximum
temperature. The optimum range of temperature for coffee is 7.2°C -
26.7°C.
Effects of temperature on agriculture

• Germination and growth rate of crops depend on prevailing temperature.
At high temperatures, growth is faster than at low temperatures.
• Temperature and altitude also affect the quality of some crop produce for
example, pyrethrin concentration in pyrethrum increases with decrease
in temperature, while, sweetness in pineapple increases in low altitude,
where temperatures are high.
• High temperatures cause wilting in crops, especially where water levels
are low.
• Most fungal diseases in plants are also influenced by temperature. At
lower temperature, there is a higher incidence of diseases, for example,
the potato blight and Coffee Berry Disease.
• Temperature affects distribution of crops. Certain crops do well in high
temperature areas, while others do better in low temperature areas.
Effects of altitude on agriculture

Malawi is divided into five ecological zones based on altitude. These are:
• The highlands: For example Nyika, Viphya and Mulanje.
• The escarpments: For example, Karonga and Nsanje.
• The plateaux: Consists of catena and dambas.
• Lake shore: Consists of upper Shire River and Lake Malawi.
• Lower Shire valley: Extends from Kapachira falls to Nsanje.
Wind
Wind is air in motion. The direction of wind is shown on an instrument
called a wind gauge whereas the speed of wind is measured using an
anemometer.
Effects of wind on agricultural production

• Strong wind accelerates soil erosion. This is evident in bare land with
loose soil. It carries away the topsoil thus reducing soil fertility.
• Wind acts as an agent of pollination. It helps in achieving self-pollination
that is, transferring pollen grains from the male part of flower to the
female part within the same flower. It also helps in seed dispersal.
• Wind influences the evapo-transpiration rate. Evapo-transpiration is a
combination of evaporation (the loss of water from the ground in form
of water vapour), and transpiration (the loss of water from the plants
through the stomatal openings). Windy areas experience high evapo-
transpiration rates which may lead to wilting of crops when there is
inadequate supply of soil moisture.
• Crops such as bananas and tea, have delicate leaves which are prone to
destruction by wind, while others, such as maize can be lodged by strong
winds. Such crops have to be sheltered from winds or supported for
example, propping in bananas.
• Wind aids in the spread of pathogens (germs) from one animal to
another. For example, foot and mouth disease-causing virus can be
blown for a distance of 5 km and transmitted to other animals.
• Winds may also cause destruction of farm structures which are useful for
crop storage and for housing livestock.
• Fruit crops can be adversely affected that is, premature fall of fruits.
• Wind also plays a major role in the water cycle, where it carries away or
brings rain bearing clouds to an area.
• Wind aids in the spread of crop pests such as aphids in coffee plantation.
Sunlight
Light is the source of energy which plants require for photosynthesis.
During photosynthesis, plants manufacture food using water and carbon
dioxide in the presence of sunlight and chlorophyll.
Aspects of light considered are; light intensity, light duration, and light
wavelength.
Light intensity
This is the strength of sunlight reaching the earth surface. Light is absorbed
by chlorophyll and used to break up water into oxygen and hydrogen during
the process of photosynthesis. The number of water molecules broken will
therefore depend on the strength of the radiant energy from the sunlight,
which affects the rate of photosynthesis.
The rate of photosynthesis increases with increase in light intensity up to
the optimum. Light intensity can be increased through pruning, thinning,
weed control and trellising of passion fruits in an East-West direction.
Shading, however, reduces the amount of light reaching plants. Materials
used in green houses have the capacity of accumulating light intensity,
thereby hastening the growth of horticultural crops.
Light duration
This is also known as photoperiodism. It refers to the relative lengths of
light and dark periods in a 24-hour day. Light duration around the equator is
usually 12 hours, but it varies farther away. Different plants require varying
lengths of light duration to flower. Consequently, there are three categories
of plants:
• Long day plants: These plants require 13 – 15 hours of light per day to
flower. Examples are wheat and barley.
• Short day plants: These plants require less than 12 hours of light to
flower. They include tobacco, rice, soya beans, kales and spinach.
• Day neutral plants: These plants flower irrespective of the number of
light hours. They are not dependent on light periods. Examples are
maize, beans and tomatoes. The number of hours of sunshine is recorded
using a campbell sunshine recorder.
Light wavelength
This refers to the quality of light. Plants only absorb natural light but not
artificial light. The sun rays received by plants are absorbed at certain
wavelengths. Ultraviolet light and infra red light are absorbed by
chlorophyll. The presence of these sun rays affect photosynthesis which in
turn influences plant growth.
Soil factors
Soil as seen earlier under natural resources, is an important medium for
plant growth. Soil provides plants with anchorage, mineral salts, water and
is necessary for growth. As seen earlier, soil is a complex mixture of
organic matter, mineral matter, water, air and living organisms. The
proportion of the different mineral particles namely clay, silt, sand and
gravel determines soil texture which in turn influences water holding
capacity, drainage, soil nutrients content and chemical characteristics.
For example, soil with high proportion of clay has poor drainage and water
logged but rich in nutrients. This kind of soil is good for cotton and rice
growing.
On the other hand, soil with high proportion of sand and gravel has good
drainage, poor water holding capacity and are poor in nutrients. Such a soil
needs to be irrigated and added nutrients to be suitable for crop growing.
Soil with high amount of organic matter is good for crop production. It is
rich in plant nutrients with good water holding capacity and improved
structure.
The texture of a soil and its structure (how particles are arranged) will
influence root penetration drainage and also its erodabiltiy. Depth is another
aspect of a soil that will influence soil suitability for crop production. Deep
soils are good for deep rooted perennial crops and root crops while shallow
soils are suitable for shallow rooted annual crops.
Soil pH is an aspect of soil chemical proportion. Soil pH which is the
acidity or alkalinity of the soil influences nutrients available to the plants,
soil microbial activity and crops to be grown. For example, tea does well in
acidic pH of 4-6 while maize performs best in near neutral pH of 6-7.
Visit a weather station near the school and collect data on climate factors
of the area. Relate the data to agricultural activities in the area.
Revision Exercise 5A
1. List the climate factors that affect growth and distribution of crops and
livestock.
2. State three aspects of light that is important for crop growth.
3. State the most important aspects of rainfall in a given area.
4. Outline the effects of wind on farming.
5. How does low temperature affect the growth and performance of
crops?
6. List five soil constituents.
7. State the importance of soil to crop production.
Vegetable production
A vegetable is an edible product of a herbaceous plant or an edible plant
part. It may be eaten either raw or cooked and used as part of a main meal,
in salads, or in soups. The growing of vegetables is referred to as vegetable
gardening or olericulture. The most popular vegetables grown are kales,
french beans, cabbage, cucumbers, lettuce, onions, radishes, squash,
tomatoes and carrots. Vegetables are grown for home consumption,
commercial or processing purposes, or for seed production. Processed
vegetables are canned, dehydrated or frozen.
Importance of vegetables
Vegetables have both nutritional and economic benefits.
Nutritional importance
• They are excellent sources of vitamins such as vitamins A, B and C.
• They supply minerals like calcium, iron, phosphorus and potassium.
• They are sources of food to man. Vegetables can be eaten raw for
instance, in salads or cooked. Examples are cabbages, kales and
tomatoes.
Economic importance
(a) Vegetable gardening offers self- employment. It provides income for
the farmers.
(b) Export of horticultural products earns the country valuable foreign
exchange.
(c) It is a source of raw materials to industries dealing with vegetable
processing that is, canning or dehydration of vegetables.
Types of vegetables
Vegetables are broadly categorized as either indigenous or exotic.
Indigenous vegetables
These are vegetables that are native of Malawi. Most of them grow in the
wild and are considered as weeds while some have been domesticated.
Examples are pigweed (Amaranthus spp) and black jack (Bidens pilosa).
Exotic vegetables
These are vegetables originating from other countries. Examples are kales,
cabbages, lettuce, tomatoes, onions, cucumber, carrots, capsicum and
French beans.
Importance of indigenous vegetables

• They have rich diversity based on the locality.
• They are readily available as most grow as weeds and are also easy to
grow.
• They are cheap to produce as seeds are readily available and require less
fertilizer to produce.
• Due to their diversity, they are resistant to pests and diseases and require
little intervention in their control.
Due to adoption of exotic vegetables, the indigenous vegetables are

endangered as most are considered as weed and are low yielding. Deliberate
effort must be made to retain their importance through cultivation.

Visit the school farm and identify both indigenous and exotic vegetables
Selection of a suitable site for vegetable growing

Site for vegetables growing should be carefully considered as it influences
proper growth of the plants. The following factors should be considered:
(a) Nearness to source of water.
The site should be near water source. For example, vegetables require
regular watering.
(b) Shading.
Heavy shading should be avoided as it prevents light supply. Shading
from trees should be moderate.
(c) Space.
The site should be large enough to accommodate the population of
vegetable crop required.
(d) Topography.
Level ground which is most suitable. This helps prevent flooding or
surface run -off that may destroy the crop.
(e) Type of soil.
The soil should be deep and well drained. This enhances water
infiltration into the soil and prevents water logging.
(f) Security.
Vegetables seedbed should be located in an area well protected against
damage by animals and theft by human beings. The area should be
properly fenced. Locating the site near homestead can also provide
security.
(g) Soil fertility.
The selected site should be fertile to provide necessary nutrients to
reduce on quality of fertilizers used and promote faster growth.
Construction of vegetable garden fence

• Fence is a structure that encloses an area and forms a physical barrier for
animals or human beings restricting access into the enclosed areas.
• Fence to restrict a vegetable garden can be made by barbed wire, wire
mesh (chicken wire) wooden or live plants (live fence). The fence needs
not be expensive as it can be simple and effective.
Fig.5.1: Barbed wire fences.

• Visit some farms in the school neighbourhood and identify factors
considered in sitting the vegetable garden and the types of fences
used.
• On the school farm, construct a wooden fence around a vegetable
garden.
A seedbed
In sowing, vegetable crops and vegetative propagated perennial crops,
agroforestry trees, the seeds or vegetative materials are usually raised in a
nursery to allow the seedling establish firmly. From the nursery, they are
transplanted into the main field.
A seedbed is a piece of land varying in size, that has been prepared in such
a way that it is ready to receive planting materials and allow crop growth
until harvest. In a well prepared seedbed, the size of soil clods, depth of
cultivated soil and the particles of soil must be appropriate in order to
facilitate planting and germination of seeds or subsequent establishment of
transplanted seedlings.
Preparation of seedbed
The preparation involves clearing of the vegetation on the site and digging
deeply to remove root systems of perennial weeds.
Ensure tree roots and couch grass are removed to avoid competition for
nutrients with the seedlings.
The top soil particles should be loose and well aerated. A suitable soil tilth
for the seedbed must be achieved.
Land preparation should be done well in advance of planting time. This is
to allow any plant material left in the seedbed to rot. Seedbed of medium
tilth is the best as it helps avoid soil erosion and increases water infiltration.
Caring for seedlings

Below are several practices carried out regularly in the seedbeds.
(a) Watering: Regular watering of the seedlings is necessary but this
depends on the type of seedling. Vegetable seedlings are sensitive to
water stress. However, too much water should be avoided as it leads to
waterlogging. Avoid intensive watering which may lead to soil
capping, soil erosion or washing away of the seedlings. Always use
watering cans. For seedlings established in polythene sleeves for
example, tea cutting, should be watered once every three weeks.
(b) Mulching: The nursery bed should be mulched after sowing of seeds.
Remove mulching materials from spots where the crop has emerged.
Mulching helps to reduce soil erosion, minimise evaporation of
moisture, improve water infiltration and to regulate soil temperature.
(c) Shading: Construct a shade over the nursery bed. This helps to protect
the seedlings from direct sun. Provide light shading so as to allow
some sunlight to reach the seedlings. Heavy shading results in seedling
etiolation.
(d) Pricking out: This is the removal of excess seedlings from a nursery
bed to a new seedling bed to overcome overcrowding. The removed
seedlings are planted at a wider spacing in the new seedling bed. This
allows seedlings to grow stronger and healthy.
(e) Weed control: Weeds are controlled by uprooting. Do not apply
herbicides in nursery beds as it is uneconomical.
(f) Pest control: Carry out appropriate pest control practices. Spray against
the pests using appropriate pesticides.
(g) Disease control: Control seedling diseases like damping off by
regulating watering accordingly, using disease-free seeds and
maintaining clean nursery bed or spraying with appropriate fungicides
for example copper oxide and dithane M45.
(h) Hardening off: Hardening off is done two weeks to transplanting.
Hardening off involves the gradual removal of shading materials to
expose the seedlings to sunlight and reducing frequency of watering
till it is finally stopped. This helps the seedlings get used to the harsh
conditions they will experience once transplanted in the seedbed and
this causes them to establish with little setbacks.
Transplanting
Most vegetable seedlings are ready for transplanting when they are 1 month
old or have 4–6 true leaves or are about 10-15 cm high. Some are
transplanted when they are 6–8 weeks old. If vegetable seedlings are
transplanted when very young, they may not survive. On the other hand,
late transplanting may not allow them to adjust to the field conditions and
may lead to establishment failure.
Timing of transplanting
Timing of transplanting is very important. Transplanting should be done at
the beginning of rainfall season and in the afternoon or evening when
weather conditions are cooler. At this time, the seedlings have less hours of
sunshine and will have cooler hours of the night to get used to their new
environment. Most seedlings are able to re-establish soon after
transplanting. Failure to re-establish can be caused by attack by cutworms
and ants, waterlogging, fertilizer scorching, root damage, or physiological
stress that is, too young or too old seedlings.
Procedure and precautions during transplanting

Before transplanting, holes are prepared to a depth of 15 cm at appropriate
spacing. The seedlings must have been watered thoroughly the previous day
and repeated on the day of transplanting before uprooting them. This will
ensure that the lump of soil around the seedlings root system remains intact.
Water and apply a teaspoonful of phosphatic fertilizer per planting hole
and thoroughly mix with the soil. Apply aldrin dust to guard against
cutworms. Uproot the seedlings from the nursery with the use of a garden
trowel ensuring they come out with some lump of soil without cutting off
tender roots. Place seedlings on a shallow basin or shovel or wheelbarrow
and transport to transplanting site (seedbed).
Put each seedling with a ball of soil still intact in the transplanting hole
ensuring the roots are straight and not damaged. Never press the root
system of the seedling but instead dip the root system in a clay paste to hold
the soil together. After placing the seedling in the transplanting hole, refill
the hole with soil to appropriate depth maintaining the same depth as it was
in the nursery, that is 15 cm deep. Burying the seedling deeper leads to
rotting of the covered crown part causing the failure of seedling to re-
establish. Shallow burying, however, exposes some root branching which
leads to poor anchorage of the seedling.
Fig 5.2: (a) Uprooting of seedlings.
Fig. 5.2 (b): A seedling with a lump of soil around the roots.
Fig. 5.2: Proper root placement.
Caring for transplants

Immediately after transplanting, watering is done. Thereafter, mulching is
applied around the plants to help conserve moisture. Shade can be provided
to protect seedlings from strong sunlight. Light cultivation should be done
to control weeds and enhance fast establishment. Seedlings that fail to
establish should be gapped (replaced). Apply top dressing fertiliser for
example urea and CAN once the crop establishes.

