C0404 CCTV - Radio Based EN
C0404 CCTV - Radio Based EN
C0404 CCTV - Radio Based EN
An important distinction between Alcatel’s open • Uses an accepted standard, thereby reducing costs
standard DCS and other proprietary systems lies in its as a result of economies of scale.
future migration capability. It is comprised of three • Offers additional bandwidth, which is available for
distinct elements: a radio link, a wayside network growth.
(running adjacent to the track and providing a link
between wayside applications and trackside radios) and IEEE 802.11 supports three physical layers: FHSS, Direct
a security system which can be modified/upgraded Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) and infrared. All
independently as technology advances. incorporate a common Medium Access Control (MAC)
The wired component of the DCS is a combination of layer. Alcatel chose to use FHSS in preference to DSSS
Ethernet hubs/switches and fiber-optic cabling, as because it is a robust technology whith little influence from
shown in Figure 1. The Ethernet hubs/switches, which noise, reflections, radio stations or other environmental
are installed inside station equipment rooms, not only factors. In addition, the number of simultaneously active
aggregate the interconnection of numerous radio Access systems in the same geographic area (collocated systems)
Points (AP) and wayside control units, but also form a is significantly higher than for DSSS systems.
high-speed Ethernet backbone. The numerous APs are DSSS radios operate using 22 MHz of bandwidth per
interconnected by connecting them to the network channel; if the receiver picks up a narrowband interference
switches via media converters, using multimode fiber signal anywhere in the 22 MHz operating band, the entire
optic cabling to establish ground radio connectivity. The band is affected. Thus only three discrete channels or up to
high-speed Ethernet backbone is realized by seven overlapping channels can be collocated.
interconnecting the Ethernet switches together using In contrast, FHSS radios only use 1 MHz channels, so the
single mode fiber-optic cabling. presence of a narrowband interference signal on a specific
The wireless component consists of APs and Station frequency will only affect one hop. If the FHSS receiver is
Adapter (SA) radios. APs are typically placed at fixed unable to operate on a specific hop, the radio will only
locations and serve as the access interface between the transmit on the next hop and the receiver will receive it on
wireless coverage area and the wireline network. Because that hop.
the APs can be subjected to damp and/or dusty Since FHSS radios are less sensitive to signal delays, they
conditions in tunnels and to harsh weather conditions, are more tolerant of noise and multi-path reflections than
these radios are housed in National Electrical are DSSS radios. FHSS uses both time and frequency
Manufacturers Association (NEMA) enclosures, which diversity, so any retransmissions use a different hop
meet established railway standards (e.g. American frequency to ensure successful execution. In addition,
Railway Engineering and Maintenance of Way FHSS systems are more secure than DSSS systems as they
Association, AREMA) for thermal and vibration can use up to 79 available frequency channels and a unique
resistance. hopping sequence, and can accept and apply customized
The SA is the mobile component of the wireless dwell times.
solution; it is installed as an integral part of the train’s All these features make FHSS technology the best choice
communications/control subsystems. for installations designed to cover wide areas where a large
Located at both ends of a train, each radio is number of collocated systems is required.
connected to two antennas to ensure diversity. Using
antenna diversity, two independent wireless signals can Wireless Performance
be received and compared by the SA; the better of the Designing uniform wireless coverage is the foundation
two signals is then used. This is especially important in for delivering uninterrupted wireless communication. The
harsh environments where noise, obstacles, bad weather fundamental principle for maintaining consistent wireless
and multi-path reflections exist. performance is a strategy based on a balanced
combination of the following:
Wireless Technology
The main reason for choosing a wireless radio solution • interference;
based on the IEEE 802.11 FHSS standard is because it: • antenna selection;
• antenna diversity vs coverage;
• Supports mobility. • station adapter threshold settings;
• Ensures a stable future migration path. • access point location and signal strength.
• Comes with an abundance of professional published
documentation, which is freely available. Any unbalanced combination of these will produce
• Provides universal IEEE 802.3 (Ethernet-IP) erratic behavior within the wireless coverage area,
interfacing. including irregular mis-associations, an excessive number
• Uses IEEE 802.11 radios, which are commercial off- of retransmissions, an unacceptable number of dropped
the-shelf components. packets and/or unpredictable sporadic SA resets.
