PHY121 SECTION B

Magnetic effect of an electric current

(c)
(a)

Solenoid

Straight wire Short coil

(d) U-shaped
An electric current will produce a magnetic field, a fact discovered by Oersted in 1820. The
intensity and shape of this field depends on the strength of the current and the arrangement of
the wires carrying it. In 1820 Sturgeon also showed that the strength of the field in a coil
could be increased considerably by placing an iron core in the coil.

Magnetic fields have a large number of uses in the modern world in, for instance, particle
accelerators, plasma bottles, lifting magnets, linear induction motors, tape recording heads
and many other applications. You will have seen some magnetic field arrangements in your
GCSE course and we will be considering these and other field arrangements in detail.

The shapes of the magnetic fields for some simple arrangements are shown above. You can
see that these fields are not uniform and it is found that the strength of the field depends on
the closeness of the lines of magnetic flux.
The direction of the magnetic force can be found by Maxwell's corkscrew rule. If we
imagine ourselves driving a corkscrew in the direction of the current, then the direction
of rotation of the corkscrew is the direction of the lines of force.
The polarity of a coil of wire can be found by Fleming’s right-hand grip rule, where, the
fingers of the right hand indicate the current direction and the thumb the north pole of
the solenoid.
A single wire connected to a cell and doubled back on itself has no net magnetic field - the
field produced by the current in one direction cancels that produced by the current in the
other. This is known as non-inductive winding; it is used in resistance boxes and in the
platinum resistance thermometer.
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Force on current in a magnetic field
The strength of a magnetic field is usually measured in terms of a quantity called the
magnetic flux density of the field, B. A definition of B requires a consideration of the forces
produced by electromagnetic fields.
You will know that when a wire carrying a current is placed in a magnetic field the wire
experiences a force due to the interaction between the field and the moving charges in the
wire. A very good demonstration is the so-called catapult field experiment in which a wire
carrying a d.c. current can be made to move in the field of two flat magnets.
The fields of the wire, the magnets and the combined fields are shown in Figure below.
Notice that the wire moves away from the area of highest field intensity (where the magnetic
field lines are closest) to a region of lower intensity.

The force F on the wire in (a) can be shown to be proportional to

(a) the current on the wire I,
(b) the length of the conductor in the field !,
(c) the sine of the angle that the conductor makes
with the field , and

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(d) the strength of the field - this is measured by a
quantity known as the magnetic flux density B of the
field. The force is given by the equation:
F = BIl sin θ
The units for Bare tesla (T).

The greatest force occurs when  = 90°, that is, when the conductor is at right angles to the
field (b).

The flux density of a field of one tesla is therefore defined as the force per unit length on a
wire carrying a current of one ampere at right angles to the field.

gives
Fleming's left-hand rule the direction of motion for the case when field' and current are
at right angles. The First finger represents the Field direction (N to S), the Second
finger the Current direction (+ to -) and the thumb the direction of Motion (c).

For a large permanent magnet of the type used in schools the flux density between the poles
is about 1 T, magnadur magnets have a flux density of some 0.08 T close to their poles and
the horizontal component of the Earth’s magnetic field (see page 310) is about 10-5 T.
Having defined B we can express the magnetic flux passing through a surface as BA where A
is the area of the surface at right angles to the field. Magnetic flux (φ ) is measured in webers
(Wb).
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Example
Calculate the force on a power cable of length 200m carrying a current of 200 A in a
direction N 300E at a place where the horizontal component of the Earth’s magnetic field is
10-5 T.

The wire will experience an upward force given by F= BIl sin θ

= 10-5 x 200 x 200 x 0.866 = 0.35 N
Torque on a coil in a magnetic field
If a coil carrying a current is placed in a magnetic field it will experience a force on two of its
sides in such a way as to make the coil rotate. This effect is the basis of all moving coil
meters and electric motors. Consider a rectangular coil with sides of length a and b and
placed in a magnetic field of flux density B and free to rotate about an axis perpendicular to
the paper. The field exerts a force on the sides b given by
F = BNIb where n is the number of turns on the coil.
If the perpendicular to the coil is at right angle θ to the field direction, then the torque exerted
on the coil is Fd where d = a sin θ. Therefore the torque C is given by
C = Fa sin θ
= Fnlba sin θ or C = BANl sin θ where A (= ab) is the area of the coil.