1. On the school farm, prepare two seedbeds and sow indigenous
vegetables (bonongwe, luni and denje) and exotic vegetables
(tomatoes and maize).
2. Mulch and water the seedbeds prepared on the school farm.

1. Transplant both indigenous and exotic seedbeds from the school
seedbed established earlier.
2. On transplanting seedlings, water, control weeds and top-dress with
nitrogenous fertilizers.
Control of pests and diseases in vegetables
Introduction
Crop pests and diseases are of great concern to farmers because of the
damage they cause to crops. Should pests and diseases not be controlled,
they may cause up to 50% loss of crop yield in the field. This calls for
proper crop protection against pests and diseases in the field.
Pests
Pests can be defined as any living organisms that destroy crops either
directly or indirectly by introducing pathogenic effects. The word pest is
derived from a Latin word pestis which means plague or a contagious
infection. The word pest may also be defined as a destructive organisms
affecting crops. Pests include organisms such as insects, mites, nematodes,
birds, large animals and rodents.
Economic importance of pests to vegetable crops
• Pests may cause physical destruction to vegetables by eating leaves,
stems, roots, flowers or fruits.
• If not controlled, pests can cause considerable reduction in crop yields.
• Some pests lower quality crop produce for example piecing of holes in
fruits and leaves.
• Some of the pests are disease vectors for example, piecing and sucking,
pests such as aphids, mites, leaf hoppers and thrips transmit viruses and
bacteria causing disease infections in vegetables.
• In attempt to control pests, costs or production is increased in purchase
of pesticides to control pests resulting to environmental pollution,
contamination of soil, water and air endangering life of other living
organisms.
Identification of vegetable pests

Vegetable pests can broadly be categorized as:
(a) Piercing and sucking pests

These are mainly insects which pierce and suck sup from the plant tissues
and can transmit disease pathogens such as aphids, thrips, and mites. They
can also cause distortion of leaves or shoots.
(b) Biting and chewing pests

These cause physical damage to plant leaves, stems, roots, flowers, fruits
and seeds. For example mammals (rodents), insects (army worms, locusts)
and birds.
Control procedures
Deliberate efforts should be made to control pest which may not be
tolerated by the plant. Pest are only controlled when infestation reach
economic injury level (E.I.C), that is when pest cause damage beyond what
can be tolerated by the plant. Vegetable pests can be controlled through
several methods namely:
• Cultural control methods – agricultural practices for example use of
resistant varieties.
• Physical control methods – hand picking and killing.
• Biological control methods- use of other living organisms to predate on
the pests.
• Integrated pest management (IPM) – a strategy of combining various
pest control methods.
• Legislative pest control method – creating laws and regulations and
enforcing them for example control of cross border transfer of
agricultural materials to prevent entry of pests.
The table below shows some of the major pests of crops, the damage they
cause and their control measures.
Plant diseases
Plant disease may be defined as an alteration in the physiological state of a
plant on its parts which interrupts normal functioning.
Most diseases are caused by micro-organisms for example bacteria, virus
and fungus. These causal organisms are also called pathogens. Vegetable
diseases are categorized into three major groups based on the cause:
(i) Fungal diseases

• These are caused by fungi and form majority of the diseases. They attack
roots, leaves, stems, and fruits. They spread by structures called spores
that germinate on plant tissues and are carried by water, wind and
vegetable pests. The blights are examples of fungal diseases.
(ii) Viral diseases

• These are caused by viruses which attack the leaves, stems and fruits.
(iii) Bacterial diseases

• These are caused by bacteria. They attack the stems and the leaves for
example, bacterial wild in tomatoes.
Harvesting vegetables
Vegetable crops should be harvested on time. This helps reduce field losses
through destruction by rain, pests and diseases. Harvesting the wrong stage
may lower the quality of produce or even render the product unusable.
Factors determining time of vegetable harvesting

• Intended use of the crop; tomatoes for processing are harvested when
purely ripe whereas peas can be harvested for their pods as vegetable or
processed at green stage. Tender roots of carrot are harvested for
canning while large and medium roots are for fresh market.
• Taste and preferences of the consumer for example, some people prefer
immature carrots (baby carrots) while some prefer the mature hardened
carrots.
• Market demand; a crop can be harvested earlier when the market demand
is high. This allows the farmer to benefit from the high market prices.
• Pests and diseases outbreak; to avoid spread of pests or diseases, a crop
can be harvested earlier to prevent damages.
• Prevailing weather conditions; carrots need wet weather for harvesting
while onions need dry weather.
Method of harvesting
Vegetable harvesting can either be manual or mechanical. However, most
vegetable are manually harvested. Below are some of the methods used to
harvest vegetables:
(a) Picking
This method applies to most fruits and vegetables. Leafy parts of the
vegetable is nipped for example in kales and spinach.
Legume pods are ripped from the stalks for example in snow pods and
French beans.
Fruit of tomatoes, pepper, brinjals (egg plants), squash, cucumbers and
okra are harvested by picking. Tomatoes for fresh market are picked
when reddish in colour to process and fully ripe for canning.
(b) Uprooting
This method is used for harvesting root crops vegetables for example
carrots and beetroots. The root tubers are pulled out of the source. Soil
should be wet at the time of harvesting. A plough called carrot lifter
can be used to loosen soil before lifting or pulling. The tubers are then
washed before packing in bags.
(c) Cutting
Some vegetables are harvested by cutting the stem using a sharp knife.
For example, cabbages are cut at the base of the head where the stem is
attached. In asparagus, young shoots are cut at the base, while broccoli
and cauliflower are also cut at the base of the head with a few leaves.
(d) Digging
This method is used to harvest onion tubers. Onions are ready for
harvesting when leaves start withering at 5 – 8 month old. The bulbs
are dug out using a forked hoe when leaves are dried.
Handling of vegetable produce

• Onions are dried under a shade for a week then graded based on size and
stored in nets. They are stored in a cool dry place.
• Root tubers for example in beetroots and carrots should be washed
before packing in bags to reduce moisture loss. They are graded and
stored at low temperatures.
• French beans and snow peas (legume pods) should be sorted out, graded
and then packed in plastic containers or aerated crates. They are then
dispatched to the market and stored at low temperatures.
• Tomato fruits are handled depending on intended market. Fresh tomatoes
is graded based on size, packed in wooden or plastic crates and
dispatched to the market. Tomatoes for processing are not graded
according to size but packed immediately for dispatch to the factory.
Tomatoes are stored at low temperatures.

1. Grow any of the following crops: Cabbage, tomato, carrot or onion.
Manage the crop up to harvesting and marketing. Small group plots
can be used for this project.
Note: Carry out all the management practices.
2. Visit a vegetable farm near the school. Study the crop practices
especially pest and diseases control. Discuss in groups the findings
of the visit.
3. Prepare a vegetable crop produce from the school garden for
marketing.
Revision Exercise 5B
1. State the importance of vegetable farming.
2. Name two varieties of each of the following types of vegetables:
(i) Indigenous vegetables.
(ii) Exotic vegetables.
3. What are the factors considered when siting a seedbed?
4. Define a seedbed.
5. (a) Give a reason for carrying out each of the following practices in a
vegetable nursery seedbed:
(i) Pricking out.
(ii) Hardening off.
(b) Give two activities carried out during hardening off.
Unit Animal Production
6
Specific objectives
(a) Explain housing requirements and construction of layers’ house.
(b) Explain how to feed and protect layers from diseases and parasites.
Egg production
Chicken kept for egg production are called layers.
The common layers breeds in Malawi are Black Australorp (mikolongwe),
Shaver and Hyline.
Both Shaver and Hyline are hybrids produced by crossing pure breeds in
Malawi.
Qualities of a good house for layers

• It should be dimly lit to discourage egg eating.
• It should be large enough to accommodate the bird or birds comfortably.
Dimensions for individual nests are 25 – 30 cm wide, 30 – 35 cm high,
and 30 – 36 cm long. Communal nests can accommodate 50 – 60 layers.
Their dimensions are 1.35 – 1.5 m long, 30 cm – 35 cm high on the front
side and 75 cm high at the back. Put a door measuring 20 × 20 cm.
• It should have dry, clean beddings.
• It should have lockable doors to prevent birds spending their nights in the
nests.
• It should have slanting roofs to prevent birds from perching on their tops.
Note: Use of trap nests is preferred. These nests only allow

birds in and do not allow them to exit. The farmer is thus able
to identify the poor layers.
Housing layers
A house is necessary to provide shelter at night and during bad weather
conditions.
Laying nests are also placed in the house. If possible, the house should be
movable so as to facilitate easy re-location from one run to another. It may
also be constructed at the centre of several runs for ease of sharing the
poultry house. The land should be partitioned to allow rotation. This reduces
build up of diseases and parasites. The partitioned areas are called runs.
Fig. 6.1: Partitions showing shed and run areas.
Layers rearing systems
(a) Fold system

This is a system where birds freely eat vegetation but are confined in small
movable houses know as folds or arks.
A fold that measures 3.5 m long × 1.5 m wide × 1.5 m high is suitable for 10
– 15 birds.
One third of the fold is roofed to provide shelter, and the rest is left open but
enclosed by chicken wire mesh. The unroofed part allows in sunlight and is
used for exercise and feeding on grass. The roofed part contains waterers,
laying nests and feeders.
The folds should be moved to a new ground daily. This helps to reduce build
up of diseases, provides fresh grass to the birds, and avoids accumulation of
dropping
Fig. 6.2: Fold system.
Advantages
• Manure is uniformly spread in the field.
• Less feeding costs since the birds supplement the feed with insects and
grass.
• Worm infestations and incidences of coccidiosis are reduced. This is
because folds are moved regularly and hence birds do not come into
contact with their droppings.
• There is no need for fencing.
Disadvantages
• Folds last for a short period because of too much handling.
• Few birds are kept per fold.
• Labour requirements are fairly high because one has to work on many
folds for example collecting eggs, cleaning the folds, and daily
movement of fold.
• Egg production records per bird are difficult to keep.
• The returns per unit land are relatively low.
(b) Battery cage system
This is the most intensive poultry rearing system. It involves confining
of birds in wire cages. The number of birds per cage varies from 1 – 4
depending on the size of the cage, size of birds, environment, and a
farmer’s preference.
The cages are normally arranged in rows called tiers that is, a row built
over another usually 2 – 3 in number. The cages are arranged back to
back and are raised 60 – 90 cm feet above the ground for ease of
cleaning the floor.
Fig. 6.3: Battery cage system.
The cages have a sloping floor to allow for easy rolling of eggs to the
collecting tray. There is a watering and feeding system which is
continuous throughout the cages. A suitable cage for 2 hens should be
40 cm high at the back, 50 cm high at the front, 43 cm deep, and 35 cm
wide.
Advantages
• This system has the highest stocking rate because one is able to utilise the
whole space in the house.
• Records per individual bird can easily be kept.
• The performance of the birds is highest under this system since there is
reduced movement of the birds.
• Vices, such as, egg eating and cannibalism are rare.
• Clean eggs are produced since they roll off immediately after laying into
the collection trays.
• It minimises broodiness among the birds as they do not reach their eggs.
Disadvantages
• It requires very high initial cost which is out of reach to many farmers.
• It requires very high level of management.
• The system is not suitable for breeders and broilers.
• The cage is uncomfortable to the birds and may lead to bruises on combs,
toes, and breast, as they try to contact the birds in the neighbouring cages.
Construction of a house for layers (Deep litter

system house)
(i) Site
The land where the house is located should be well drained. A trench should
be dug around the house to drain away excess water around the poultry
house.
(ii) House
• The wall should be made of solid material up to at least 60 cm above the
ground surface. This helps to maintain the litter in good condition, stops
entry of external water, prevents loss of litter and eliminates floor
draughts.
• The height of walls should be 2.5m high. The wall can be constructed
using timber, stones, bricks or sheets of metal.
• The building should be well ventilated, preferably with adjustable
windows near the roof top.
• Ensure the roof is leak-proof; use of corrugated iron sheets is
recommended. The floor can be earthen or concrete. Earthen floors are
the best as they absorb moisture and heat. They are also cheap to
construct.
(iii) Litter
Use litter of good absorbent ability.
(iv) Perches/Roosts
Provide roosts in the poultry house. Roosts are wooden frames on which
birds sit on to rest.
(v) Feeders and waterers

Provide feeders and waterers in the poultry house. They should be easy to
refill and always clean. The waterers should not leak. Where possible, use
automatic feeders that allow feed to flow by gravity.