Even if some frequencies encounter multipath effects or fading. Two identical antennas are located a short
noise, others will not, so the FHSS system will transmit distance apart to cover the same physical area.
the information successfully. A diversity antenna system can be compared to a
As the mobile SA is continually moving, another type switch that selects one antenna or the other, but never
of diversity merits consideration. Positional diversity both at the same time. The receiving radio switches
occurs when the wireless RF signal quality differs from continually between the two antennas listening for a
one instant to another as the SA moves towards or away valid radio packet. When the radio receives the start
from the signal from the associated AP. sync of a valid packet, it evaluates the sync signal of the
packet on that antenna, then switches to the other
Antenna selection antenna and evaluates that signal. The radio then
An antenna gives the wireless system three selects the best signal and uses only that antenna to
fundamental properties: gain, direction and polarization. receive the remaining part of that packet. When
Gain is a measure of the increase in power, direction is transmitting, the radio selects the same antenna as it
the shape of the transmission pattern and polarization used the last time it communicated with that particular
relates to the orientation of the antennas. Each type of radio. If a packet fails, it switches to the other antenna
antenna has different coverage capabilities. As the gain and retransmits the packet.
of an antenna increases, there is some tradeoff to its
coverage area. Usually high gain antennas can cover Antenna diversity vs antenna coverage
longer distances, but only in a particular direction. The path taken by a radio signal between two
antennas is seldom a straight line; the reality is that
Omni-directional antennas there are many elevation changes and curves. A good
An omni-directional antenna (see Figure 4) is example illustrating antenna diversity at the expense of
designed to provide a 360-degree radiation pattern. This antenna coverage is when the SA approaches a curve on
type of antenna is used when coverage in all directions is the pre-determined path and where the existing and/or
required. next AP is not visible to the SA’s directional antennas.
Diversity antenna systems with a full overlay of their
Directional antennas 120 degrees of spatial coverage (see Figure 5) make
Directional antennas (see Figure 4) come in many it highly likely that the SA will lose contact with both
different designs and shapes. An antenna does not add the existing AP and following AP as the SA
any power to the signal; it simply redirects the energy it approaches curves along its path. As the SA
receives from the transmitter. By redirecting this energy, approaches a curve with APs located before and after
it effectively provides more energy in one direction, and the curve, the SA potentially loses contact with the
less energy in all other directions. As the gain of a next AP just after passing the previous one. This will
directional antenna increases, the angle of radiation result in unnecessary beacon loss, retransmissions and
usually decreases, increasing the coverage distance at possibly lost packets.
the expense of reducing the coverage angle. Directional An alternative worth considering is to angle the
antennas include Yagi antennas, patch antennas and diversity antennas outwards by as little as 15 degrees
parabolic dishes. each to widen the SA’s coverage area (see Figure 5).
This can improve the total coverage by as much as
Diversity antenna systems 30 degrees while still maintaining a 90 degree angle of
Diversity antenna systems are used to overcome a antenna diversity. Widening the coverage area in this
phenomenon known as multipath distortion or multipath way will lessen the probability of losing communication
between the SA and AP on curved sections of the track.
As the SA approaches a curve with APs located
Fig. 4 Wireless antenna coverage before and after the curve, the SA establishes contact
with the next AP just after passing the previous AP.
This approach provides the potential for a more
continuous SA-to-AP association, which will result in
minimal beacon loss, few retransmissions and
insignificant packet loss.
SA threshold settings
The mobile SA roaming/joining thresholds must be set
to maintain the appropriate signal-to-noise differential
Omni-Directional Directional with respect to the interference/noise floor across the
entire spectrum.
speed. This type of linear roaming moderates the need stronger signal level than that of the old AP, and the SA
for a multi-destination, election-based AP selection continues in the specified direction until the roaming
process; if properly designed, only one AP should qualify process is triggered again.
as the next best AP to roam to.
An omni-directional wireless RF coverage profile will
present a gradual increase in signal strength as the SA Fig. 6 Wireless coverage and roaming
approaches each AP. There is a slight dip in signal
strength while the SA is adjacent to the AP, followed by
a gradual decrease in signal strength as the SA moves
away. This result is based on the notion that when using AP
an omni-directional antenna, the SA can “see” in all AP
directions – a full 360 degrees.
Conventional hysteresis
(LOW-to-HIGH threshold roaming) AP SA
AP
The conventional theory of operation for omni- AP
directional roaming handover is for the mobile SA to
‘Roam LOW’ and ‘Join HIGH’ (see Figure 7a). This is
based on the notion that as the mobile SA moves away
AP
from its currently associated AP, the signal level will AP
gradually drop to below the SA’s roaming threshold.
Here the SA enters into roaming mode.
