ECEA112-4 Reviewer Module 2

ECEA112L LECTURE NOTES II
Digital-to-Digital Encoding
- Encoding is a process in which the data are converted
into a specified format for transmission, security, or
efficiency. Decoding is the process in reverse where the
systems translate the data into a suitable format.
Types of Encoding
Analog-to-Analog: This is where the analog data are
converted into an analog format. AM, FM, and PM fall
under these encodings.
Analog-to-Digital: Analog data are converted into digital
format. PCM is one of the examples here.
Digital-to-Analog: Digital data are converted into analog
data format. ASK, FSK, PSK, QAM is one of the examples in
the encoding.
Digital-to-Digital: This is where the digital data converts
into digital format. This will be discussed in depth later.
Digital Data
- Data that has two states: high (logic 1) and low (logic 0).
- These are used in computers where the binary of 1’s and 0s
are translated of pulses of voltage propagated at a
conductive wire.
- Synchronization problem is caused by long sequence of 0s
Why we used Digital-to-Digital Encoding:
- To reduce synchronization problems.
- To translate the digital data (usually represented as high
and low pulses) into a specified format.
Unipolar Encoding:
- The binary data state represents as a voltage level where:
• Logic 1: High voltage
• Logic 0: Zero voltage/Idle line
Polar Encoding
This uses two voltage levels (+, -) and their average voltage is
zero.
- NRZ (No Return-to-Zero)
- RZ (Return-Zero)
- Manchester
- Differential Manchester
NRZ-L (Non-return-to-zero level)
- The level of the signal stands for as a bit. It uses two levels
only (+, -)
• Logic 1: Positive voltage
• Logic 0: Negative voltage
NRZ-L (Non-return-to-zero inversion)

- The level of the signal represents an inversion of the

voltage level. It uses two levels only (+, -)
• Logic 1: The inversion of the voltage level
• Logic 0: No inversion of the voltage level
RZ (Return-to-Zero)
- The signal changes during each bit. This uses three voltage
levels (+, -, 0). Although its disadvantage is that it requires
more bandwidth due to the change of voltage levels.
• Logic 1: Positive level to Zero level
• Logic 0: Negative to Zero level.
Manchester
- Each binary bit represents the transition of the positive
and negative voltage levels.
• Logic 1: Negative to Positive level.
• Logic 0: Positive to Negative level.
Differential Manchester
- Each binary bit represents the absence of transition or
the presence of the transition of the positive-to-negative
voltages or vice versa. The inversion on the middle is used
for synchronization.
• Logic 1: Absence of the transition of the voltage level
• Logic 0: Presence of the transition of the voltage
level
Bipolar AMI
- One of the binary states is constant zero, but the other
binary state is in alteration of positive and negative
voltages.
• Logic 1: High/Low voltage level
• Logic 0: Zero
Bipolar 8-Zero
- It uses Bipolar AMI as an encoding technique, the straight
8 zeros are converted into a specific format. General
format is below
- V means violation, it means the voltage level will be same

as the previous AMI
- B means normal bipolar AMI, it is the opposite level than
the previous one
HBD3
- It uses Bipolar AMI as an encoding technique although its
main difference comes from that the continuous four 0’s
will be converted into a specific format.
Error Detection Techniques

Even Parity Checking
- This is an error correction technique where it counts
the no. of 1’s in the data. If the 1s are even, the added
parity bit is zero. However, if the 1s are odd, the added
parity bit is one. This makes the data has an even no. of
1s.
Odd Parity Checking

- This is an error correction technique where it counts
the no. of 1’s in the data. If the 1s are odd, the added
parity bit is zero. However, if the 1s are even, the added
parity bit is one. This makes the data have an odd no. of
1s.
CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Checking)

- It is another effective detection error where it uses XOR or
binary division to get the remainder of the binary data.
When this remainder is appended to the message. This

causes zero errors.
VRC (Vertical Redundancy Checking)

- It is a vertical way to solve the parity checking (odd or
even)
LRC (Longitudinal Redundancy Checking)
- It is a horizontal way to solve the parity checking (odd or
even)
CheckSum
- It uses the concept of sum to gather the error detection
such as using ISBN for books.
ISBN 10
ISBN 13
Digital Modulation
What is digital modulation
- It is a modulation where the digital signal is used to
create another wave that can be used for other
transmissions. This topic mostly focuses on digital to

analog modulation.
- Since digital modulation can’t be propagated and
requires physical transmission. The analog carrier is used
to create logic since analog waves can be propagated.
This is an advantage since digital data can now be
propagated.
Types of Digital-to-Analog Modulation
ASK - It is where the analog signal vary in two amplitudes
FSK - It is where the analog signal varies in two
frequencies
PSK - It is where the analog signal varies in phase
depending on the phase
QAM – It is where the amplitude and phase are combined
to be used to represent a binary form to the analog
signal.
General Equation of Digital Modulation
- This is a general formula where how different types of

modulation are created.
M-ary Encoding
- M-ary is derived from the word binary. The M represents
the number of conditions, levels, and combinations
possible for a given binary value.
o M: number of combinations possible with N bits

o N: number of bits
Bitrate and Baud

Bitrate is used to represent the number of bits in per time
interval (bps)
Baud is used to represent the number of modulation
output per time interval (baud or symbol rate)
o baud: symbol rate or the signaling element per time

o ts: time of one signaling element
- In short, baud and bitrate are just like frequencies in
digital modulation since it is just a reciprocal of time.
Systems where bitrate is equal to baud:

- Binary FSK
- Binary PSK
Systems where bitrate is equal to baud:
- Higher PSK
- QAM
Minimum Nyquist Bandwidth

Ideal Nyquist Bandwidth:
This is the highest theoretical bandwidth that can be
received, although this equation is only used for
comparison. This is also for lower levels systems
o fb: This is the channel capacity or bps

o B: ideal Nyquist Bandwidth
Multilevel signaling:
This is close to accurate, and this is used in higher level
systems such as QPSK and 8-PSK above. This combines the M-
ary encoding
o fb: This is the channel capacity or bps

o B: minimum Nyquist bandwidth
o M: number of combinations in N bits
ASK (Amplitude Shift Keying)

- It is the simplest modulation technique where the binary
information directly modulates into the amplitude of the
analog carrier. This can be also called as DAM(Digital
Amplitude Modulation). This is also referred to as on-off
keying (OOK)
o Vout: Output ASK

o Vm(t): digital information signal
o A/2: Unmodulated carrier amplitude
o Wc: radian frequency of the carrier
FSK (Frequency Shift Keying)

- It is another simple modulation technique where the
digital information modulates the analog carrier into
two varying frequencies. This can be also referred to as
BPSK.
o Vout: Output FSK

o Vm(t): digital information signal
o Vc: Amplitude of the carrier
o fc: carrier frequency
o Δf: peak change(shift) of the frequency
This represents the frequency domain of the FSK where the

carrier frequency is centered around the space frequency
(logic 0) and mark frequency (logic 1)
o Δf: frequency deviation

o fm: mark frequency
o fs: space frequency
o Δf: frequency deviation

o fb: input bit rate
o B: bandwidth/minimum Nyquist Bandwidth
PSK (Phase Shift Keying)

This is a digital-to-analog modulation where it uses the
phase of the analog carrier to be translated into a logical wave.
BPSK (Binary Phase Shift Keying)
- This uses 0 degree and 180 degrees output of the analog
wave.
Figure a represents the truth table where it lists down

the combinations of the input and output.
Figure b is the phasor diagram or can be used as a
constellation diagram where it is just positioning points in
a cartesian plane.
This uses a balanced modulator which is a product
modulator
QPSK (Quaternary Phase Shift Keying)

This can also be called quadrature PSK where the M-ary
is equals to 4 and the bit required is 2.
The figure above is the modulator of QPSK. We will

dissect each part of the modulator because we are
psychopaths.
Bit splitter – This separates the two bits into their
respective channels Q and I
Q channel: This is the bit where the output is shifted to
their phase
I channel: This is the bit where the output is referenced
to the oscillator
Balanced Modulator: This is where the analog and the
digital output is modulated. Can be called as product
modulator
Reference carrier oscillator: This is the analog carrier,
usually referenced as sinwct as their default
90 phase shifts: This is the block where it changes the
analog phase
Bandpass filter (BPF): To eliminate noise or redundant
frequencies
Linear Summer: This sums up both signaling elements.

This acts like an adder.
This can be calculated through simple trigonometry or

complex numbers to gather magnitudes and phase at the
same time on Casio fx-991ES Pluse (Banned sa board exams)
8PSK (8 Phase Shift Keying)
This uses three bits to represent a phase. Same
mechanics as earlier
2-to-4-level converter: It is a parallel input digital-to-

analog converter.
C Channel: This bit decides the amplitude of the Q and I
bit. The high bit is 1.307 and the lower bit is 0.541.
Inverter: This is used for the sake that the amplitude
will be not equal in both channels
QAM
This combines the amplitude and the phase of the analog
carrier. Their advantages are that its bandwidth efficient and it
is complex to decode, higher data rates, high noise immunity, low
probability of error values, and increased bandwidth. Although
their weaker point is that it requires complex circuits.
8-QAM
16-QAM
ASCII Code
It is also known as Interational Alphabet No. 5. This is used to

represent the letters and symbols as binary bits.
Baudot Code
This is used for telegraphs and teletype machine, and it is known

as the Internation Alphabet No. 2

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ECEA112L LECTURE NOTES II

NRZ-L (Non-return-to-zero inversion)

- The level of the signal represents an inversion of the

- V means violation, it means the voltage level will be same

Error Detection Techniques

Odd Parity Checking

CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Checking)

When this remainder is appended to the message. This

VRC (Vertical Redundancy Checking)

transmissions. This topic mostly focuses on digital to

- This is a general formula where how different types of

o M: number of combinations possible with N bits

Bitrate and Baud

o baud: symbol rate or the signaling element per time

Systems where bitrate is equal to baud:

Minimum Nyquist Bandwidth

o fb: This is the channel capacity or bps

o fb: This is the channel capacity or bps

ASK (Amplitude Shift Keying)

o Vout: Output ASK

FSK (Frequency Shift Keying)

o Vout: Output FSK

This represents the frequency domain of the FSK where the

o Δf: frequency deviation

o Δf: frequency deviation

PSK (Phase Shift Keying)

Figure a represents the truth table where it lists down

QPSK (Quaternary Phase Shift Keying)

The figure above is the modulator of QPSK. We will

Linear Summer: This sums up both signaling elements.

This can be calculated through simple trigonometry or

2-to-4-level converter: It is a parallel input digital-to-

It is also known as Interational Alphabet No. 5. This is used to

This is used for telegraphs and teletype machine, and it is known

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