1. Visit a nearby poultry farm and identify the material used for
construction for example, iron sheets and bricks.
2. Organize to start a project of layers production using battery cage
system in the school compound.
Feeding layers (one day old to laying stage)

• From the first day old, the chick is fed on chick mash up to 8th week.
Chick mash is also called starter mash. It contains 20 – 22% crude
proteins and is highly digestible hence suitable for the chicks.
• Grits (sand) may be introduced in 6th week to help in digestion.
• In the 7th week, growers mash is introduced with ¼ growers mash mixed
with ¾ chick mash. Then gradually reduce the chick mash as you
increase the growers mash.
• At 9th week, chicks are fed on growers mash only. Growers mash contain
6-17% crude protein, vitamin and trace elements. Growers mash can be
supplemented with grains and green vegetables. This continues up to 20th
week when birds are ready to start laying eggs.
• From 21st week, the birds are feed on layers mash (15 – 17% crude
protein).

• Visit a poultry farm with chicks at different development stages and
observe the type of feed given to them from hatching to laying stage
Parasite and disease control

(i) Dust chicks with appropriate pesticides, such as, pyrethrins to control
external parasites, for example mites, lice among others.
(ii) Provide antibiotics mixed in chick mash or drinking water to protect
against disease attacks, for example, incorporate coccidiostat in chick
mash.
(iii) Vaccinate chicks against newcastle disease and fowl typhoid.
(iv) Isolate and treat sick chicks.
(v) Dispose of dead chicks properly.
(vi) Disinfect the feeders, waterers and provide a footbath at the entrance of
the poultry house unit.
Rabbit production
Parts of a rabbit
Fig. 6.4: Parts of a rabbit.
Purpose of keeping rabbits

To provide meat, fur or hair. Their skin is used to make soft upholstery, for
example, car seat covers.
Breeds of rabbits
Breeds of rabbits reared in Malawi include California white, New Zealand
White and Chinchilla.
California White
Colour: White with black or dark brown ears, eyes, nose, and feet.
Size: Adult buck weighs 5.0 kg liveweight.
Adult doe weighs 3.5 kg liveweight.
Fig. 6.5: California White.
Characteristics
• It is very prolific and widely used for crossing with other breeds.
• It is kept for meat.
New Zealand White

Also known as Kenya White.
Fig. 6.6: New Zealand White.
Colour: White with pink eyes.

Size: Adult buck weighs 5 kg liveweight.
Adult doe weighs 4.5 kg liveweight.
• The breed is kept for meat.
Characteristics
• Bucks are blocky and compact.
• They have a long body and wide back.
• Breed is prolific and fast growing.
Chinchilla
Colour: Greyish.
Size: Adult weighs about 3 to 3.5 kg liveweight.
• It is kept for meat.
Fig. 6.7: Chinchilla.
Other breeds include:
Flemish Giant
Colour: Dark grey, blue black and fawn.
Size: Heavy rabbit breed.
Characteristics
• Mature buck weighs 7.0 kg liveweight.
• Mature doe weighs 5.5 kg liveweight.
• It is best for meat production due to good body conformation.
• It gives high quality fur.
Angora
• This is kept for fur production.
• Body conformation is poor.
• Average size is 2.5 kg.
Rabbit housing
Houses for keeping rabbits are called hutches or rabbitry. It can be raised or
laid on the ground. They can also be raised in a deep litter houses (similar to
those for raising poultry)
Fig. 6.8: Rabbitry/rabbit hutch.

Qualities of a good rabbit house
• Adequate ventilation and well lit but protected from direct sun rays.
• Spacious: Space requirement for a doe is 80 – 115 cm2.
• Must be protected from direct rain and wind.
• The sides and floor of the hutch should have chicken wire mesh.
• The rabbitry must be safe from predators and pests like dogs, cats and
snakes.
• It should be raised off the ground.
The floor of a rabbit hutch may be made of solid wood or wire mesh. The
advantage of a solid floor is that it allows for comfortable placement of
bedding materials which help prevent hock sores in rabbits. It also allows
rabbit cages to be stacked in tiers. However, its disadvantages are that it is
difficult to clean, and that feeds and water can be easily contaminated by the
droppings.
The advantages of a perforated floor or a wire mesh floor are that they are
self-cleaning since the droppings and urine pass through easily, and the
contamination of feeds and water is much reduced.

Use the locally available materials in school to construct a rabbitry.
Feeding rabbits
Rabbits are herbivores and non-ruminants.
They have a large caecum which contain bacteria and protozoa for cellulose
digestion.
In general, livestock feeds are placed into two classes; the roughages and
concentrates.
Roughages are of plant origin and usually include whole or part of the plant.
They are coarse with high fibre content. Concentrates have high energy
and/or protein in their dry matter and have low crude fibre. Usually less than
20% concentrates are derived from grains and by milling by products oil
seeds or from slaughter houses.
The roughages given to rabbits include carrots, cabbages, pasture legumes,
for example centro, stylo grasses such as elephant grass and guinea grass.
The concentrates include pellets, home made maize or sorghum meal or
chick mash.
Pellets and chick mash have high protein content while maize or sorghum
meal have high carbohydrates content.
Rabbits can also be given a pinch of salt. They are ready for slaughter at 16
weeks.
Diseases and parasites in rabbits and their control

Proper management practices greatly reduce chances of diseases and
parasites attack in livestock.
Diseases
The major diseases of rabbits include:
(a) Coccidiosis
Cause: Protozoa of coccidian order.
Transmission; transmited through contaminated food and water.
Symptoms
• Swollen belly.
• Diarrhoea stained with blood.
• Death of many rabbits.
Control
• Control with coccidiostat mixed with food and water.
• Houses should be kept hygienic.
• Food and water must never be contaminated.
(b) Mastitis
Cause: Bacteria, mainly streptococcus and staphylococcus groups.
Transmission; suckling, injury of the teats/udder.
Symptoms
Swollen teats, sore teats.
Control
Treat with antibiotics.
(c) Pneumonia
Cause: Bacteria
Symptoms
• Difficulty in exchange of gases.
• Coughing.
• Nasal discharge.
• Loss of appetite.
• Nervousness.
Control
• Use antibiotics.
• The houses should be warm and dry.
(d) Pasteurellosis
Cause: Bacterium
Symptoms
(i) Racing breathing.
(ii) Sneezing.
(iii) Running nose with yellow mucus.
(iv) Death within very short time.
Parasites
(a) Mite
Lives on the skin and in the ears.
It causes ear canker
Symptoms
Crusty scabs in the ear. If not treated, the animal may have wry neck leading
to loss of balance and twisting of head to one side. Limbs may as well be
paralyzed.
(a) Skin mite

It causes mange in rabbits.
Symptoms
Exposed skin after hair falls out.
Control
Rotenone ointment may be rubbed daily into the infected parts
Revision Exercise 6
1. Name three breeds of rabbits in Malawi.
2. List three qualities of a good house for layers.
3. State four advantages of battery cage system.
4. Give three roughages fed on rabbits.
Unit Agricultural Technology
7
Specific objectives
(a) Describe types of farm structures, construct a granary and maintain it.
(b) Observe farm safety rules when utilising farm structures.
(c) Explain the meaning, importance and systems of irrigation.
(d) Irrigate vegetables in a school garden.
Introduction
Agriculture as defined earlier, is a science and art of crop and livestock
production technology. It may refer to scientific knowledge used in
production.
Machinery or equipment designed using

technology
Agricultural technology therefore refers to application of scientific
knowledge and use of machinery/equipment to improve livestock and crop
production.
Technology has greatly and is still improving agricultural productivity.
This unit covers a wide range of topics including:
(i) Farm structures.
(ii) Farm safety.
(iii) Irrigation.
Farm structures
Farm structures refers to different types of physical constructions that are put
up in a farm for the purpose of livestock and crop production. They increase
efficiency in agricultural production. Most of the farm production processes
are carried out under controlled environment in order to maximize the
output. For example,
• Animals must be protected from rain, wind or high sunlight intensity in
order to keep healthy.
• Harvested crops must be protected from water, insects, fungi and
extremes of temperatures.
• Farm machinery must be protected from rain and dirt to keep depreciation
level to a minimum.
Types of farm structures

Farm structures are categorized into five groups:
(a) Crop storage.
(b) Crop processing.
(c) Animal housing.
(d) Farm equipment and tools.
(e) Roads and bridges.
Crop storage structures

These are used to preserve harvested crop produce for future use or time
when the weather cannot allow production. Structures for grain storage
should have the following conditions:
(i) The grain must remain dry with no contact with dampness and rain
water.
(ii) Storage temperatures must remain constant to avoid the grains initiating
sprouting.
(iii) The store must be protected against insects and rodents.
The size and type of store will depend on the following factors:
• The amount of crop to be stored.
• Specific storage needs for the crop.
• Availability of materials for construction.
• The cost of the materials.
• The nature in which the crop is to be stored.
There are traditional and modern storage facilities.

Traditional ones include:
(i) Underground pits.
(ii) Clay pots.
(iii) Grass baskets.
(iv) Traditional granaries from local materials.
Fig. 7.1: Traditional store (grannary).
The modern storages include:

(i) Grain tanks and drums.
(ii) Grain silos.
(iii) Modern granary.
(iv) Sacks.
(v) Portable metal silos.
Fig. 7.2: Silos.
Construction of a granary
(a) Materials to use
• Support poles, blocks and stones.
• Bamboos for walls/sticks.
• Ropes and strings for holding bamboo and grass.
• Grass, iron sheet for thatching the roof.
• Metal sheets for rat guards.
• Sticks or logs for the floor (base).
Procedure
(i) Choose a well drained site in the homestead but away from kitchen
(source of fire).
(ii) Dig holes (30 - 34 cm deep) then fix the supporting posts.
Note: Rodent (rat) guards may be fitted now or after completion.
(iii) Lay the base using bamboo or sticks and fix them on the supporting
posts.
(iv) Weave the granary walls using reeds or bamboo strips.
(v) Fit tall strong posts to support the granary from all sided.
Maintenance of granary
• Repair quickly any leaking part of roof.
• Clean and disinfect before loading new stock.
• Periodically, spray insecticide powder to control insect pests.
• Any breakage should be repaired immediately.
Crop processing structures

Crop processing involves changing crops from one form to a more valuable
or one that can last longer.
Examples are:
• Drying maize.
• Pulping of coffee berries.
• Milling of maize grain.
• Drying of tobacco leaves.
Some farms have processing machines, (equipment) as others send their crop
produce elsewhere for processing.
Some of the processing structures are:
(i) Tobacco burns for curing tobacco.
(ii) Silos for ensiling vegetable for silage preparation.
(iii) Milk processing plant into other products such as yoghurt, whey, ghee
and powdered milk.
Animal housing structures

These are structures used for housing the livestock. They include crushes,
dips, spray race, calf pens, dairy shed/parlour, poultry houses and structures
(deep litter, coops, folds/arks, runs, battery cages), rabbit hutches,
piggery/pig sty, fish ponds, zero grazing unit and beehives.
Battery cage system

These are the structures used to house birds under the intensive system of
poultry production. Individual birds or a few birds are confined in cages or
batteries arranged from side to side. The size of the cage is about 0.5 m2 per
hen. A 10 cm length of feed trough should be allocated per cage. The farmer
can, however, have one long feed trough that runs through several cages in
each tier. Battery cage can be multiple tier, stair step or flat-deck.
When selecting a good cage system, consider the following:
• The maintenance requirements of the system. It should demand less

maintenance.
• Degree of mechanisation or automation.
• Labour costs.
Fig 7.3: Cage for battery system.
Coops
These are specialised types of cages that are used for rearing hens that are
brooding. They are commonly used in small scale, non-commercial poultry
rearing systems.
Fold/Ark
It has both the run and the shelter section. The run is covered with chicken
wire mesh. It provides birds with space for exercise and to get natural
vegetation and insects. The shelter part of the fold is covered with solid
materials to provide protection against predators and bad weather conditions.
The fold is moved to new sites at regular intervals to reduce the
accumulation of bird droppings. One fold can carry up to 25 birds. Normally
a fold measures about 3.5 m × 1.5 m wide × 1.5 m high.
Fig 7.4: Fold/Ark.
Deep litter
This is a poultry house where birds are confined. A deep litter has a low
masonry wall of 0.6 m on the leeward side. The rest of the upper part is
made of wire mesh. The floor space should allow for 4-5 birds/m2. The
house should contain laying boxes and perches for the hens. Keep the roof
leak-proof and avoid dampness in and around the house. The building must
keep away stray birds, predators and rodents.
Fish ponds
These are structures that are constructed in the farm for rearing fish. Fish
ponds require a large amount of water. Therefore, it is important to construct
them near a water source such as a stream or a river. The water should come
from a higher ground so that it flows downhill into the fish pond and be
drained out easily. The site of a fish pond must be well selected for
successful construction and maintenance.
Procedure of establishing a fish pond

(i) Site selection: Select a suitable place where water flows gently from the
source. The ground soil of high water-retention capacity is preferred.
(ii) Site marking: After selecting the site, use pegs to mark the channel
from the river, the entrance and exit of the pond, and the channel to take
water back into the river.
(iii) Clearing the land: All vegetation is cleared off the site of the pond
area.
(iv) Digging the pond: Soil is dug out. The top soil is placed in a particular
place as it will be reused. The upper side of the pond is dug 0.5 m deep and
the lower side of the pond 1.5 m.
(v) Construction of dyke: The dyke is the wall constructed all round the
pond.
(vi) A cone is established by digging a trench 0.5 m wide and lower than
the general level of the pond bottom. It is then filled with clay soil and
compacted or concrete is used to help prevent water seepage.
Parts of a fish pond

Inlet: This is the canal or a pipe that brings water into the fish pond. It is
made in the dyke slightly above the level of the pond water. A screen of fine
mesh is filled across the inlet to prevent the entry of undesirable species of
fish into the pond.
Outlet: This is made at the deeper end of the pond just a little above the
bottom of the pond. A pipe is connected to it to make the outlet firm. A
screen is fitted at the mouth of the outlet to prevent the fish from escaping
from the fish pond. It is used to drain water back into the river during
harvesting.
Spill way: It is the channel that allows removal of excess water from the
pond. It is made at the top of the dyke on the lower side of the pond. The
spillway prevents the water from overflowing on the dykes.
Fig. 7.5: A cross-section of a fish pond.
Factors to be considered when siting a fish pond

(i) Topography: The selected area should be gently sloping. This allows
easy flow of water into and out of the pond. It also helps avoid flooding
of the fish pond.
(ii) Accessibility to the fish pond: It should be located near the homestead
or where it can be reached easily.
(iii) Security of the area: The site must be protected from tresspassers,
thieves or predators such as mongoose and kingfishers.
(iv) Free of pollutants from sewage and dumping sites.
(v) Nearness to water source: A fish pond should be constructed near a
reliable water source. This ensures an adequate water supply.
(vi) Soil type: The ground where the fish pond is constructed must have
soils with a high water retention capacity to minimise water seepage.
Clay soil is preferred.
Care and maintenance of the fish pond

• Feed the fish daily.
• Fertilize the pond twice a week.
• Check on the water level in the pond regularly and top up when necessary.
• Repair any leaking parts of the fish pond.
• Remove aquatic weeds around the pond.
Silos (for silage)

These are structures used for preparation of silage.
There are different types of silos. The most common are:
(i) Pit/Trench silo.
Fig. 7.6: Pit/trench silo.
(ii) Tower silo.

