General Physics II (4103) Electricity Lec.

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5. ELECTRIC FIELD LINES

We can visualize the electric field by drawing a number of directed curved lines, called
electric field lines, to indicate both the magnitude and the direction of the field.

At any given point, the field vector 𝑬⃗ is tangent to the line through that point.
Electric field lines are also called lines of force because they show the direction of the electric
force exerted on a positive test charge.

At points very near a positive point charge, the electric field 𝑬⃗ points directly away from the
charge, Fig. (1).

Figure (1) Electric field lines of a single positive point charge.

Similarly, very near a negative point charge the electric field lines point directly toward the
charge, Fig. (2).

Figure (2) Electric field lines of a single negative point charge.

As we move away from the charge, the field becomes weaker and the lines become farther
apart.
The more closely spaced the electric field lines, the stronger the electric field.

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General Physics II (4103) Electricity Lec. 03

Figure (3) shows the electric field lines for two equal positive point charges separated by a
small distance.

Figure (3) Electric field lines due to two positive point charges.

Because the two charges are of equal magnitude, we draw an equal number of lines
originating from each charge.
The magnitude of the electric field is weaker in the region between the two charges than it is
in the region just to the right or left of the charges, where the lines are more closely spaced.
Figure (4) shows the electric field lines due to a dipole.

Figure (4) The electric field lines for two point charges of equal magnitude and opposite sign
(an electric dipole).
Because the charges have equal magnitudes, the number of lines that begin at the positive
charge equals the number that end at the negative charge.

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General Physics II (4103) Electricity Lec. 03

In this case, the electric field is strong in the region between the charges, as indicated by the
high density of field lines in this region.
Figure (5) shows the electric field lines for a negative charge −𝒒 at a small distance from a
positive charge +𝟐𝒒.

Figure (5) Electric field lines for a point charge +𝟐𝒒 and a second point charge – 𝒒.

Half the lines emanating from the positive charge +𝟐𝒒 terminate on the negative charge – 𝒒;
the other half of the lines emanating from the positive charge +𝟐𝒒 continue on indefinitely.

6. Motion of Charged Particles in a Uniform Electric Field

When a particle of charge 𝒒 and mass m is placed in an electric field 𝑬, the electric force
exerted on the charge is 𝒒𝑬⃗.
If this is the only force exerted on the particle, it must be the net force and causes the particle
to accelerate according to Newton’s second law. Thus,

𝑭⃗𝒆 = 𝒒𝑬⃗ = 𝒎𝒂⃗

The acceleration of the particle is therefore

𝒒𝑬⃗
𝒂⃗ =
𝒎
If 𝑬 is uniform (that is, constant in magnitude and direction), then the acceleration is
constant.

 If the particle has a positive charge, its acceleration is in the direction of the electric
field.
 If the particle has a negative charge, its acceleration is in the direction opposite the
electric field.

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General Physics II (4103) Electricity Lec. 03

Example (1) An Accelerating Positive Charge

A positive point charge 𝒒 of mass 𝒎 is released from rest in a uniform electric field 𝑬⃗ directed
along the 𝒙 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔, as shown in Figure (6). Describe its motion.

Figure (6) A positive point charge 𝒒 in a uniform electric field 𝑬⃗ undergoes constant acceleration in the
direction of the field.

Solution
The acceleration is constant and is given by

𝒒𝑬⃗
𝒂⃗ =
𝒎
The motion is simple linear motion along the 𝒙 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔.
Therefore, we can apply the equations of kinematics in one dimension:
𝟏
𝒙𝒇 = 𝒙𝒊 + 𝒗𝒊 𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕𝟐
𝟐
𝒗𝒇 = 𝒗𝒊 + 𝒂𝒕