While in roaming mode, the SA selects an AP from a Cellular based roaming
list of neighboring APs and attempts to associate with
the next AP that has a signal level at or above the
joining threshold. The new AP will now have a stronger
signal level than that of the previous AP; the SA
continues in the specified direction until the roaming
AP AP AP
process is again triggered at the next AP-to-AP
coverage boundary. SA
This type of operation is best suited to omni-
directional wireless coverage designs where AP signal Linear based roaming
levels might vary between each of the APs. However, in
the case of uniform wireless
coverage, an attempt should be Fig. 7 Wireless roaming
made to provide a signal of
consistent strength between AP (a)
coverage areas.
Joining
Roaming
Analogous hysteresis
(EQUAL threshold roaming)
Analogous hysteresis implies
Conventional Hysteresis
equal roaming and joining
thresholds (see Figure 7b). As the
mobile SA moves further away
from its currently associated AP,
AP AP AP
the signal falls below the SA’s
roaming threshold and the SA SA
enters the roaming mode. While in
this mode, the SA selects the next (b)
best AP from a list of stored
neighboring APs, each of which has Roaming and
Joining
a signal level above the SA’s joining
threshold and equal to the existing
AP’s signal level. In this case, the
new AP has an equivalent to or Analogous Hysteresis
AP’s coverage area to achieve a seamless roaming degradation in the wireless signal strength and roam to
handover environment between the APs positioned the next AP when the appropriate threshold conditions
along the predetermined path. are met (see Figure 8b).
The application of either conventional or analogous However, when the mobile SA must support roaming
hysteresis in uni-directional wireless environments operation in both the forward and backward directions,
results in a high probability of producing erratic and neither conventional nor analogous hysteresis is suitable.
unreliable wireless behavior. Roaming in the forward
direction, with respect to the orientation of the uni- Inverse hysteresis (HIGH-to-LOW threshold roaming)
directional antennas, may produce unreliable roaming To overcome the challenges of two-way roaming
handover conditions; the SA might hold it’s association operation imposed by uni-directional wireless roaming, a
with the existing AP for too long then disconnect new theory of operation is recommended. This proposed
abruptly as the SA passes the AP (see Figure 8a). Such alternative implies inversing the conventional hysteresis
abrupt disconnects can result in a high probability of roaming logic by configuring the SA to Roam HIGH and
retransmission and packet loss. Join LOW (see Figure 9). In this case, the SA will be in
With the SA configured to Roam LOW and Join HIGH, a constant state of pro-active roaming to ensure
or to Roam/Join at an EQUAL threshold, the SA will be seamless roaming handover as the SA moves between AP
satisfied with the existing AP’s connection and maintain coverage areas.
its association with that AP until it passes and In a train control environment, mobility is a certainty
subsequently loses that AP’s signal. with uninterrupted data communications across the
Roaming in the reverse direction, with respect to the wireless network being essential for continued operation.
orientation of the uni-directional antennas, presents a Pro-active roaming assures that the uni-directional
functionally stable roaming handover condition for both mobile SA will roam to the next AP before losing the
normal and analogous hysteresis. Movement in the signal of the existing AP while traveling in either the
backward direction allows the SA to observe a gradual forward or backward direction. Since the SA is
continuously moving, the previous AP
will probably not qualify for re-
Fig. 9 Seamless hand-over roaming with inverse hysteresis association after a short period of time
as it’s signal strength will either
abruptly disappear or gradually fall
(a)
below the joining threshold.
AP AP AP Setting the SA roaming threshold
SA
parameter to a high value will ensure
that the SA is never satisfied with the
current signal level. Consequently it will
Roaming
always be in a roaming state in which it
will examine the table of neighboring
APs and attempt to select the most
suitable one. Setting the joining
Joining
threshold parameter to a low value
allows the SA to associate with the next
Functional Forward Roaming AP at a lower signal level, knowing that
the next AP’s signal will continue to
improve. As the SA approaches the
(b)
next AP’s coverage area, the signal
AP AP AP strength of that AP will increase to
SA SA above the roaming threshold and the
SA will associate itself with the next AP.
This demonstrates proactive scanning
Roaming
and roaming along the pre-determined
path in a seamless fashion.
When moving in the forward
direction, the SA will associate with
Joining
the next downstream AP, even though
it has a lower signal, before abruptly
Functional Reverse Roaming losing the existing AP’s signal as the
SA passes that AP.
Hong Kong CCTV Trial Simulation testing revealed that it can take up to two
The Hong Kong CCTV trial took place in two phases; seconds for an SA to disconnect and re-associate with a
the first included a site survey and installation, while the new AP when using the site data representing sawtooth
second involved optimizing the system and concluded signal coverage. As the SA on the train passes the AP to
with a successful customer demonstration. which it is currently connected, it no longer receives
The main objective of the CCTV trial was to use beacons from that AP. The SA is configured to
wireless radio technology to provide smooth streaming disconnect from an AP if it receives 15 beacon losses.
