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SOCIOLOGY
3rd-SEMESTER-BLS.LLB
 Sociology
 Sociology

Sociology is a discipline that emerged as a scientific field in the early 19th

century, primarily attributed to the French thinker Auguste Comte, who lived
from 1798 to 1857. Comte coined the term sociology, which is a combination of
two words with distinct origins. The first part, "socius," is of Latin origin and
conveys notions of society, association, togetherness, or companionship. The
second part, "logos," has Greek roots and literally means to speak about or
word.

Sociology, as defined by Comte and subsequently expanded upon by various

scholars, is the study of social life, social change, and the social causes and
consequences of human behavior. Sociologists delve into understanding the
structures of groups, organizations, and societies, as well as the dynamics of
human interactions within these contexts.

This field of study was born during a transformative period in history when
society was undergoing profound changes, marked by new principles of social
organization and Enlightenment ideas. As a result, people's mindsets began to
shift, and the need to systematically examine and comprehend these societal
shifts led to the establishment of sociology as a distinct branch of social science.

In essence, sociology serves as a critical lens through which we can explore the
intricacies of human societies, their evolution, and the factors that shape them,
making it an essential discipline for comprehending the complexities of the
modern world.
  Definition of Sociology
"Sociology is the study of society"

Sociology, as defined by prominent sociologists, is the scientific study of society,

human behavior, and the various social structures, institutions, and processes
that influence human interactions and relationships.

 Popular definitions of Sociology

Sociology is the science of social phenomena ‘subject to natural and invariable

laws, the discovery of which is the object of investigation’.—Auguste Comte

‘Sociology… is a science which attempts the interpretative understanding of

social action in order thereby to arrive at a causal explanation of its course and
effects.’—Max Weber

" Sociology is the scientific study of social facts."- Emile Durkheim

‘Sociology is the study of man and his human environment in their relations to
each other.’—Henry Fairchild

This discipline gained prominence in the United States during the 19th and early
20th centuries, leading to the founding of the American Sociological Association
(ASA) in 1905. Subsequently, many other countries established their own
national sociology associations. In 1949, the International Sociological
Association (ISA) was formed, further solidifying sociology's global presence.

Thus, sociology is vital for understanding how human society works. Its growth
and global connections show how important it is for grasping the complexities
of our ever-changing world.
  Nature of Sociology
Sociology as a branch of knowledge has its own unique characteristics. It is
different from other sciences in certain respects. An analysis of internal logical
characteristics helps one to understand its main characteristics, which are
discussed as follows:

(i) Sociology is an independent science: It is not treated and studied as branch

of any other science. As an independent science, it has its own field of study,
boundary and method.

(ii) Sociology is a social science and not a physical science: As a social science, it
focuses its attention on man, his social behaviour, social activities and social life.
It is related to other social sciences such as history, political science, economics,
and so on.

(iii) Sociology is a categorical and not a normative discipline: Sociology does not
make any kind of value judgments. Its approach is neither moral nor immoral
but amoral. It is ethically neutral. It makes no recommendations on matters of
social policy or legislation or programme. Sociology cannot deal with problems
of good and evil, right and wrong, moral and immoral.

(iv) Sociology is a pure science and not an applied science: The main aim of pure
science is acquisition of knowledge, irrespective of whether the acquired
knowledge is useful or can be put to use. On the other hand, applied science
applies acquired knowledge into life.

(v) Sociology is relatively abstract and not concrete science: It is not interested
in concrete manifestation of human events. It is more concerned with the form
of human events and their patterns. For instance, sociology is not specifically
concerned with wars and revolutions but in the general social phenomena, as
types of social conflict.

(vi) Sociology is not based on particular subjects or individuals, but is a general

science: Sociology tries to find out general laws or principles about human
interaction and associations about the nature, forms, and content and structure
of human groups and societies. It adopts a general approach on the basis of a
study of some selected events.