𝒗𝟐𝒇 = 𝒗𝟐𝒊 + 𝟐𝒂 𝒙𝒇 − 𝒙𝒊

Choosing the initial position of the charge as 𝒙𝒊 = 𝟎 and assigning 𝒗𝒊 = 𝟎 because the particle
starts from rest.
The position of the particle as a function of time is
𝟏 𝟐 𝒒𝑬 𝟐
𝒙𝒇 = 𝒂𝒕 = 𝒕
𝟐 𝟐𝒎
The speed of the particle is given by

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General Physics II (4103) Electricity Lec. 03

𝒒𝑬
𝒗𝒇 = 𝒂𝒕 = 𝒕
𝒎
The third kinematic equation gives us
𝟐𝒒𝑬
𝒗𝟐𝒇 = 𝟐𝒂𝒙𝒇 = 𝒙𝒇
𝒎
from which we can find the kinetic energy of the charge after it has moved a distance
∆𝒙 = 𝒙𝒇 − 𝒙𝒊 :
𝟏 𝟏 𝟐𝒒𝑬
𝑲= 𝒎𝒗𝟐𝒇 = 𝒎 ∆𝒙 = 𝒒𝑬∆𝒙
𝟐 𝟐 𝒎
We can also obtain this result from the work–kinetic energy theorem because the work done
by the electric force is
𝑾 = 𝑭𝒆 ∆𝒙 = 𝒒𝑬∆𝒙

Example (2) Electron Moving Parallel to a Uniform Electric Field

An electron is projected into a uniform electric field 𝑬⃗ = (𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑵⁄𝑪) ̂ with an initial velocity
𝒗⃗𝒐 = (𝟐. 𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝒎⁄𝒔) ̂ in the direction of the field (Figure 7).
How far does the electron travel before it is brought momentarily to rest?

Figure (7)

Solution:
Because the charge of the electron is negative, the force 𝑭⃗ = −𝒆𝑬⃗ acting on the electron is in
the direction opposite that of the field.

Because 𝑬⃗ is constant, the force is constant and we can use constant acceleration formulas
We choose the field to be in the +𝒙 direction.
1. The displacement ∆𝒙 is related to the initial and final velocities:

𝒗𝟐𝒇 = 𝒗𝟐𝒊 + 𝟐𝒂𝒙 ∆𝒙

2. The acceleration is obtained from Newton’s second law:

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General Physics II (4103) Electricity Lec. 03

𝑭𝒆 −𝒆𝑬
𝒂= =
𝒎 𝒎
(𝟏. 𝟔𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟗 𝑪)(𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑵⁄𝑪)
𝒂=− = −𝟏. 𝟕𝟓𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟒 𝒎⁄𝒔𝟐
𝟗. 𝟏𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎 𝟑𝟏 𝒌𝒈
3. When 𝒗𝒇 = 𝟎 the displacement is:

𝒗𝟐𝒇 − 𝒗𝟐𝒊 𝒗𝟐𝒊

∆𝒙 = =−
𝟐𝒂𝒙 𝟐𝒂𝒙
(𝟐. 𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝒎⁄𝒔)𝟐
∆𝒙 = − = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟏𝟒 𝒎 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎 𝟐 𝒎
𝟐(−𝟏. 𝟕𝟓𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟒 𝒎⁄𝒔𝟐 )
∆𝒙 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟒 𝒄𝒎
The displacement ∆𝒙 is positive, as is expected for something moving in the +𝒙 direction.

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General Physics II (4103) Electricity Lec. 03

5 Electric Field of a Continuous Charge Distribution

On a microscopic scale, charge is quantized. However, there are often situations in which
many charges are so close together that the charge can be thought of as continuously
distributed.
We apply the concept of density to charge similarly to the way we use it to describe matter.
Here, we show how Coulomb’s law is used to calculate the electric field produced by various
types of continuous charge distributions.
Fig. (1) shows an element of charge 𝒅𝒒 = 𝝆𝒅𝑽 that is small enough to be considered a point
charge.

Figure (1)
The element of charge 𝒅𝒒 is the amount of charge in volume element 𝒅𝑽 and 𝝆 is the charge
per unit volume.