(iii) Clamp or bunker silo.
In siting silos, consideration should be made for access to loading and
proximity to the zero-grazing unit.
Tower silo
This is made of concrete above the ground. The concrete wall is usually
perpendicular on three sides, leaving one side open for the filling and
removal of the silage. The floor of the tower silo can be cemented or lined
with polythene sheet.
Materials used to construct silos are timber, compacted soil, and polythene
sheets.
Clamp or Bunker silo

This structure is constructed above the ground level. Its sides or the walls are
slanted. The silo is usually constructed using timber.
Fig. 7.7: Diagram of clamp silo.
Zero grazing unit

This is a structure for housing livestock in total confinement. The animal is
fed in the unit and is rarely moved out.
The zero-grazing unit comprises of a feeding area, milking section, sleeping
area, feed store, calf pen, milk recording room, feed preparation section and
dunging area.
The floor is preferably made of concrete for ease of cleaning while the walls
can be made of timber, bricks, stones, meshed wire, metal columns, pipes or
iron sheets. All sections of the unit are roofed except the resting area where
the animal does exercises and gets sunshine.
Roofing material may be iron sheets or grass.
Fig. 7.8: Zero-grazing unit.
Farm equipment
Introduction
There are many operations and tasks that are performed in the farm during
crop and livestock production. Some of these tasks are so complicated that
they cannot be performed to one’s satisfaction by use of mere hands. A
farmer therefore needs various tools and equipment.
Tools are quite simple and are held in the hand as one performs a particular
operation. Equipment on the other hand are more complicated and specific.
A machete, rake, and garden fork are examples of tools, while a knapsack
sprayer, stir-up pump sprayer, and chaff cutter, are examples of equipment.
Why farmers use farm tools and equipment

• To increase efficiency and make farm operations easier, for example use
of a combine harvester makes the harvesting of wheat or maize in large
scale operation faster and easier.
• To minimise injuries to livestock for example trocar and canular can be
used rather than a knife to relieve cattle of bloat.
• To enhance production, for example machine milking will be more
effective than hand milking where one has a large herd of cattle.
Categories of farm tools and equipment

There are five categories of farm tools and equipment:
• Garden tools and equipment.
• Workshop tools and equipment.
• Livestock production tools and equipment.
• Plumbing tools and equipment.
• Masonry tools and equipment.
The choice of the tool in any of the categories will depend on various factors
such as the task to be performed, the tool’s efficiency, the level of knowledge
and skill of the user, and the availability of the tool/equipment that is, the
ability of the farmer to acquire the tool/equipment.
Garden equipment
These are all the tools and equipment that a farmer needs for crop
production. Right from the first stage of crop production (that is, land
preparation), up to the final stages of harvesting and post-harvesting
practices, a number of tools are required to carry out most of these activities
efficiently. There are many field management practices that are done on
crops, such as, pruning, pest and disease control and watering. The
effectiveness and efficiency of these practices require the use of appropriate
tools.
Machete
It is a long bladed cutting tool whose blades are sharpened on one or both
sides.
Fig 7.9: Machete.
Uses
A machete is used for:
• Cutting down small bushes, shrubs and weeds.
• Cutting pasture grass to feed livestock.
• Clearing the land of small trees or shrubs before cultivation.
• Harvesting certain crops like sugarcane or during stooking of maize crop.
• Shaping wooden handles of hoes.
Maintenance
• Store properly in the tool store.
• Oil the metallic part to prevent rusting during periods of long storage.
• Repair worn out or broken handle.
• Sharpen when blunt by use of a file.
Axe
This is a garden tool that has a wooden handle and a metal wedge-shaped
head.
Fig. 7.10: Axe.

Uses
It is used for:
• Cutting tree stumps.
• Felling big trees during initial stages of land preparation.
• Splitting trees into logs for construction of farm structures and firewood.
Maintenance
• Replace worn out handles.
• Oil the metallic part to prevent rusting.
• Sharpen regularly to maintain it in good condition.
Mattock or pick axe

This is a tool that has a wooden handle with a hard curved metal head.
Fig 7.11 (i): Pick axe.
Fig 7.11 (ii): Mattock.
Uses
A mattock/pick axe is used for:
• Digging out stones and hard soil.
• Uprooting tree stumps before ploughing.
• Cutting tree roots during land preparation.
Maintenance
• Replace the handle when worn out.
• Apply old engine oil on the metallic part so as to prevent rusting.
• Fix loose handle properly.
Hoe
It is a broad-bladed cultivation tool.
Fig. 7.12: Hoe.
Uses
It is used for:
• Cultivation of land when preparing seedbed and during weeding.
• Digging foundation of farm structures and buildings.
• Preparing planting furrows and holes.
Maintenance
• Clean regularly after use.
• Oil the metallic part to prevent rusting.
• Sharpen the blade regularly so that it is in good condition.
• Replace any broken handle.
Forked hoe
This is made up of strong prongs shaped like those of a fork.
Fig. 7.13: Forked Hoe.
Uses
It is used for:
• Removing underground perennial weeds such as couch grass.
• Digging hard, stony, wet or muddy soils.
• Harvesting tuber crops such as Irish potatoes.
Maintenance
• Clean after use.
• Oil the metallic parts to prevent rusting.
• Straighten bent prongs.
Spade
A spade is a tool with a slightly curved blade with a pointed tip that
facilitates penetration into the soil.
Fig. 7.14: Spade.
Uses
It is used for:
• Digging, in place of a hoe, such as in stony places and in coffee
plantations where use of a hoe can damage coffee roots.
• Removing soil when digging holes and applying manure.
Maintenance
• Apply oil on the metallic parts to prevent rusting.
• Replace any broken handles.
Wheelbarrow
This is a farm equipment used for transporting small loads like sand, bags of
seeds or seedlings during transplanting and bags of fertilizers within a short
distance.
Fig. 7.15: Wheelbarrow.
Maintenance
• Tighten loose nuts and bolts.
• Grease the wheel/moving parts to facilitate smooth running of the wheel.
• Apply old engine oil or paint the metallic part to prevent rusting.
• Proper storage under a tool shed.
• Repair any worn out or broken parts.
Watering can
This is a container with perforations at the end of an elongated mouth piece
through which water is applied to plants in small droplets reaching the
ground with less disturbance of the soil.
Fig. 7.16: Watering can.
Uses
It is used for:
• Watering seedlings in seed boxes, potted plants, nursery beds,
transplanted seedlings and seeds.
Maintenance
• Paint the body/tank to prevent rusting.
• Remove the rose, un-block the perforations, and then return it in place.
• Repair leaking tank and any other damaged parts, for example, the handle.
Rake
This is a rigid toothed implement that is fitted to a long handle.
Fig. 7.17: Rake.
Uses
It is used for:
• Collecting together (removing) uprooted plant roots and stems,
rhizomatous weeds, or previous crop residues, when preparing a nursery
bed and seedbed for vegetable crops.
• Breaking large soil clods and removing stones and other rubbish to obtain
a fine tilth for tiny seeds.
• Levelling and finishing off the seedbed.
• Collecting mowed grass.
• Raking inorganic manures on the seedbed.
Maintenance
• Replace any worn out or broken handles.
• Repair any broken or bent teeth.
• Store in a tool store.
Soil Auger
Uses
It is used for:
• Soil sampling, that is during soil analysis/testing.
• Digging holes for fixing fence posts.
Maintenance
• Oil to prevent rusting.
• Sharpen the cutting edge.
• Replace any damaged handles.
Fig. 7.18: Soil Auger.
Knapsack sprayer
This is normally carried on the back of the user. It has a capacity of 10, 15,
or 20 litres. It has a hand-operated pump attached to it.
Uses
It is used for:
• Applying agrochemicals such as foliar fertilizers, herbicides, or pesticides
to crops efficiently, economically, and safely.
Maintenance
• Wash thoroughly after use and keep in a safe place.
• Oil or lubricate the moving parts.
• Remove dirt, soil and small stones from the sieve regularly.
• Unblock the nozzle.
Fig. 7.19 (i): Working mechanism of a knapsack sprayer.
Fig. 7.19 (ii): Hand operated knapsack sprayer.
Sprinkler
Uses
It is used for:
• Applying water to crops in overhead irrigation.
Fig. 7.20: Sprinkler.
Maintenance
• Unblock the nozzles when blocked.
• Store properly in a dry place to avoid rusting.
• Repair worn-out or broken parts.
Garden shear
Uses
It is used for:
• Trimming hedges and shrubs in the farm.
Fig. 7.21: Garden shear.
Maintenance
• Store properly in a tool cabinet.
• Grease the moving parts to avoid friction.
• Sharpen the blade regularly.
Pruning saw
Fig. 7.22: Pruning saw.
Uses
It is used for:
• Pruning perennial crops like coffee, citrus fruits and pollarding trees.
Maintenance
• Apply oil on the metallic part to prevent rusting.
• Set the teeth by use of a saw set so that it is in good condition.
• Store in a tool cabinet.
Secateur
Fig. 7.23: Secateur.
Uses
It is used for:
• Pruning crops like coffee and cutting flowers. Pruning involves cutting
unwanted branches and suckers.
Maintenance
• Replace broken handles and worn out blades.
• Grease the pivot.
• Sharpen the edges.
Garden trowel
This is a pointed scoop-like tool.
Uses
It is used for:
• Loosening the soil.
• Digging small shallow holes.
• Lifting out seedlings from the nursery beds during transplanting.
Fig. 7.24: Garden trowel.
Maintenance
• Store in the tool rack.
• Apply old engine oil to prevent rusting.
• Replace broken wooden handles.
• Ensure it is firm.
Garden fork
A small pronged tool.
Uses
It is used for:
• Weeding in a nursery or on carrot fields.
• Preparing holes for transplanting seedlings.
Maintenance
• Repair any broken handles.
• Store properly in a tool shed.
Fig. 7.25: Garden fork.
Manure fork
This is a long-handle pronged tool.
Uses
It is used for:
• Turning and collecting manure on the farm.
Fig. 7.26: Manure fork.
Maintenance
• Oil metallic parts to prevent rusting.
• Straighten bent prongs.
• Replace broken handles.
Pruning hook
Uses
It is used for:
• Cutting branches of tall trees.
• Pruning crops like tea.
Fig. 7.27: Pruning hook.
Maintenance
• Store properly in a tool rack.
• Sharpen the cutting blades so that the tool is in good condition.
Shovel
It resembles a spade but has a tray-like blade.
Uses
It is used for:
• Scooping loose soil, fertilizer, seeds and sand.
Fig. 7.28: Shovel.
Maintenance
• Replace worn out handles.
• Store properly in a dry place.
Livestock production tools and equipment

These are tools and equipment used for routine management practices in
livestock. They are used for identification, castration, dehorning, disease and
parasite control, breeding, milking, and restraining animals. They facilitate
easy handling of the livestock thus minimising injuries to livestock and to
the stock handlers.
Elastrator
It is used with a rubber ring for the bloodless castration of males and for de-
budding young animals.
Uses
It is used for:
• Enlarging the rubber ring during castration of small livestock.
• Dehorning livestock.
• Docking lambs.
Fig: 7.29: Rubber ring elastrator.
Maintenance
• Grease the pivot.
Burdizzo
Uses
It is used for:
• The bloodless castration of bulls, rams, and billy goats, by snapping the
spermatic cords.
Fig: 7.30: Burdizzo.
Maintenance
• Oil the pivot for easy operation.
Syringes and hypodermic needles
This is a set of tools which are used together. Syringes can be made of
plastics or metals.
Fig. 7.31: Syringes and a needle.
Uses
It is used for:
• Administering injections and for taking blood samples.
• Administering liquid drugs such as vaccines.
• Infusing antibiotics into the teat canal for prevention of mastitis.
Halter
This is made of a rope, neck, and head strap.
Fig. 7.32: Halter.
Uses
It is used for:
• Restraining cattle. It prevents choking of the animal and ensures complete
control of the animal.
• Leading cattle during exhibitions, such as, agricultural shows.
Maintenance
• Store properly in a tool store.
• Replace any worn out parts.
Hoof trimmer
It looks like a burdizzo except for the sharp jaws and its heavy size.
Fig. 7.33: Hoof trimmer.
Uses
It is used for:
• Cutting or trimming overgrown hooves of livestock such as cattle, sheep
and goats.
Maintenance
• Sharpen the jaws when blunt.
Strip cup
Fig. 7.34: Strip cup.
Uses
It is used for:
• Detecting mastitis in a cow. Milk from animals with mastitis shows clots
when drops are placed on the black plate.
Maintenance
• Clean after use and disinfect.
• Store properly in a tool shed.
Trocar and canula

This is made up of two parts that is, the trocar and canula. A trocar is sharp
and pointed, whereas the canula is barrel shaped.
Fig. 7.35: Trocar and canula.
Uses
It is used for:
• Relieve bloat in livestock through piercing the rumen to release gases.
Maintenance
• Store properly.
• Clean and disinfect after use.
Hard broom
Fig. 7.36: Hard broom.
Uses
It is used for:
• Washing concrete floors in the dairy shed or livestock houses.
Maintenance
• Store in a tool rack.
Wool shears
Fig. 7.37: Wool shears.
Uses
It is used for:
• Clipping or shaving wool in sheep.
Maintenance
Ear notcher
Uses
It is used for:
• Cutting identification shapes on the ears of an animal for example in
cattle.
Fig. 3.38: Ear notcher.
Maintenance
Bull ring and lead stick

It is a special ring that is fixed to the nose of a bull. A long stick is attached
to the ring.
Fig. 7.39: Bull restrained by a lead stick.
Uses
It is used for:
• Restraining bulls. It gives the handler a safe distance from vicious bulls
which can be dangerous on coming closer to the handler.
Maintenance
• Ensure the pin is firmly fixed in the ring.
Stir-up pump (bucket pump)

Uses
It is used for:
• Hand-spraying animals against ticks.
Fig. 7.40: Stir-up pump.