(vii) Sociology is a rational and empirical science: There are two broad ways of
approach to scientific knowledge: one is empiricism and the other is rationalism.
Empiricism emphasizes experiences and facts that result from observation and
experiment. Rationalism stresses on reason and theories that result from logical
inference. In sociological inquiry, both are significant.

 Scope of sociology
Specialistic And Synthetic Schools
"Sociology is the study of society"

The scope of sociology is extremely broad, encompassing the analysis of every

aspect of social life from small-scale interactions to the development of entire
societies. The field is divided into two main schools of thought: the Specialistic
school and the synthetic school.

1) Specialistic school:-

The Specialistic perspective within the Formalistic school of sociology is

characterized by its distinct focus on a specific area or aspect of social life.
Specialistic sociologists believe that a deep and specialized analysis of a
particular social phenomenon is essential for a comprehensive understanding of
society as a whole. This approach is marked by the following features:

A. Specialized Research Focus

Specialistic sociologists concentrate their efforts on a narrow and specific area

of social life. They believe that by delving deeply into a particular subject, they
can uncover intricate details and nuances that may be overlooked in broader
sociological studies.
B. In-Depth Qualitative Analysis

Rather than relying solely on quantitative data, Specialistic sociologists

emphasize qualitative research methods. They engage in detailed observations,
interviews, and ethnographic studies to gain a deeper understanding of the
social phenomenon under investigation.

C. Contextual Understanding

Specialistic researchers pay careful attention to the historical, cultural, and

contextual factors that influence the phenomenon they are studying. They
believe that these contextual elements are crucial for interpreting and
explaining social behavior.

D. Interpretive and Hermeneutic

Specialistic sociologists often adopt an interpretive and hermeneutic stance.

They acknowledge that human behavior and social phenomena are complex and
may not always lend themselves to quantitative analysis. Instead, they aim to
understand the meaning and significance that individuals attach to their actions
and experiences.

E. Holistic Perspective

While Specialistic sociologists focus on specific areas, they also recognize the
interconnectedness of social life. They often strive to integrate their specialized
insights into a broader understanding of society, contributing to the overall
body of sociological knowledge.

Notable Specialistic Sociologists:

1. Max Weber: Max Weber is a prominent figure associated with the Specialistic
perspective within the Formalistic school. His work, particularly in the field of
sociology of religion and bureaucracy, involved in-depth qualitative analysis and
emphasized the role of subjective meanings in social action.
2. Georg Simmel: Simmel was known for his Specialistic approach to various
aspects of social life, including social interaction, urban life, and fashion. His
contributions often involved detailed examinations of specific social
phenomena to reveal underlying social dynamics.

2) Synthetic:-
The Synthetic school, also known as the interpretive or humanistic school,
represents a distinct approach within sociology that places a strong emphasis on
understanding the subjective meanings and interpretations that individuals
attribute to their social experiences. This perspective stands in contrast to the
more quantitative and objective approaches of other sociological schools. The
Synthetic school is characterized by several key features:

A. Focus on Qualitative Data

At the heart of the Synthetic school is a commitment to gathering and analyzing

qualitative data. This qualitative information provides rich insights into the
beliefs, values, and experiences of individuals, offering a deeper understanding
of the complexities of social behavior.

B. Emphasis on Interpretation

Researchers within the Synthetic school are primarily concerned with

comprehending how individuals interpret and make sense of their social
interactions and experiences. By delving into the meanings that individuals
attach to their actions, sociologists can gain profound insights into the
subjective aspects of human behavior and the cultural contexts that influence
them.

C. Use of Non-Scientific Methods

The Synthetic school often employs non-scientific methods that draw upon
personal experience, intuition, and empathy to connect with research
participants on a more human level. These methods are seen as valuable tools
for understanding the perspectives and emotions of those being studied.
D. Subjectivity

A hallmark of the Synthetic school is its recognition and acceptance of

subjectivity in sociological research. Researchers are encouraged to
acknowledge and embrace their own perspectives and biases, understanding
that their unique backgrounds and experiences can provide valuable insights
into the social world.