Coulomb’s law states that the electric field 𝒅𝑬⃗ at a field point 𝑷 due to this element of charge
is
𝒌 𝒅𝒒
𝒅𝑬⃗ = 𝒅𝑬𝒓 𝒓 = 𝒓 (𝟏)
𝒓𝟐
Where 𝒓 is a unit vector directed away from the charge element 𝒅𝒒 and toward point 𝑷 and
𝒅𝑬𝒓 is the component of 𝒅𝑬⃗ in the direction of 𝒓 and is given by
𝒌 𝒅𝒒
𝒅𝑬𝒓 =
𝒓𝟐
The total field 𝑬⃗ at 𝑷 is calculated by integrating this expression over the entire charge
distribution.
That is,
𝒌 𝒅𝒒
𝑬⃗ = 𝒅𝑬⃗ = 𝒓 (𝟐)
𝒓𝟐

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If the charge is distributed over a surface or along a line, we use

𝒅𝒒 = 𝝈𝒅𝑨 𝒐𝒓 𝒅𝒒 = 𝝀𝒅𝑳
and integrate over the surface or line.
In these cases;
𝝈 → 𝒊𝒕 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂
and
𝝀 → 𝒊𝒕 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉
The integration usually is done by expressing in terms of its Cartesian components, and then
integrating one component at a time.

Example (1) Electric Field Due to a Line Charge of Finite Length

A thin rod of length 𝑳 and charge 𝑸 is uniformly charged, so it has a linear charge density,
𝑸
𝝀= 𝑳
Find the electric field 𝑬⃗ at point 𝑷 where 𝑷 is an arbitrarily positioned point.

Solution:
Choose the 𝒙 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 so the rod is on the 𝒙 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 between points 𝒙𝟏 and 𝒙𝟐 , and choose the
𝒚 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 to be through the field point 𝑷.
Let 𝒚𝑷 be the radial distance of from the 𝒙 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔.

To calculate the electric field 𝑬⃗ at 𝑷, we separately calculate 𝑬𝒙 and 𝑬𝒚 .

Using Eqns. (1 & 2), first find the field increment 𝒅𝑬⃗ at 𝑷 due to an arbitrary increment 𝒅𝒒 of
the charge distribution.

Then integrate each component of 𝒅𝑬⃗ over the entire charge distribution. (Because 𝑸 is
distributed uniformly, the linear charge density equals to
𝑸
𝝀=
𝑳
1. Sketch the charge configuration and the field point 𝑷. Include the 𝒙 and 𝒚 axes with the
𝒙 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 lying along the line of charge and the 𝒚 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔 passing through 𝑷.
In addition, sketch an arbitrary increment of the line charge at point 𝑺 (at 𝒙 = 𝒙𝑺 ) that has a
length 𝒅𝒙𝑺 and a charge 𝒅𝒒, and the electric field at 𝑷 due to 𝒅𝒒.

Sketch the electric field vector 𝒅𝑬⃗ as if 𝒅𝒒 is positive (Fig. 2):

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General Physics II (4103) Electricity Lec. 03

Figure (2) Geometry for the calculation of the electric field at field point 𝑷 due to a uniformly
charged rod.

2. Find expressions for 𝒅𝑬𝒙 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒅𝑬𝒚 in terms of 𝒅𝑬𝒓 and 𝜽 where is the component of 𝒅𝑬⃗ in
the direction away from 𝑺 toward 𝑷:

𝒅𝑬⃗ = 𝒅𝑬𝒓 𝒓
So
𝒅𝑬𝒙 = 𝒅𝑬𝒓 𝒓 ∙ ̂ = 𝒅𝑬𝒓 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
𝒅𝑬𝒚 = 𝒅𝑬𝒓 𝒓 ∙ ̂ = 𝒅𝑬𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽

3. First we solve for 𝑬𝒙 .

Express 𝒅𝑬𝒓 using Eqn. (1), where 𝒓 is the distance from the source point 𝑺 to the field point
𝑷.
We see, from Fig. (2) that
|𝒙𝑺 | −𝒙𝑺
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 = =
𝒓 𝒓
And use,
𝒌 𝒅𝒒
𝒅𝒒 = 𝝀 𝒅𝒙𝑺 & 𝒅𝑬𝒓 =
𝒓𝟐
So