(Bucket pump)
Maintenance
• Grease the moving parts to avoid friction.
• Check and repair any leakages.
• Replace worn out parts.
• Flush the pump with a lot of water after spraying.
• Dis-mantle the parts and wash thoroughly after use.
Milk churn
Uses
It is used for:
• Storing of milk.
• Transporting milk.
Fig. 7.41: Milk churn.
Maintenance
• Store properly in a dry place.
Milk strainer/sieve
Uses
It is used for:
• Removing any visible foreign materials from the milk such as dirt and
animal hair.
Fig. 7.42: Milk strainer.
Maintenance
Hot iron
Fig. 7.43: Hot iron.
Uses
• It is a device used to apply heat to the horn-buds to destroy the cells and
hence prevent horn growth from these buds.
Maintenance
Teeth clipper
Uses
It is used for:
• Cutting off wolf-teeth in piglets.
Fig. 7.44: Teeth clipper.
Maintenance
• Store properly in the tool storage tool cabinet.
• Lubricate moving parts.
Drenching gun/dosing gun
Fig. 7.45: Drenching gun.
Fig. 7.46: Dosing gun.
Uses
It is used for:
• Oral administration of liquid drugs to animals during deworming.
Maintenance
Bolus gun
Fig. 7.47: Bolus gun.
Uses
It is used for:
• Deworming livestock orally using solid drugs (tablets).
Maintenance
Dehorning wire
Fig. 7.48: Dehorning wire.
Uses
It is used for:
• Dehorning mature livestock. The friction created produces heat which
blocks blood vessels and therefore minimises bleeding.
Maintenance
• Store properly.
Chaff cutter
This is a fixed implement in the farm yard.
Uses
It is used to:
• Chop straw, hay or Napier grass into small pieces suitable for feeding
livestock.
Fig. 7.49: Chaff cutter.
Maintenance
• Store properly under a tool shed.
• Apply grease on the moving parts to reduce friction.
• Paint the frame to prevent rusting.
• Tighten loose nuts and bolts.
• Sharpen blunt cutting blades.
Workshop tools and equipment

These are tools and equipment which are used for the construction and
maintenance of farm structures. They can be divided into two main groups:
(i) Woodwork tools and equipment: These are carpentry tools mainly used
for working on wood/timber.
(ii) Metalwork tools and equipment: These tools are used for working on
metals, wires among others.
Crosscut saw
This is a hand saw that is used in wood work. Its blade length usually
measure 450mm – 600 mm. A blade length of 25 mm has approximate of 6 –
10 teeth. The teeth are usually set at an angle of 60 - 75 degrees.
Fig.7.50: Cross cut saw.
Uses
• For cutting across the grains of timber.
Maintenance
• Oil the blade.
• File and set the teeth for efficiency.
• Store properly in the tool rack.
Tenon/Back saw
This is a hand saw used in woodwork. Its blade length ranges between 200
mm – 350 mm.
Fig. 7.51: Tenon/back saw.
Uses
• For cutting wood grains in any direction, that is, along or across the grain.
• For joinery work in woodwork such as doors.
• Fine sawing of small pieces of timber.
Maintenance
• Oil the metallic parts.
• Set the teeth so that the saw performs its work efficiently.
Coping saw
This is another type of hand saw used in woodwork.
Uses
• Cutting sharp curves in woodwork.
Fig. 7.52: Coping saw.
Maintenance
• Set the teeth.
Compass/Key hole saw

This is a hand saw used in woodwork.
Fig. 7.53: Compass saw/Key hole saw.
Uses
• For cutting holes especially key holes, and for cutting curved or irregular
shapes in woodwork.
Maintenance
• Oil the metal blade.
• File and set the teeth.
Ripsaw
A rip saw is a hand saw used in woodwork. Its teeth are the largest of all the
handsaws. The total length of the blade ranges between 450 mm – 650 mm.
Uses
• For cutting wood along grains.
• For splitting logs for timber production.
Fig. 7.54: Rip saw.

Maintenance
• Oil the blade.
• File and set the teeth.
Bow saw
This is a hand saw used in wood work.
Uses
• For cutting or sawing, especially curves.
Fig. 7.55: Bow saw.
Maintenance
• Oil the blade to prevent rusting.
• Set and sharpen the teeth.
• Repair any broken parts.
Hacksaw
This is a hand saw used in metalwork.
Uses
• Cutting wires and metals.
Maintenance
• Oil the metallic parts.
• Replace worn out blade.
• Tighten the blade.
Fig. 7.56: Hacksaw.
Wood chisel
This is a hand tool used in wood work.
Fig. 7.56 (i): Sash mortise chisel.

Fig. 7.57 (ii): Firmer chisel bevel edge.
Uses
• Trimming off rough edges on wood.
• It can also be used to make grooves on wood.
• It is an important tool for making grooves for joints in wood.
Maintenance
• Remove the mushrooms if formed.
Cold chisel
This type of chisel is used in metalwork.
Uses
• For cutting heavy gauge metal sheets.
• For cutting shapes in metal sheets.
Fig. 7.58: Round nosed cold chisel.
Maintenance
• Remove the mushrooms if formed.
Rasp
This is a hand tool used in woodwork.
It is also called wood file.
Uses
• Used where more material is to be removed and fast.
Fig. 7.59: Wooden file(rasp).
Maintenance
Wire brush
This tool is used in metalwork.
Uses
• Used to clean rusted surfaces or joints to be soldered.
Fig. 7.60: Wire brush.
Maintenance
Marking gauge
This is a woodwork tool.
Uses
• For marking parallel lines along the edge of the stock in woodwork to
indicate the cutting line.
Fig. 7.61: Marking gauge.
Maintenance
Jack plane
This is a woodwork tool. It is the commonly used plane. It is longer than
other planes that is, the block plane and the smoothing plane.
Fig. 7.62: Jack plane.
Uses
• For smoothening surfaces in woodwork to produce even surfaces.
Maintenance
• Apply oil to prevent rusting.
• Tighten loose parts.
• Repair broken parts.
• Clean/remove wood shavings.
• Replace lost bolts and nuts.
Other planes are:

(a) Block plane: It is the smallest and lightest. Its length is 15cm.
(b) Smoothing plane: It is 22 cm long. It is used for smoothing surfaces of
wood.
(c) Plough plane: It is used to cut tongues and grooves on the edges of
timber so that the two pieces of timber can fit together.
Sash clamp
This tool is used in woodwork.
Fig. 7.63: Sash clamp.
Uses
• For fastening parts of wood together such as doors and windows.
• For holding together pieces of work when performing other tasks, such as,
sawing and cutting timber.
Maintenance
• Apply old engine oil to prevent rusting.
• Replace pin and chain when broken.
G-clamp
This tool is used in wood and metalwork.
Uses
• For fastening together small pieces of timber.
• For holding work pieces in the workshop when drilling or cutting.
Fig. 7.64: G-clamp.
Maintenance
• Apply grease on the threads.
Mallet
A mallet can be used in both woodwork and metalwork. A woodwork mallet
can have a wooden or a plastic head.
Uses
• A metalwork mallet is used for shaping thin sheets of metal which could
be damaged by using steel hammers.
• A woodwork mallet is used to drive in wood chisels.
Maintenance
• Do not use it to drive in nails.
Fig. 7.65: Wooden mallet.
Soldering gun
This tool is used in metalwork. The non-electric soldering guns are heated
by flames from a stove or on open heat. They are made of copper and
therefore have the capacity to store heat for a slightly longer period.
Fig. 7.66 (i): Electric soldering bit.
Fig. 7.66 (ii): Straight soldering bit.
Uses
• For melting rods or soldering wires when repairing or fabricating metal
sheets, or when joining wires using solder.
Maintenance
• Store properly in a tool store.
• Remove any form of coating on the soldering bit by use of a wire brush.
• Repair damaged parts.
• Avoid overheating.
Tinsnip
This tool is used in metalwork.
Uses
• For cutting thin sheets of metal and iron.
Fig. 7.67: Tinsnip.
Maintenance
Claw hammer
Uses
• For driving nails into wood and for removing nails from wood.
• For straightening nails.
Fig. 7.68: Claw hammer.
Maintenance
• Replace any worn out handle.
• Tighten loose handles.
Ball-pein hammer
This is both a metalwork and woodwork tool.
Uses
• For straightening metal sheets and rods.
• For riveting.
• For driving in nails.
Fig. 7.69: Ball pein hammer.
Maintenance
• Place small wedges to fix the head firmly.
Sledge hammer
This tool is used in masonry. The handle is of different types and may vary
in length depending on the use of the tool.
Uses
• For demolishing farm structures.
• For driving pegs into the ground.
• For breaking big stones.
Fig. 7.70: Sledge hammer.
Maintenance
• Replace handle when broken.
Wire strainer
Uses
• For tightening barbed wire during fencing.
Fig. 7.71: Wire strainer.
Maintenance
Pliers
This is a useful workshop hand tool with various uses.
Uses
• For cutting thin wires.
• For holding nuts when opening.
• For holding pieces of metal which cannot be held by hand or using
clamps.
Fig. 7.72: Pliers.
Maintenance
• Apply oil on the pivot to reduce friction.
Brace and bit

Uses
• For drilling holes in wood.
Fig. 7.73: Brace and bit.
Maintenance
• Grease the ratchet.
Pipe wrench
This is a metalwork tool.
Uses
• For opening and closing metal water pipes.
Fig. 7.74: Pipe wrench.

Maintenance
• Oil the adjustment mechanism.
Pipe cutter
This is a metalwork tool that is mostly used in plumbing.
Uses
• For cutting metal water pipes.
Fig. 7.75: Pipe cutter mounted on a stand.
Maintenance
• Lubricate to reduce friction.
• Apply a coolant oil when cutting to increase grip.
Levelling rod
This tool can be either plastic or wooden.
Fig. 7.76: Levelling rod.
Uses
• It is used together with a theodolite.
It measures the distance in the levelling of land. It is normally held in a
straight position. The readings are taken at two points (back side and fore
side). It is commonly used when marking terrace lines or contours on
land.
Maintenance
• Store properly.
• Re-write the defaced graduated marks.
Spirit level
Fig. 7.77: Spirit level.
Uses
• To ascertain level-ness or horizontal-ness of a building or wood or metal
structures.
• It is used in construction to ensure the walls are vertical.
Maintenance
Masons’ trowel
This is a tool used in masonry work.
Uses
• Laying on the mortar during construction.
Fig. 7.78: Masons’s trowel.
Maintenance
• Oil metallic part to prevent rusting.
Wood float/metal float

This is a tool used in masonry work.
Fig. 7.79 (i): Wood float.

Fig. 7.79 (ii): Metal float.
Uses
• Level or smoothen concrete and mortar.
• Hold mortar before it is placed in position.
Maintenance
• Oil metal float to prevent rusting.
Riveting machines
This is a metalwork tool.
Fig. 7.80 (i): Riveting tool.

Fig. 7.80 (ii): Riveting tool in action.
Uses
• Joining sheets of metal and wood, especially, when making chairs by use
of a bob rivet.
Maintenance
Crowbar
It is a fencing tool.
Uses
• For demolishing a fence or removing the staples.
• For tightening barbed wire when fencing.
Fig. 7.81: Crowbar.
Maintenance
Mason’s square
This tool is used by masons.
Uses
• For checking right angles during construction.
Fig. 7.82: Mason’s square.
Maintenance
• Apply oil to prevent rusting.
Plumb bob
This tool is used in masonry.
Uses
• Checking for perpendicularity of walls in a building during construction.
Fig. 7.83: Plumb bob.
Maintenance
• Replace worn- out strings.

1. Carry out care and maintenance practices of farm tools and equipment
found in the school workshop. Note the order of arrangement and the
type of records kept.
2. Make a visit to a successful farmer or the nearest farmers’ training
centre to observe the various types of farm tools and equipment.
3. Carry out the various livestock operations in the farm using the
appropriate tools and equipment.
Roads and bridges

For efficient agricultural production, all utilities must be timely. Utility is the
ability of an object to satisfy ones want. Examples of utilities are; place,
form, time and ownership. The farmer requires the produce to be where they
are needed at the right time that is, places and time utility.
All weather roads allow the farmers to get inputs anytime they want and
transport their farm produce as they wish. Good roads which are passable
throughout irrespective of the time of the year are therefore a very important
aspect.
There are also permanent and seasonal rivers criss-crossing the country.
These may interfere with efficiency in transportation. Some of the farm
products are perishable for example milk and horticultural products. They
easily go bad or drop in quality if their transportation is not efficient.
Bridges should therefore be constructed over such rivers to allow
communications and transportation throughout the year. This is important
because most of the farm transport is by road. Even those air-lifted or
shipped will have to use road to airports and seaports respectively.