Magnetism
Magnetic properties of materials
The science of magnetism has come a long way since 600B.C. when the Greeks discovered
that the iron ore lodestone (first found in Magnesia in Asia Minor and now known as
magnetite) had some interesting properties. A piece of lodestone suspended by a thread,
would always point in the same direction. The word lodestone comes from the Saxon loedan
(to lead).
Permanent magnetic materials are now used in many applications from magnetic ink on
cheques to magnetic door catches. Magnetic materials possess a property known as
susceptibility (X) defined as follows:
B = μ0 (H + M )
= μ0 H (1+ M / H )

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where the quantity  M/H is the susceptibility.
Magnetic materials are of three types: (a) diamagnetic, (b) paramagnetic and (c)
ferromagnetic.
(a) Diamagnetics
If a sample of diamagnetic material is placed in a magnetising coil and a current passed
through the coil, then a field is produced in the specimen that opposes the direction of the
original magnetising field. The susceptibility is therefore negative (-1.7 x 10 -8) for bismuth,
for example). The electron magnetic moments will cancel out in a diamagnetic material,
because of their orbital motion and spin. The value of the relative permeability for
diamagnetics is slightly less than 1, usually about 0.9999.
(b) Paramagnetics
An application of an external field produces a field within the specimen in the same direction
as the initial magnetising field. The susceptibility is therefore positive (+0.82 X 10 -8 for
aluminium). In the paramagnetic material the electron magnetic moments tend to add up;
thermal motion disturbs them but if an external field is applied they realign. Paramagnetism
is temperature-dependent, since at low temperatures there is little thermal motion and so the
susceptibility is higher.
The value of the relative permeability of paramagnetic materials is slightly greater than 1,
usually about 1.001.

(c) Ferromagnetics
In ferromagnetic materials there is a strong linkage between neighbouring atoms to-form
what are known as magnetic domains. The relative permeability of ferromagnetics is large, of
the order of 104, but does depend on the past history of the specimen. The only ferromagnetic
elements are iron, nickel, cobalt, gadolinium and dysprosium, but there are many
ferromagnetic alloys. Modern quantum physics actually predicts that ferromagnetism will
only occur for the elements listed above.

When a ferromagnetic material is heated the domain boundaries are destroyed, and above a
certain temperature known as the Curie point (about 770 °C for iron) ferromagnetics become
paramagnetics.

Electromagnetic induction

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Induced e.m.f.s
If the magnetic flux through a coil is altered then an e.m.f. will be generated in the coil. This
effect was first observed and explained by Ampere and Faraday between 1825 and 1831.
Faraday discovered that an e.m.f. could be generated by
(a) either moving the coil or source of flux relative to each other
(b) or changing the magnitude of the source of flux in some way.
Note that the e.m.f. is only produced while the flux is changing.
For example, consider two coils as shown in the figure above.

Coil A is connected to a galvanometer and coil B is connected to a battery and has direct
current flowing through it. Coil A is within the magnetic field produced by B and an e.m.f.
can be produced in A by moving the coils relative to each other or by changing the size of the
current in B. This can be done by
(a) using the rheostat R,
(b) switching the current on or off, or
(c) using an a.c. supply for B.
(An e.rn.f. could also be produced in A by replacing B with a permanent magnet and moving
this relative to A.)
Faraday’s laws
Faraday summarised the results of his experiments as follows:
(a) An e.rn.f. is induced in a coil if the magnetic flux through the coil changes
(b) The magnitude of the induced e.m.f. depends on
(i) the rate of change of flux,
(ii) the number of turns on the coil, and
(iii) the cross-sectional area of the coil.
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Points (ii) and (iii) simply refer to the amount of change of flux. The faster the flux is
changed the greater is the e.m.f. produced.