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𝒌 𝒅𝒒 𝒌 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝝀 𝒅𝒙𝑺
𝒅𝑬𝒙 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 =
𝒓𝟐 𝒓𝟐
4. Integrate the step-3 result:
𝒙𝟐 𝒙𝟐 𝒙𝟐
𝒌 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝝀 𝒅𝒙𝑺 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝒅𝒙𝑺
𝑬𝒙 = 𝒅𝑬𝒙 = = 𝒌𝝀
𝒙𝟏 𝒙𝟏 𝒓𝟐 𝒙𝟏 𝒓𝟐

5. Next change the integration variable from 𝒙𝑺 to 𝜽.

From Fig. (2), find the relation between 𝒙𝑺 and 𝜽, and between 𝒓 and 𝜽.
𝒚𝑷 𝒚𝑷 𝒚𝑷
𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽 = = 𝒔𝒐 𝒙𝒔 = − = −𝒚𝑷 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝜽
|𝒙𝒔 | −𝒙𝒔 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽
And
𝒚𝑷 𝒚𝑷
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = 𝒔𝒐 𝒓=
𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
6. Differentiate the step 5 result to obtain an expression for 𝒅𝒙𝒔 , the field point 𝑷 remains
fixed, so 𝒚𝑷 is constant):
𝒅
𝒅𝒙𝒔 = −𝒚𝑷 (𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝜽) = 𝒚𝑷 𝒄𝒔𝒄𝟐 𝜽 𝒅𝜽
𝒅𝜽
7. Substitute 𝒚𝑷 𝒄𝒔𝒄𝟐 𝜽 𝒅𝜽 for 𝒅𝒙𝒔 and 𝒚𝑷 ⁄𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 for 𝒓 in the integral in step 4 and simplify:
𝒙𝟐 𝜽𝟐 𝜽𝟐
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝒅𝒙𝑺 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝒚𝑷 𝒄𝒔𝒄𝟐 𝜽𝒅𝜽 𝟏
= 𝟐⁄
= 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝒅𝜽, 𝒚𝑷 ≠ 𝟎
𝒙𝟏 𝒓𝟐 𝜽𝟏
𝟐
𝒚𝑷 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝒚𝑷 𝜽𝟏

8. Evaluate the integral and solve for 𝑬𝒙 :

𝜽𝟐
𝟏 𝒌𝝀
𝑬𝒙 = 𝒌𝝀 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝒅𝜽 = (𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝟐 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝟏 )
𝒚𝑷 𝜽𝟏 𝒚𝑷

𝒌𝝀 𝒚𝑷 𝒚𝑷 𝟏 𝟏
𝑬𝒙 = − = 𝒌𝝀 −
𝒚𝑷 𝒓𝟐 𝒓𝟏 𝒓𝟐 𝒓𝟏
𝟏 𝟏
∴ 𝑬𝒙 = 𝒌𝝀 − ( 𝒓𝟏 > 𝟎 & 𝒓𝟐 > 𝟎)
𝒓𝟐 𝒓𝟏
9. can be found using a procedure that parallels the one in steps 3–7 for finding 𝑬𝒙 to find 𝑬𝒚 :
𝒌𝝀 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝜽𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝜽𝟏
𝑬𝒚 = − (𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝟐 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝟏 ) = −𝒌𝝀 −
𝒚𝑷 𝒓𝟐 𝒓𝟏
𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝜽𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝜽𝟏
𝑬𝒚 = −𝒌𝝀 − 𝒚𝑷 ≠ 𝟎
𝒓𝟐 𝒓𝟏

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And
𝑬𝒚 = 𝟎 𝒚𝑷 = 𝟎

10. Combine steps 8 and 9 to obtain and expression for the electric field at 𝑷:

𝑬⃗ = 𝑬𝒙 ̂ + 𝑬𝒚 ̂

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