• Visit a diary farm or horticultural farm and find out their main
challenges in getting inputs and transporting their produce.
Farm safety
Possible sources of danger in the farm
• Poorly stored agrochemicals.
• Poor arrangement of tools and equipment in workshop.
• Careless exposure of highly inflammable chemicals for example petrol.
• Heavy rains washing structures for example bridges and houses.
• Collapsing buildings.
• Untrained personnel handling some farm machinery.
• Failure to observe proper procedure before taking livestock to the dip (for
example, failure to give them water before taking to the dip).
• Slippery floors in animals houses.
• Broken pieces of glasses lying in the compound.
Some common precautions to observe in the farm

1. Seek architectural advice and adopt to the latter in constructions to avoid
collapsing of farm structures.
2. Use tools correctly and store them in the recommended way in the
recommended places.
3. Keep safe distance from others when using tools and equipment to avoid
injuries.
4. Dress on the right attire when working with tools and equipment to avoid
injuries.
5. All the broken tools should be repaired to avoid accidents and increase
their efficiency.
6. Children should be kept away from all machinery operations.
7. Check farm machineries before work for example, brakes, tire pressure
and water.
8. Only those trained and skilled for operation of specific farm machinery
should operate.
9. All agrochemicals containers should be securely stored out of reach by
children.
10. Avoid smoking, eating or drinking when spraying agro-chemicals.
11. Wear protective gloves when handling chemicals.
12. Wash thoroughly using soap after handling chemicals.
13. Enough light is important especially in store room to allow visibility.
14. Use the tools and equipment correctly.

1. Visit a well established workshop and find out the precaution
obtained there.
2. Carry out a project in the school such as poultry products, vegetable
farming and apply the precaution measures (where applicable).
Irrigation
This is the artificial application of water in the seedbed for the purpose of
growing crops. Irrigation is used under the following circumstances:
(a) Dry areas : Where rainfall is inadequate and hence insufficient for crop
production.
(b) During long dry periods: Crops such as coffee, citrus fruits, pineapples,
and other horticultural crops, require irrigation during the dry season to
sustain high production. Vegetables and other crops can fetch high
market prices if grown under irrigation during the rain-off season.
(c) When growing paddy rice, which requires flooded seedbeds.
Importance of irrigation
• Irrigation during dry periods increases crop yields and ensures a steady
supply of food throughout the year.
• Irrigation maximises the utilization of resources, such as in places where
the soil is fertile but the rainfall is inadequate. Irrigation is important for
the reclamation of arid and semi-arid lands as it enhances agricultural
productivity.
• Irrigation provides a regular, reliable, and adequate supply of water in
areas with little or no rainfall that is, receiving less than 250 mm per
annum.
• Irrigation is a source of employment in areas where it is used extensively.
• Irrigation promotes crop production for the export market and therefore
contributes to a country’s revenue.
Systems of irrigation
There are four methods of irrigation namely:
(a) Surface irrigation.
(b) Overhead/sprinkler irrigation.
(c) Drip/trickle irrigation.
(d) Sub-surface irrigation.
(a) Surface irrigation

In surface irrigation, water is brought to a crop field from its source through
canals or furrows. This method of irrigation allows water to flow or to be
directed along channels.
Conditions necessary for surface irrigation

(i) Topography. The land must be fairly level (gentle sloping) for the water
to flow by gravity.
(ii) Amount of water supply. Plenty of water is required due to high wastage
through seepage and evaporation.
(iii) Soil type. The soil must be able to hold water for a long period of time
and should preferably be clay soil.
(iv) Evaporation rate. Where the evaporation rate is high, there is a lot of
wastage of water and the crops get little or no water. The rate of
evaporation should be minimised.
Maintenance of surface irrigation
In surface irrigation, the following maintenance operations are necessary:
• Repair of levees if broken.
• Removal of weeds in the canals, basin inlet and outlet.
• De-silting of canals.
• Repair of sluice gates.
Surface irrigation can be practiced in three ways namely: Flood irrigation,
furrow irrigation, and basin irrigation.
(i) Flood irrigation

In this type of irrigation, water is allowed to flow into the field through
furrows or canals. It is then directed to the various parts of the farm by the
opening of sluice gates in the field. Flood irrigation requires that land be as
near flat as possible.
Crops, such as, cotton and fruits are irrigated through flooding.
Fig 7.85: Flood irrigation; furrow supply water into a field.
Advantages
• It is relatively cheap to establish.
• It requires less skill.
Disadvantages
• Wastage of water that is, a lot of water is required.
• Water is unevenly distributed, causing water logging in some areas while
other parts do not get enough.
• Siltation of the canals is common.
(ii) Furrow irrigation

This is used on land with gentle slopes of 1% gradient. Water flows through
open gates into furrows. The furrows are dug along the contours to reduce
soil erosion. As water flows through the furrows, it wets the soil. Crops are
planted on the ridges of the furrows. The spacing of the furrows depends on
the spacing of the crop. The furrows are maintained by repairing
embankments when eroded or worn out, and by removal of weeds and
accumulated silt. Furrow irrigation is commonly practised where
horticultural crops are grown.
Advantages
• Reduces fungal diseases such as leaf blight since there is no contact with
leaf of the crop.
• Relatively cheap to establish and maintain.
• Requires less skill.
Fig 7.86: Furrow irrigation.
Disadvantages
• A lot of water is wasted.
• Soil erosion may occur if the design is not well done.
• If water is saline, it may affect plant roots.
• It is not easy to maintain a uniform flow of water in the furrows from the
source to the end.
(iii) Basin irrigation

It is the flooding of an entire area enclosed by earth embarkments known as
dykes/levees. The depth of the water is controlled by the dykes/levees. The
ground should be levelled and the dyke or levee constructed around each
levelled ground. Levelled ground surrounded by dykes is called a level
basin. Water is allowed into each level basin through an inlet. Sometimes,
fruits and trees are grown in basins where there is a basin created for each
tree crop.
Disadvantages
• It is expensive to establish.
• It results in accumulation of a lot of salts in the soil.
• It cannot be used in slopy areas.
• Floods may destroy the basins during heavy rains.
• A lot of water is wasted.
• There is a high incidence of water-borne diseases such as bilharzia and
malaria.
Fig 7.87: Basin irrigation.
(b) Overhead irrigation

This is the application of water to crops in form of small droplets like rain.
This can be done by means of sprinklers, watering cans or hose pipes.
Sprinklers are mounted on vertical pipes which allow water to pass through
at high pressure.
Types of sprinklers
There are two main types of sprinklers namely:
(i) The continuous rotating sprinklers suitable for small scale irrigation.
(ii) The spring loaded sprinklers suitable for large scale irrigation.
Advantages
• Water is evenly distributed in the farm.
• It minimises wastage of water.
• It can be used on slopy grounds or flat areas.
• One can irrigate a large area by changing the location of sprinklers in
turns.
• Soluble fertilizers can be applied together with irrigation water, for
example nitrogenous fertilizers (fertigation). This saves on time and
labour.
Disadvantages
• The initial cost of installing the pumps, pipes, and sprinklers is high.
• It encourages fungal disease outbreaks for example, blight in tomato and
Coffee Berry Disease in coffee due to water accumulating on the leaves.
This water creates a micro-climate necessary for fungal growth.
• It can cause erosion if not properly controlled, especially, in slopy areas.
• It requires establishment of a windbreak to prevent water drift, which may
make the method inefficient.
• Maintenance of the system requires specialised skills.
• It results in uneven distribution of water to crops depending on their
distance from the sprinkler.
Fig 7.88: Overhead irrigation using hose pipe.
Fig 7.89: Overhead irrigation using sprinklers (continuous rotating type).
Maintenance
• Repair any broken parts.
• Check the sprinkler nozzles regularly for any blockage.
(c) Drip/trickle irrigation
Drip irrigation involves application of water in small droplets within the
plant root system. It is carried out by use of polyvinyl pipes with
perforations. As water passes through the pipe, it comes out in small
quantities through the small perforations and drips to the ground, wetting the
soil.
The pipes are laid along the crop rows. The pipe’s perforations are put
according to the spacing of the crops. Bottles can also be used mainly for
small scale growing of horticultural crops and trees. Crops irrigated using
this method are fruit trees, coffee and pawpaw trees. Most horticultural
farms use this irrigation method within the green houses.
Fig 7.90: Drip/trickle irrigation using a bottle.
Advantages
• There is economical use of water as it is only supplied at the root of the
crop.
• Water under low pressure can be used as long as it is flowing along the
pipe.
• It minimizes outbreak of diseases such as blight and Coffee Berry Disease
as water is applied directly at the root zone and does not come in contact
with plant leaves.
• It reduces competition with weeds as little water gets in between the rows.
Disadvantages
• The pipes used are expensive to buy and instal. This makes the method
suitable only for intensive farming.
• When using perforated pipes, only clean water must be used to avoid
blockage of the perforations.
• It requires high technological skills to instal and maintain.
Maintenance
• Repair broken pipes.
• Unblock the perforations.
• Flush the pipes or blocked bottle mouth piece with phosphoric acid in
case the soil is slightly saline.
(d) Sub-surface irrigation

In this system, perforated pipes are laid underground. Water passes through
the pipes, and then seeps into the surrounding soil. The method is not very
common but is suitable for tree crops, such as, citrus and coffee.
Advantages
• Once the pipes are laid, it is labour-saving.
• It can be practised on slopy or flat land.
• Water does not cause soil erosion as it is only administered in small
amounts.
• Fungal diseases such as blight in tomatoes, are reduced because water
does not come in contact with plant leaves.
Disadvantages
• The pipes are very expensive.
• The pipes are easily destroyed during land preparation.
• The efficiency of the method relies on high soil capillarity.
• Sediments may block the nozzles thus hindering effective irrigation.
Maintenance
• Unblock any blocked nozzles.
• Repair or replace blocked pipes.
• Regularly flush the pipes with phosphoric acid to remove any salts
present in pipes, especially when soils are saline.
Irrigation of vegetables
Vegetables normally require moderate amount of water for proper growth.
During dry seasons, irrigation methods are used to grow vegetables.
The types of vegetable grown will determine the irrigation system used. For
example, tomatoes require drip irrigation since overhead irrigation would
encourage blight to attack the fruits of tomatoes.

1. Grow selected vegetables in the school farm and irrigate using a
suitable method.
2. Use watering cans and hose pipes to irrigate.
Revision Exercise 7
1. What is the meaning of agricultural technology?
2. What is a farm structure?
3. State any two conditions for good grain storage.
4. Briefly describe the procedure of constructing a granary.
5. What is crop processing?
6. Briefly state one use of each of the following animal housing structures.
(a) Crush.
(b) Dip.
(c) Parlour.
(d) Zero-grazing unit.
(e) Spray race.
7. Briefly explain the role played by roads and bridges in agricultural
production.
8. State eight possible sources of danger in the farm.
9. Give any ten precautions to observe in the farm.
Unit Agricultural Experimentation
8
Objective
• By the end of this unit, you should be able to define and explain the
importance of agricultural experimentation.
Meaning of agricultural experimentation

Agriculture is an applied science that puts scientific principles or theories
learnt in class into practice in crops and livestock production. The
principles or theories applied in agricultural production are first tested and
proven to work before being put into practice.
Agricultural theory on its own, is not complete as students must learn
relevant skills practically to enable them carry out the right practices. In
agriculture, experiments are normally done to test the theories or principles
taught to see whether they hold true or not. Practicals can be done as simple
experiments, for example, germination percentage in varieties of seeds. A
more detailed experiment can also be done on the farm lasting a longer
period for example, a season, a year or more. Experiments in the farm are
called field works.
These experiments are done on plots called experimental plots. In these
plots certain principles are tested whether they produce the desired results
or proven principles are applied.
The agricultural principles and theories taught in agriculture are a product
of a research, a process of investigating the cause of an occurrence, a
natural phenomenon or a problem. This research involves experiments and
hence the term agricultural experimentation.
What is agricultural experimentation?