Lenz’s Law
The direction of the induced e.m.f. was explained by Lenz who proposed the following law in
1835:
The direction of the induced e.m.f. is such that it tends to oppose the change that
produced it.
We can explain this law by considering the energy changes that occur when a magnet is
moved towards a coil. Assume that the magnet is moved towards the coil with its north pole
facing towards the coil. Now by Lenz’s law this should induce a current in the coil such that
the right-hand end of the coil (B) nearest the magnet is also a north pole. If this is true then it
should repel the magnet and work must be done on the magnet to move it in against this
repulsion.
The energy used goes to produce the induced e.m.f. in the coil. This would agree with Lenz’s
law.
However, if we assume that the e.m.f. produced is in the opposite sense and gives a south
pole at B then as the magnet is moved in it will experience an attraction due to the e.m.f. in
the coil. This will accelerate it, the e.m.f. produced will increase in size, the acceleration will
increase and so on. Clearly energy is being produced from nothing and this is impossible.

magnet moved in
N S

Faraday's right-hand rule

Faraday proposed a simple rule for giving the direction of the induced current as
follows:
If the thumb and first two fingers of the right hand are held at right angles and the first
finger is pointed in the direction of the magnetic field and the thumb in the direction of
motion then the second finger gives the direction of the induced current.
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Faraday’s and Lenz’s laws may be tested by the following simple experiments:
(a) rotating a metal disc at a constant rate in a magnetic field and measuring the e.m.f.
generated between the rim and the axle;
(b) moving a bar magnet within a solenoid connected to a meter;
(c) rotating a magnet near a coil connected to a cathode ray oscilloscope.

The laws of electromagnetic induction

When the magnetic flux through a coil changes, the e.m.f. E generated in the coil can be
expressed as

−d ( N ∅ )
E=
dt

where N is the number of turns in the coil and ∅ is the flux. The quantity N∅ is known as
the flux linkage and is measured in webers, and therefore d(N∅ )/dt is the rate of change of
flux linkage in Webers per second.

Example:

Calculate the e.m.f. induced in a coil of 200 turns placed in a field where the rate of charge
of flux is 0.01 wb s-1,

E.m.f = - 200 x 0.01 = - 2V

If we think of a conductor moving through a magnetic field then the equation becomes

−( N ∅ )
E=
t

Where N is the number of conductors cutting the flux.

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Back e.m.f.

Since the e.m.f. generated opposes the changes that produces it, it is known as a back e,m,f.
This effect is particularly important in electric motors.

E.m.f. induced in a straight conductor

When a straight conductor is moved through a magnetic field an e.m.f. is induced between
its ends. This movement must be in such a direction that the conductor cuts through the
lines of magnetic flux, and will be a maximum when it moves at right angles to the field.

Let the length of the conductor be l and the flux density of the field be B. If the conductor
moves with velocity v at right angles to the field then the flux cut per second will be Bvl
( since the conductor will sweep out an area vl every second.

But the rate of cutting flux is equal to the e.m.f. induced in the conductor. Therefore

If the conductor cuts through the flux at an angle  the equation becomes

E = Blv sin 

Example 1

Calculate the e.m.f. generated between the wing tips of an aircraft that is flying horizontally
at 200m s-1 in a region where the vertical component of the Earth’s magnetic field is 4.0 x 10 -
5
T, if the aircraft has a wingspan of 25m.

E = 4x 10-5 x 25 x 200

= 0.2V

Example 2

Calculate the e.m.f. generated between the fixed and the free ends of a helicopter blade
9.45m long that is rotating at 3.5 revs per second. The vertical component of the Earth’s
field has a flux density of 4.0 x 10-5T.

E.m.t = BAn = 40 x10-5 x  x 89.3 x 3.5 = 39.3 mV.

1. A Boeing 747 with a wingspan of 60m flies due south at a constant attitude in the
northern hemisphere at 260ms-1. If the vertical component of the Earth’s magnetic field in

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that area 4 x 10-5T, calculate the e.m.f between the wing tips and state which wing tips is
positive.