IPvideo transmission from moving trains. The customer The APs were also configured to send a beacon every 32
expectation was to witness IPvideo streaming with a ms. The beacon loss disconnect process therefore takes
quality of no less than 4 frames per second (fps) with 15 x 32ms = 480 ms. The mobile unit can then take a
the train traveling at speeds in excess of 120 km/h. further one and a half seconds to associate with the next
The site of the trial was the existing Airport Express AP. The resulting two second communication gap could
tunnel located under Victoria Bay between the Kowloon extend to over three seconds if additional latencies are
and Hong Kong subway stations. The signal coverage experienced in the network, resulting in train stoppages.
survey led to the installation of five APs over a distance It was found that optimizing the radio settings could
of approximately 1.5 km. reduce these gaps but not eliminate them. Since the
decision to roam comes from the SA, the roaming and
Phase One joining values are only configured in the SA. Several
Fiber optic cabling was used to connect the five APs to an alterations to these settings were considered, but
Ethernet network switch at Kowloon station. The IPvideo during simulation the idea of reversing the roaming
feed was to be transmitted from the SA on the train to the logic of the SA by inverting the roaming and joining
APs as the train moved through the tunnel beginning at the values (inverse hysteresis) was introduced; inverting
Hong Kong station. The IPvideo feed would then reach the these values resulted in continuous video streaming.
centralized network switch at Kowloon station. A laptop
connected to the switch would record the video feed. Phase Two
Noise and interference measurements were low and After a few unsuccessful attempts using
meant that the noise floor settings in the radios did not conventional hysteresis, the concept of inverse
require modification. Several signal measurements were hysteresis was applied to the radios used in the Hong
made during the first phase and were later used during Kong trial. A train carrying passengers was equipped
simulation testing. with two cameras, both of which were connected to a
digital video recorder; in turn the recorder was
Simulation Testing connected to the SA. The final configuration was such
Simulation testing in the Toronto lab took place between that the video signal from both cameras was set to
the two phases of the trial. The objective was to determine transmit at 15 fps. After some minor tweaking,
how to perform seamless radio roaming, ensuring smooth successful results began to appear; smooth streaming
video streaming without data loss. Simulation equipment IPvideo was transmitted from the train to the track-
included a roaming simulator, AP and SA, cameras and a side network and back to the station where it was
digital video recorder. The roaming simulator was recorded on the laptop.
configured with signal level profiles as measured on site Phase two concluded with a successful demonstration
and proved invaluable in configuring the radios. to the customer, who is very pleased with the results.
Radio Network commissioning in Las Vegas FHSS requires an 18 dB signal-to-noise ratio, which
The concept of inverse hysteresis was also applied to means the signal coverage for the entire system had to
the radio network in Las Vegas during the be above –35 dB. Further testing in Las Vegas later
commissioning phase of the communication system. revealed that the FHSS radio operated nearly flawlessly
Since the Las Vegas Monorail site is above ground, where APs are spaced in such a way that the signal
there was the additional challenge of interference. A level coverage was at least –35 dB. Operating above
site survey resulted in the detection of WiFi this threshold resulted in less than 10%
interference levels as high as –50 dB in one of the retransmissions, whereas operating below this level
DSSS 22 MHz channels, with the future possibility that resulted in retransmission rates as high as 75%.
all channels would become occupied. Ensuring a minimal signal coverage of –35 dB and
In order to mitigate against this interference, the configuring the SA to operate between –25 dB and –35
noise floor of the radios was set to –60 dB; the carrier dB has resulted in continuous communication between
sense level was set to –49 dB, providing an 11 dB the control center and the trains operating over the
carrier sense differential, as required by the radio. wireless link.
Ed Kuun is Product Manager, Data Communication Wayne Rickard is Solutions Manager, Network
Systems, Product Strategy, in the Alcatel Transport Architect, Solutions Design and Integration, in the
Solutions Division (TSD), Weston, Ontario, Canada. Alcatel Integration and Services Division, Texas, USA.
([email protected]) ([email protected])
Abbreviations
AP Access Point
AREMA American Railway Engineering and Maintenance
of Way Association
CBTC Communication-Based Train Control
CCTV Closed Circuit Television
DCS Data Communication System
DSSS Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
FHSS Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum
fps frames per second
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
IP Internet Protocol
ISD Integration and Services Division
MAC Medium Access Control
NEMA National Electrical Manufacturers Association
RF Radio Frequency
SA Station Adapter
TSD Transport Solutions Division