• This is the scientific and systematic procedure of finding out the
correctness of a fact.
• To do an experiment, one must have a principle to test or a problem or
occurrence or phenomenon one wishes to find its cause. The experiment
tries to find the cause-effect relationship. It tries to answer questions like
Why? How? and When?
• The term scientific means the tests are logical arguments based on facts.
The term systematic procedure means certain steps which are orderly
are followed in agricultural experimentation.
• The basic experimental procedure involves observation, hypothesis
formulation, experiment, data collection, analysis and conclusion.
• For example, a researcher or a farmer may observe that use of double
super phosphate fertiliser (DSP) results in higher yield in maize. To find
if this is true (test the observation), an experiment needs to be done to
know whether the high yield is as a result of the fertiliser or other
factors.
• Hypothesis is first formulated, that is, “Application of DSP fertiliser
when planting maize results in higher yields”. To test this statement
(assumption), an experiment is designed where DSP is not applied. All
other factors are held constant, that is, same soil, same maize variety and
all other agronomic practices. The yields of maize in the plot with DSP
is compared with the maize plot without DSP. If the yield is higher in the
plot with DSP, the hypothesis is accepted. If the yield of maize plot
without DSP is higher or equal, then the hypothesis is rejected.
• The conclusion then would be; maize yields can be improved by adding
DSP fertiliser during planting.
Importance of agricultural experimentation

Agricultural experimentation offer the following benefits both at research
station and at school level.
At research station level
• Malawi has several research bodies mandated to carry out agricultural
research on aspect of both crops and livestock production. These
include: Lunyanzwa in Mzuzu, Chitedze in Lilongwe, Bvumbwe in
Blantyre and Makoka in Zomba among others.
• These research bodies generate new knowledge by developing new
principles of crops and livestock production for example, they develop
the best practices that enhance yields, new varieties of crops that are
tolerant to diseases and pests and are suited to various ecological zones.
They may also determine which pesticides, herbicides or fungicides are
more effective. By so doing, they help solve existing problems of low
yields, pests and diseases and reduce cost of production making farming
to be more profitable.
At school level
• It helps students to develop an attitude of curiosity and enquiry making
learning more interesting.
• It helps students to plan on investigation and make experimental designs.
• It helps the students to develop practical and observational skills like
measurement, handling of materials and equipment.
• It helps the students accurately record data and results.
• It helps the students to analyse data (results).
• It helps the students to develop ability to interpret data and relate the
same to works done earlier by other people.
• It helps the students to draw conclusions based on the data collected that
is, to be objective and not subjective.
• It develops students communication ability by presenting results in form
of charts, tables, graphs, oral and written reports.
• It helps students appreciate scientific methods in solving agricultural
related problems and others in related sciences.
• It helps students to appreciate the environment and its related benefits to
human beings and other organisms.
1. Make a visit to one of the crop research bodies near your school and
have a discussion with the researcher about the experiments they
undertake.
2. Tour the research station experimental and demonstration plots and
discuss the set experiments.
Revision Exercise 8
1. Define the term agricultural experimentation.
2. Name any four basic steps followed when setting an agricultural
experiment.
3. State any three agricultural problems whose solutions can be
developed through agricultural experimentation.
4. State the reasons why agricultural experimentation is important to a
student.
Unit Crop Production II (Agronomic
9 practices)
Specific objectives
(a) Describe land preparation practices and prepare land in a school
garden.
(b) Select crops and varieties suited to their environment.
(c) Select good seed for planting.
Introduction
Agronomic practices refers to agricultural production activities for example,
land preparation and selection of planting materials.
Land preparation
Land preparation involves the practices carried out on land to create a
suitable soil tilth in readiness for planting. The size of soil clods, the soil
depth, and the looseness of the soil, must be appropriate to facilitate the
germination and establishment of the crop. Timely land preparation and
deep ploughing creates favourable conditions for easy management of
subsequent field practices, such as, weeding and pest control. Land which
has been prepared for the purpose of growing crops is called a seedbed.
Importance of land preparation
• To remove vegetation cover which may interfere with the subsequent
operations.
• To bury organic matter into the soil which later decomposes. This helps
in binding soil particles as well as adding nutrients into the soil.
• To kill pests and diseases. This is by exposing the soil-borne pests and
disease-causing organisms to harsh environmental conditions on the soil
surface, thus killing them.
• To kill perennial weeds, like couch grass, which would otherwise
compete with crops.
• Improve the physical condition of the soil by loosening soil making it
suitable for root development (that is, root penetration). This facilitates
proper anchorage of plants.
• Improves infiltration of water into the soil.
Operations in land preparation

Land preparation involves a number of operations. These operations can be
grouped in four categories:
• Land clearing.
• Primary cultivation.
• Secondary cultivation.
• Tertiary operations.
Land clearing
Land clearing can be defined as the removal of vegetation cover from the
surface before ploughing. The vegetation could be trees, previous season
crop remains, weeds, grasses and shrubs.
It involves the following activities:
• Felling of trees and removal of tree stumps.
• Slashing or cutting of tall grass, shrubs and bushes.
• Burning of vegetation. This is not recommended as it destroys the soil
structure and useful micro-organisms. Fire can also spread to an area
where it was not intended, and this may lead to destruction of property,
forest or already established crops in nearby farms.
Land clearing can be done manually (hand method), using chemicals or it
can be mechanized (using machinery).
Hand method
It involves the use of hand tools like machetes and slashers. The use of
these tools is slow and therefore only a few hectares of land can be cleared
over a long period of time. This method leads to delay in seedbed
preparation and may result in late planting, and consequently, in poor crop
yields. This method of land clearing is commonly used by small scale
farmers.
Chemical method
It involves the use of chemicals called herbicides which kill the weeds for
example, Roundup, gramoxone and atrazine.
Mechanized method
This involves the use of tractor-mounted implements for example, tractors
with a chain to fell trees in a forest and bulldozers to remove stumps. This
method is commonly used by large scale farmers.
Advantages
• It is efficient in land clearing.
• It has a low labour requirement.
• Large areas can be cleared within a short time.
Disadvantage
• The cost of purchasing and maintaining the machines is high.
Importance of land clearing

• It makes subsequent land preparation operations, such as, ploughing,
easier and efficient.
• Eradication of pests and diseases: Certain crop diseases, such as, the
Armillaria root-rot, that affect tea bushes can be prevented by removal
and destruction of stumps. Pests and animals such as squirrels, mice, and
monkeys which destroy crops inhabit bushy lands.
• It helps open up virgin land: Forest land or bushy areas cannot be
cultivated unless first cleared of the bushes or forest trees. However,
forests are water catchment areas and should not be destroyed.
• It is a land reclamation method, especially in warm humid bushy lands.
These areas are prone to tsetse fly infestation and are not suitable for
human settlement and livestock keeping. Therefore, land clearing in
such areas makes them become habitable for people and livestock.
Primary cultivation
This is the initial opening of land either after clearing the bush or after a
previous cropping.
Primary cultivation can be carried out using hand tools or mechanically
using various tractor-drawn or ox-drawn ploughs.
Importance of primary cultivation

• It makes subsequent operations easier.
• It facilitates aeration and water infiltration in the soil.
• It controls weeds, such as rhizomatous weeds, by burying or uprooting
them.
• It buries crop residues to decompose and add nutrients into the soil.
• It eases the penetration of the crop roots.
• It controls pests and diseases. This is achieved when one exposes them to
the scorching sun or to predators, for example, earthworms can be eaten
by birds.
Tools used in primary cultivation

(i) Hand method: Small scale farmers use hand tools such as hoes,
fork hoes and ox-ploughs.
(ii) Mechanised method: This is mainly used by the large scale
farmers. It involves use of disc plough, chisel plough, mouldboard
plough and rotary cultivators (rotavators).
Fig. 9.1 (i): Disc plough.
Fig. 9.1 (ii): Rotavator.
Fig. 9.1 (iii): Mounted mouldboard in operation.

Fig. 9.1 (iv): A person using ox-plough.
Factors that influence the choice of the tools and equipment for
primary cultivation
(i) Type of tilth required: This will depend on the size of seeds to be
planted for example, small seeds need fine tilth hence many tools are
used.
(ii) Cultivation depth: Deep rooted crops require a tool that will plough
deeply.
(iii) Type of soil: Heavy tools are required when ploughing in heavy soils.
(iv) Soil moisture content: A fork hoe may be more suitable than a hoe in
wet soils.
(v) Size of the land: There is need for heavy mechanical implements when
dealing with large pads of land.
(vi) Availability of capital and cost: One may not choose a tractor- drawn
plough due to the high costs of purchasing and maintenance. The
farmer may instead go for an ox-drawn plough because it is cheaper
and can do the same work.
Timing of primary cultivation

The best time to prepare the seedbed is during the dry season when there is
optimum moisture in the soil to accelerate decomposition, and facilitate
mineralization of the vegetative materials. The seedbed, which was
previously under crop is best prepared immediately after harvesting. Early
land preparation enables the farmer to plant early.
Secondary cultivation
These are the subsequent land preparation operations which follow primary
cultivation. It involves seedbed refinement practices such as breaking large
soil clods. It is also referred to as harrowing. The period between primary
and secondary cultivation should be 3 to 4 weeks to allow easy water
infiltration.
Factors determining the number of times secondary cultivation is done

The number of harrowings can be one, two, or more, depending on the
following considerations:
(i) Initial condition of the seedbed: A roughly prepared seedbed during
primary cultivation or opening up of virgin land may necessitate more
secondary cultivation.
(ii) Size of planting materials: Crops that have small-sized seeds require a
finer soil tilth and therefore more secondary cultivation operations are
necessary.
(iii) Slope of the land: It is advisable to reduce the number of harrowings
where land is too steep. This is because it pulverises the soil and
makes it more prone to soil erosion.
(iv) Moisture content of the soil: Wet soils require more secondary
operations. Dry soils require less operations to conserve moisture.
(v) Type of implement used during primary cultivation: Some implements
are more effective than others. For example, in a land ploughed using a
disc harrow, the soil clods tend to be larger and a lot of trash and fresh
vegetation remain unburied. This requires more secondary operations.
Importance of secondary cultivation

• To break large soil clods into fine particles.
• To destroy weeds which may have grown after primary cultivation.
• To create a suitable tilth ready to receive the seeds or planting materials.
• To incorporate organic materials, such as, crop residues into the soil
effectively for faster decomposition.
• To level the seedbed so as to facilitate uniform depth of planting and
subsequent uniform establishment of crops in the field.
• To help in mixing organic manure, such as, compost and farmyard
manure, in order to accelerate the release of nutrients into the soil.
Tools used in secondary cultivation

For a small scale farmer, simple hand tools like the forked hoe, rakes and
ox-plough can be used.
For a large scale farmer, disc harrows, spike tooth harrows, spring tine
harrows and cultivators (rotavators) can be used.
Fig. 9.2 (i): Disc harrow.
Fig. 9.2 (ii): Spike tooth harrow.
Benefits of mechanised method for secondary cultivation

• The rate of work is faster thereby facilitating timely land preparation.
• It is effective in burying weeds.
• It is less laborious.
Comparison of the hand method and mechanisation
Mechanised method Hand method

• The rate of work is faster. • The rate of work is slow.
• Efficient in burying the weeds. • Inefficient in burying the weeds.
• Less laborious. • Very tiring.
• Facilitates timely land preparation. • May delay land preparation.
Relating final tilth to the intended planting material

If a farmer intends to plant small seeds, the seedbed should be of very fine
tilth, whereas big seeds require medium tilth. Large soil clods have a
tendency of covering the seeds inappropriately, thus hindering their
emergence from the ground.
The tilth of seedbed is important in that, if small seeds are planted in rough
seedbed, the germination will be poor, and the planting of seeds will be
difficult.
When using vegetative planting materials, the tilth of the seedbed is not an
important consideration since they can do well in seedbeds of any tilth. The
condition of the seedbed influences the ease of operations such as weeding.
Tertiary operations
These are operations done on the seedbed necessitated by the growing of
certain crops. They follow secondary cultivation and they are also referred
to as miscellaneous operations, that is, the extra operations which may or
may not be done depending on a particular crop production need.
These operations include the following:
(a) Ridging
It is the heaping of soil to form a ridge (bund). This is achieved through
making furrows between the planting rows.
It is done when planting tuber crops for example, sweet potatoes and Irish
potatoes.
Tools used
• Small scale farmers use hoes and animal drawn ridgers.
• Large scale farmers may use tractor-drawn ridgers.
Fig. 9.3: Animal-drawn ridger.
Reasons for ridging

• To encourage the expansion of the crop tubers.
• To help in the conservation of moisture within the furrows so that the
moisture is retained for a long time for crop use.
• To control soil erosion.
• To make harvesting of tuber crops such as potatoes easy.
(b) Rolling
It is the pressing or flattening of the seedbed when planting crops which
have very tiny seeds, for example, finger millet, pasture grass and wheat.
Tools used
• Small scale farmers use soil firmers.
• Large scale farmers use rollers.
Reasons for rolling

• To make the seeds come in contact with the soil moisture.
• To protect the topsoil layer and tiny seeds from being carried away by the
wind.
• To promote uniform germination of the tiny seeds.
(c) Levelling
This is a practice done in paddy rice fields by dragging a levelling board
across a prepared field.
Reasons for levelling

• For uniform supply of water at the same depth in the entire seedbed.
• For uniform germination and growth of the rice crop.
• To control the pests like rodents which may hide in some patches in rice
fields.
Equipment used
• Levelling board.
• Rakes.
(d) Sub-soiling
It is the breaking up of the hard soil, especially after it has developed hard
pans. The depth of the operation is 60 cm – 90 cm. It is carried out by use
of a sub-soiler.
Causes of hard pans

• Continuous cultivation at the same depth.
• Using heavy machinery on wet soils.
Equipment used
• Sub-soilers.
• Chisel ploughs.
Fig. 9.4 (i): Chisel plough.
Fig. 9.4 (ii): Sub-soiler.
Importance of sub-soiling
• It breaks the hard pans thus allowing deep penetration of plant roots.
• It improves soil aeration.
• It improves water infiltration deep into the soil. This helps to conserve
soil moisture and reduce surface run-off.
(e) Minimum tillage

This refers to the land preparation method where the cultivation operations
are reduced to a minimal level, that is, the soil is left un-disturbed unless
cultivation is very necessary.
Importance of minimum tillage

• To reduce soil erosion.
• To reduce the cost of land preparation and save on labour.
• To conserve soil moisture.
• To promote timely planting since little time is spent on tilling the land.
• To maintain the soil structure.
• To prevent damage to crop roots such as coffee, citrus fruits,
underground tubers and bulbs during weeding.
How to achieve minimum tillage

• Use of mulch to prevent weed growth.
• Slashing or uprooting weeds.
• Use of herbicides such as Simazine, Atrazine and Duron to kill weeds.
• Planting of cover crops such as sweet potatoes to smother out weeds and
to conserve moisture.
• Cultivating only where the plant is.
(f) Box ridges

Box ridges are more effective in trapping water. This is a practice where
cultivation operations are aimed at trapping water and preventing soil
erosion.
Box ridges are made at alternate intervals in the ridge furrows. The spacing
is about 1.5 m. The height of main ridge is higher that of lie-ridges to check
over- flow of rain water. Main ridges would easily be broken by run-off if
they were of the same height.
Fig. 9.5: A cross-section of a box ridge.
Project
(a) Carry out land preparation until the land is ready for planting and
observe the tools used at the various stages.
(b) Note the problems encountered in carrying out the project.