The aircraft now dives at 10o to the horizontal Calculate the charge in induced e.m.f.
Horizontal component of the Earth’s magnetic field at this point =2x10-5T.

2. A copper wire 0.5m long, of resistance 0.001 and with a mass of 0.01 kg, falls through a
horizontal magnetic field of flux density 0.2T with its ends sliding smoothly down two thick
vertical rails, the top ends of which are connected by a wire of negligible resistance. Expain
why the wire reaches a terminal velocity and calculate its value.

Calculation of the e.m.f produced due to forces on charged particles

Consider a conductor of length l moving with velocity v at right angles to magnetic field of
flux density B that is perpendicular to the paper. At equilibrium the magnetic force on an
electron in the conductor must be balanced by an electrostatic force between its ends.

Magnetic force; F = Bev

Electrostatic force F = eV/l

At equilibrium: Bev = eV/l

Therefore e.m.f. between the ends of the conductor is:

V= Blv

E.m.f generated in a rotating coil

Consider a coil of N turns and area A being rotated at a constant angular velocity in a
magnetic field of flux density B, its axis being perpendicular to the field. When the normal to
the coil is at an angle  to the field the flux through the coil is BAN cos  = BAN cos (wt),
since  = wt. Therefore the e.m.f. generated between the ends of the coil is

−d ∅
E=
dt

−d (BANcos )
E=
dt

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Therefore,

E = BNA sin (t)

Example

Calculate the maximum value of the e.m.f. generated in a coil with 200 turns and of area 10
cm2

rotating at 60 radians per second in a field of flux density 0.1 T.

E = BANw = 0.1 x 10-3 x 200 x 60

= 1.2V

4. A circular coil of 100 turns, each of radius 10cm, is rotated at 10 revs per second about
an axis at right angles to a field of flux density 0.1 T. Find the position of the coil when the
e.m.f. across its ends is a maximum and calculate this e.m.f.

The maximum value of the e.m.f (Eo) is when  (= wt) = 90o (that is the coil is in the plane of
the field) and is given by

E0 = BAN

and the root mean square value, (r.m.s.) is

E = BAN/2

Generators
As we have seen, if a coil is rotated in a magnetic field then an e.m.f. is induced in the coil.
This is the basis of all generators.
The a.c. generator or alternator
A simple form of the a.c. generator is shown in the figure below.
A coil (the rotor) is rotated between the poles of a d.c. electromagnet (energised by the field
coils), except in the case of a bicycle dynamo where a permanent magnet is used, and the
e.m.f. generated is taken from the ends of the coil. These are connected to sliding contacts

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known as slip rings on the axle, and contact is made with these by two pieces of carbon (the
brushes) which press against the slip rings. As the coil rotates it cuts through the lines of
magnetic flux producing an induced e.m.f ., the variation of which with time is shown by
Figure 46.12 on page 318. A much smoother output is obtained by having a number of coils
wound on an iron core which is laminated to reduce eddy currents. The output of such a
generator is shown in (b).
In generators where the output current may be very large, as in a power station, it is the
magnet that rotates while the coil remains at rest. A simplified version of this is shown in (c).
The advantage of this is that the slip rings and brushes have to carry only the small current
needed to magnetise the rotating electromagnet while the current produced the static field
coils may be many hundreds of amps. In fact in modern alternators installed in a power
station the e.m.f. generated will be some 25 kV and the current produced over 1000 A!

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The e.m.f. generated in a coil is given as
E = BAN where B is flux density, A is area, N is number of turns and  is the angular
velocity.
Example
A coil of 300 turns and with an area of 0.05 m 2 is rotated 20 times per second in a field of
flux density 0.2 T. Calculate (a) the maximum e.m.f. produced across the ends
of the coil,
(b) the torque required to maintain this rate of rotation if the current in the coil is 0.8 A when
the e.m.f. generated is a maximum.

The d.c. generator

In the d.c. generator the output from the rotor assembly is fed to a commutator where the
brushes press against a split ring of copper. This means that a varying but unidirectional
e.rn.f. will be produced. A d.c. generator and its output is shown in simplified form in Figure
46.15.

As with the a.c. generator, the d.c. machine usually uses rotating field coils, a series of them
being wound in slots in the core; the rotating coils and the core are known as the armature.
The output is then much steadier, a ripple effect being obtained. The d.c. generator may be
made 'self-exciting' by putting the field coils and armature in series or parallel, the current
required for the field coils being produced by the generator itself. There is nearly always
some residual
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magnetism in the core of the armature to aid the starting of such a generator.

The transformer
The transformer uses the property of mutual inductance to change the voltage of an
alternating supply. It may be used in the home to give a low-voltage output from the mains
for a cassette recorder or train set, or in a power station to produce very high voltages for the
National Grid.
In its simplest form it consists of two coils known as the primary and secondary, wound on a
laminated iron former that links both coils (Figure 46.24). The former, or core as it may be
called, must be laminated otherwise large eddy currents would flow in it (see page 315). The
laminations are usually E-shaped, and the primary and secondary are wound one on top of the
other to improve magnetic linkage.

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An a.c. voltage is applied to the primary coil and this produces a changing magnetic field
within it. This changing magnetic field links the secondary coil and therefore induces an
e.m.f. in it. The magnitude of this induced e.m.f. (Vs) is related to the e.m.f. applied to the
V s −ns
primary (Vp) by the equation: =
V p np
where np and ns are the number of turns on the primary and secondary coils respectively. The
negative sign means that the voltage induced in the secondary is 180 0 (or π ) out of phase
with-that in the primary. If the output voltage is greater than the input voltage the transformer
is known as a step up transformer and if the reverse is true it is called a step down
transformer.
The current in the secondary coil produces its own magnetic flux, which is opposite to that of
the primary. When the current in the secondary is increased by increasing the load the flux in
the core is reduced. The back .e.m.f. in the primary therefore falls and the current in the
primary increases. Eventually the situation will stabilize.
The output voltage may be measured with a meter but a better method is to use an
oscilloscope since it draws no current from the transformer.

We have assumed here that there is no leakage of flux that is, that all the flux produced by the
primary links the secondary and that there are no energy losses. In practice, however, energy
is lost from a transformer in the following ways:
(a) heating in the coils - this can be reduced by keeping their resistance low;
(b) eddy current losses in the core:, reduced by the laminated core already mentioned;
(c) hysteresis loss - every time the direction of the magnetising field is changed some energy
is lost due to heating as the magnetic domains in the core realign.
This is reduced by using a 'soft' magnetic material for the core such as permalloy or silicon-
iron. For soft magnetic materials the loss might be about 0.02 J per cycle.
Despite these energy losses transformers are remarkably efficient (up to 98 per cent
efficiency is common and they are in fact among the most efficient devices ever developed.
If we now assume the transfer of energy from primary to secondary to be 100 per cent
efficient, then power in primary = power in secondary and therefore:
I s −n s
=
I p np

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and so a step up transformer for voltage will be a step down transformer for current, and vice
versa.

The transmission of electricity

The transformer is a vital part of the National Grid which distributes electrical energy around
the country. Electrical energy is generated in power stations by generators at a potential of 25
kV. It is first stepped up to 400 kV by a transformer and then transmitted across the country
in aluminium cables roughly in diameter.
High voltages are used because the power loss per kilometre (I 2R) for a given power output
will be much less at high voltage and low current than at low voltage and high current.
Despite this, even after the current has been reduced many transmission lines carry up to
2500 A! (What must the current output from the generators be in these cases?)
In Britain the grid system can meet a simultaneous demand of 56 000 MW supplied through
some 8000 km of high-voltage transmission line. Alternating current is used in the National
Grid, although this has not always been the case, because it may be transformed to high
voltage. However, the underground cross-Channel link between Britain and France uses
d.c. because of the large losses in the dielectric with a.c. A simplified diagram of part of the
grid system is in the figure below.

REF.
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1. Advanced Physics by Keith Gibbs
2. Schaum’s Outlines, College Physics (10th Edition) by Frederick J. Bueche and Eugene
Hecht

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