• Visit the homes around your school during the period of land
preparation. Distinguish a good seedbed from a bad seedbed. Note
the tools used.
Selection of crop varieties according to climatic

and soil factors
Crop propagation refers to the development and multiplication of known
plants to meet human food and other requirements as well as some planting
seeds for subsequent seasons. Planting refers to the placement of a planting
material in the soil to initiate growth.
Basically, there are two types of planting materials namely:
(i) Seeds (sexual propagation).
(ii) Vegetative propagation (asexual propagation).
• Some plants can only be propagated by seed, for example, cereals such
as maize, as they do not have vegetative parts that have the ability to
produce new plants.
• Vegetative materials can be used in crops with low seed germination
viability.
• Where seed is as good as vegetative material, vegetative parts could be
preferred for purposes of preserving the genetic identity of the plant, for
example, tea and pyrethrum.
• Where plants have virtually no seeds, or have limited amount of seeds,
the vegetative parts can be used for planting, for example, banana and
Irish potato.
Factors to concider when selecting crop enterprises.

(i) Sustainability to the ecological conditions.
The selected plant material should be well adapted (suitable) to the
ecology of the area, that is, altitude, rainfall and soil type. For
example, groundnuts varieties Chalimbana and Malimba for high and
low altitudes respectfully.
(ii) Types of soil
Different crops may also do best in different types of soil.
Qualities of good seeds for planting

The following factors should be considered when selecting seeds for
planting.
• They should be suited to the environment in terms of rainfall pattern.
• They should be free from any physical damage.
• They should be selected from leafy vigorously growing plants.
• They should be mature.
• They should be free from pests and diseases.
• They should be of the required shape and size to fit and pass through the
opening of seed drills or seed planters easily.
• Seeds should be pure and free from contamination by foreign materials
such as Striga seeds.
• They should not have been in store for a long time. Preferably, they
should be pure seeds from the previous years (season) harvest.
Germination percentage and seed purity test

Germination percentage is determined by calculating the number of seeds
germinating divided by the total number of seeds germinating divided by
the total number of planted seeds then multiplied by 100.
The purpose of carrying out the germination and purity tests is to determine
the following aspects:
(a) The percentage of germination.
(b) For purity.
(c) Other seeds present.
(d) The kind and variety of seeds available.
Germination percentage can be determined in the laboratory. It can be done
by growing a given number of seeds under suitable germination
environment. The number of seedlings out of the total number of seeds
planted will give the percentage germination factors that affect the
percentage germination.
Factors that affect germination

(i) Germination ecological factors for example, oxygen and water.
(ii) Physical damage of the seed; broken seeds may have damaged
embryos.
(iii) Rough soil tilth.
(iv) Immature seeds.
(v) Soil organisms;micro-organisms in the soil may destroy seeds.
(vi) Deep planting; the seed may exhaust their food reserves before they
emerge.
(vii) Shallow planting; the seeds may be exposed hence eaten by insects
and birds before they germinate..

1. Carry out seed germination tests using the school garden.
2. Get planting materials (such as maize grain) from different
containers and determine any signs of infection and damage.
Revision Exercise 9
1. Differentiate between a seedbed and a nursery bed.
2. What are the broad categories of planting materials?
3. State factors to consider when selecting seeds for planting.
4. What is Germination Percentage?
5. A certain maize variety was planted in the farm. Out of 1000 grains
planted, only 780 seedlings emerged. Calculate the germination
percentage of the maize variety?
Unit Challenges in Agricultural
10 Development
Specific objectives
(a) Explain the meaning of food supply.
(b) Relate population growth to food supply.
(c) Recognise the need to balance population growth and food supply.
(d) Determine gender roles in food production and assess its impact.
(e) Recognise the need for both genders to participate fully in food
production.
(f) Explain and describe how changing food habits can ensure food
security.
Introduction
The major challenges in agicultural development include the following:
(i) Food security.
(ii) Population growth.
(iii) Gender roles.
Others challenges may include:

(iv) Health of the people for example HIV and AIDS.
(v) Government policy.
(vi) State of the infrastructure and social amenities.
(vii) Level of education and technology.
(viii) Cultural practices and religious beliefs.
(ix) Market forces and fluctuating markets.
Population growth and food supply

Population refers to the number of people in a country at a specific time.
Population growth refers to the measure of increase in the number of people
in a country. Population growth rate refers to the population increase over a
period of time and it is expressed as a percentage (%).
For example, in 1987, Malawi population was 7,988,507 and ten years later
it was 9,838,486. In the last census (2009) the population was around
14,000,000. Malawi is now one of the most densely populated countries in
Africa.
Year Population Growth rate

1931 1,573,454 -
1945 2,049,914 2.2
1966 4,039,583 3.3
1977 5,547,460 2.9
1987 7,988,507 3.7
1998 9,838,486 1.9
Table 10.1 Population and population growth in Malawi; 1931 – 1998.
Effects of high population growth

• Straining of amenities for example, hospitals and schools.
• Land fragmentation through inheritance.
• Over-cultivation and over-grazing leading to increased rate of soil
erosion.
• Decline in per capita income.
• Crime rate may increase due to increased rate of joblessness.
• Food security is rarely guaranteed.
• Compromised training of professionals.
• May lead to over-crowding and increase of slums which in turn may
increase the rate of water-borne and air-bone disease spread.
• May lead to gradual eradication of water catchment areas through
charcoal burning and settlements which in turn may adversely affect
rainfall amounts and patterns.
Food supply
Food supply refers to the amount of food available for people’s
consumption.
Adequate food supply is the amount that meets the peoples’ needs. Maize is
the staple food in Malawi.
Food is needed to provide energy to enable human beings engage in
productive activities. Proper feeding also promotes good health and thus
plays a major role in a nation’s productivity. With an ever growing
population, there is need to improve agricultural productivity.
The following factors affect food supply:
• Frequent natural calamities for example, floods and drought.
• Poor storage facilities.
• Outbreaks of pests and diseases to crops and animals.
• Poor timming for planting and harvesting.
• Poor managerial skills in the farm.
• Fast increasing population.
• Inability to embrace the new agricultural production technology.
• Poor roads to deliver input to the farm at the right time and take farm
produce for sale.
• Lack of farm inputs such as planting materials and agro-chemicals for
example, fertilizers.
• Use of poor farming methods.
• Land scarcity in some areas.
• Inadequate capital, labour and land.
• Fluctuating market prices.
• Corruption.
• Poor health of the farmers/the impact of HIV and AIDS.
Ways of improving food production in Malawi

• Use the latest technology in production.
• Plant improved crop varieties which are true to the prevailing ecological
conditions.
• Use proper and timely animal and crop husbandry practices for example
timely planting, timely control of weeds and pests.
• Conserve soil, water and trees.
• Diversification of farm enterprises for example, plant different crops and
keep different farm animals at the same time. Should one fail, the farmer
may benefit from the other.
• Plant draught tolerant and resistant crops for example, cassava and
sorghum.
• The government should send agricultural extension advisers to the
farmers to sensitize them on production efficiency.
• Livestock should be housed properly and well managed.
Relationship between population growth and food

supply
As noted earlier, the population growth rate in Malawi is one of the leading
in Africa. An increase in population growth necessiate an increase in food
supply. When food supply is low in an ever increasing population, shortage
of food is realised. As such, food production should be enhanced if
shortages are to be avoided. There should be a balance between food supply
and population growth.
Importance of maintaining balance between food supply and

population growth
If productivity in other sectors (except food) have to be maintained or
improved, there must be effort to steadily increase food production to cope
with the increasing human population. All the modern techniques have to
be employed. Otherwise when human population increase at a higher rate
than agricultural development, there will be imbalance and both the people
and the government will feel that pinch.
The two major ways of balancing the two can be achieved through:
(i) Checking population growth.
(ii) Increasing food production.
Methods of checking population growth

(a) Sensitization of people on the importance of having small families and
dangers of big families. This can be done through mass media (print
media and electronic media).
(b) Training on family planning methods.
(c) Making basic education compulsory.
The following methods can be employed to increase food production:

• Making use of idle land.
• Employing modern farming systems.
• The government buying food from people during bumper harvest at
reasonable prices, then store and resell to them later at reasonable prices.
• Frequent workshops, seminars on proper animal and crop husbandry.
• Planting trees where deforestated.

• Visit the ministry offices that deal with planning and ask the officers
questions on what the government is doing on food production and
the rapid human population growth.
Gender roles in food production

Gender is not about being male or female but the roles associated with
males and females in society. Gender roles are determined by culture,
taboos and beliefs of the society. In Malawi, we have the same. Here,
farming activities are performed by both men and women. Women carry out
more agricultural activities (over 70%) compared to men.
The following activities are mostly done by women:
• Land preparation.
• Planting.
• Weeding.
• Harvesting.
• Storing.
• Processing of agricultural produce.
Women spend most of their times in farms. They also look for food when in
short supply and also prepare it for the family.
Women however do not achieve their peak in production partly because of
culture. For example, men and women do not freely work together as a
team. Men are normally involved in marketing of the farm produce and are
also found dominating other non-agricultural activities.
Impact of gender roles in food production

Total production in agriculture is generally low because of factors such as:
• Access to sizeable land is limited (0.5 hectares) as most families are
female headed. Large tracts of land are under cash crops and normally
owned and controlled by men.
• Women are disadvantaged when it comes to accessing credit facilities as
they are dominated by men. For example, size of land and membership
to clubs are some of the conditions that favour men.
• Only few women can access extension services and modern agricultural
technology because most women are not members of farmers’ clubs.
Possible solutions to adequate food production

• More men should work hand in hand with women in all agricultural
production activities.
• Women should join farmer’s clubs and even have some of them in the
management of these clubs.
• Women should be empowered to own and control land just like the
males.
• Credits should be made available to farmers irrespective of the sex.
• Agricultural extension services should be equally accessible by all
farmers irrespective of the sex.
• Some cultures which are retrogressive thus lowering agricultural
production should be discouraged.
• The government should set aside funds to lend women in agricultural
production sectors at low interest.
Food security I
Food security refers to the ability of the people to have enough food at all
times. A country with food security has a healthy and active population
which contributes positively to the country’s economy.
Food security in Malawi in not assured because the population is growing at
a faster rate than food production. Many families lack enough food supplies
in some months of the year.
Causes of food insecurity

• Shortage of land under food crops leading to inadequate food production.
• Inability of most women (who form majority of food crop farmers) to
access to credit and appropriate technology.
• Poor storage and sometimes impassable roads leading to food spoilage,
and illegal sale of food crops.
• Use of traditional farming practices where production is generally low
(low level of technology).
• Low level or no income (poverty).
• Low level of diversification of agricultural enterprises.
• Poor plant and animal husbandry practices.
• Unfavourable climatic conditions such as drought and floods as well as
poor soils.
• Inadequate labour at the peaks of weeding and harvesting.
Food habits and food taboos

Food habits that cause food insecurity
• Growing only one kind of food crop.
• Cooking more than enough food and throwing away the rest.
• Cooking special meals for visitors.
• Eating only one type (kind) of food.
• Adults (for example, father) eating more proteinous foods (meat,
chicken) than children.
Food taboos that cause food insecurity

• Pregnant women must not eat eggs.
• Children must not eat eggs.
• Left over meat is eaten by the father while children eat vegetables.
• The first person to be served is the father, children, then mother.
How changing food habits can ensure food

security
• Avoid excess food preparation.
• Eat a variety of foods.
• Diversification of food crops.
• Planting drought tolerant crops.
• Children should eat more proteinous foods than adults.
Strategies for maintaining food security

Increase acreage under food production.
• The government should relax the credit lending conditions to allow
women access to credits. The government should set aside funds to loan
women organizations in food production sector at low interest rates.
• The storage facilities should be improved to ensure food availability
throughout.
• New food production technology should be employed for example, use
of tractor ploughs instead of hand hoe.
• Employment of proper crop and animal husbandry practices.
• Deliberate government effort to afforestate and reafforestate
(environmental conservation).
• The government should enforce a tax on any idle land.
• The government should strengthen its extension services.
• The floods can be controlled by construction of embankments (dykes) on
river banks and dams at intervals to check the floor of water during
heavy rains.
• Any culture that is retrogressive to agricultural production should be
discouraged.
• People should be encouraged to feed on other traditional feeds, not maize
only.
Revision Exercise 10
1. Define the following terms:
(a) Food security.
(b) Gender roles.
(c) Population growth.
2. Outline how gender roles impact on food production in Malawi.
3. Why is it important to balance population growth and food security?
4. Describe how changing food habits can ensure food security.

Agriculture Form1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Agriculture Form1

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Agriculture Form1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Excel & Succeed

Anthony Maurice Ngomwa

Grey Matter Ltd.

Under agreement with the publishers

© A.M. Ngomwa, C. Maribie and J. Kyungu, 2012

First published 2012

ISBN 978 9996 014 185

Printed by English Press Ltd

Fig. 1.1: Hydrological cycle.

Influence of natural resources on agricultural

Depletion of natural resources

How natural resources are depleted

Loss of vegetation cover through deforestation has led to upset of

(b) Improper use of agricultural inputs and

(c) Poor farming practices

Fig. 1.3: Gulley erosion.

(ii) Indiscriminate burning of vegetation leading to loss of ground cover

(d) Rapid population growth

Practical Activity 1.1

Effects of increased population on natural

Cultivating marginal lands

Practical Activity 1.2

Conservation of natural resources

Methods of soil and water conservation

Biological control method

Physical control method

Basic concepts of farm business management

(d) Record keeping

Importance of farm records

Types of farm accounts records

(e) Business decision making

Main factors of production

(i) Family labour

(ii) Hired labour

Measuring labour efficiency / output

Ways of improving labour efficiency

1. Liquid capital or circulating capital

3. Durable capital/fixed capital

Note: The quantity and quality of capital available influences

The role of a farm manager

Other factors of production

Risks and uncertainties

1. Changes in price of commodities

2. Failure of physical production

3. Change in government policy

6. Development of new technology

Ways of adjusting to risks and uncertainties

Farmer’s role in minimising the effects of risks and uncertainties

Government role in minimising risks and uncertainties

Practical Activity 2.1

Relationship between demand and price

Table 3.1: Demand schedule for meat

When represented graphically, a demand curve is realised.

From the graph:

Factors which influence demand

(iii) Income level of consumers

(iv) Taste and preferences of the consumer

(v) Price expectations

(vi) Government policy

Fig.3.2: Change in demand at constant price.