E. Contextualization

Sociologists within the Synthetic school are committed to contextualizing social

phenomena within their specific historical, cultural, and social contexts. By
exploring the particular circumstances and conditions that shape individuals'
experiences, this school aims to develop a nuanced and multifaceted
understanding of human societies.

Prominent Synthetic School Sociologist:

 Max Weber: Max Weber is a seminal figure in the development of the
Synthetic school. He championed the importance of unraveling the
meanings and interpretations that individuals ascribe to their social
experiences. Weber's work on social action, the concept of the "ideal
type," and his analysis of bureaucracy exemplify his interpretive approach
to sociology, which has had a lasting influence on the field.

 George Herbert Mead: George Herbert Mead was a prominent American

philosopher and sociologist known for his work in symbolic interactionism.
He explored how individuals develop a sense of self through social
interaction and communication. His ideas laid the groundwork for
understanding the role of symbols and language in shaping human
behavior.
  Relevance of Sociology to Law
Sociology and law are deeply intertwined disciplines, each playing a crucial role
in shaping and maintaining society. This interconnectedness highlights the
significance of sociology to the field of law.

Laws are fundamental to any society, serving as the guiding principles that
regulate behavior and ensure social order. Sociology contributes to the field of
law by providing insights into societal dynamics, norms, customs, and traditions,
facilitating the creation of effective and contextually relevant laws.

Conversely, law is essential for maintaining societal order. Without laws,

societies would descend into chaos, resembling a jungle. Humans require rules
and regulations to uphold order and justice. Sociology plays a vital role in
understanding how laws are conceived, executed, and their broader impact on
society.

Law also serves as a means of social control, deterring individuals from

disruptive behavior. The presence of a judiciary system and law enforcement
agencies ensures that violations are addressed promptly, setting an example for
others.

Societal processes and various institutions, such as family, politics, crime, and
corporations, necessitate different legal frameworks, highlighting law's
pervasive role in society.

Thus, sociology and law are inseparable aspects of a well-functioning society,

complementing each other in understanding, shaping, and maintaining societal
structures. Their collaboration ensures that laws are not only effective but also
responsive to the evolving needs and values of the societies they govern,
ultimately contributing to a more orderly and just society.
  Theoretical Perspectives
1. Evolutionary Perspective:
The evolutionary perspective in sociology draws parallels between social change
and biological evolution. It posits that societies, like species, evolve over time in
response to environmental pressures. Social institutions, norms, and behaviors
develop and adapt to ensure the survival and prosperity of the society. Just as
natural selection favors traits that enhance survival and reproduction, societies
evolve by favoring social structures and practices that contribute to their
stability.

This perspective suggests that societies progress through stages of development,

with more complex and efficient forms emerging over time. For example, the
transition from hunter-gatherer societies to agricultural societies is seen as an
evolutionary development.

However, critics argue that the evolutionary perspective can oversimplify

complex social processes and ignore the role of human agency and culture in
shaping societies. It can also be deterministic in its assumptions about societal
progress.

2. Functionalist Perspective:
Functionalism views society as a system of interrelated parts, each serving
specific functions to maintain stability and equilibrium. This perspective,
associated with Emile Durkheim, emphasizes the idea that social institutions
(e.g., family, education, religion) have vital roles in preserving social order.
When these institutions function smoothly, society remains stable.

For example, education serves the function of transmitting knowledge and skills,
while religion provides moral guidance and a sense of community. Dysfunction
in any of these institutions can lead to social problems.
Critics argue that functionalism can be overly conservative, as it tends to
legitimize existing social structures and norms. It may not adequately address
social inequalities or conflicts.

3. Conflict Perspective:
The conflict perspective, influenced by Karl Marx, centers on the idea that
society is marked by inherent inequalities and power struggles. It views social
change as a result of conflicts between different social classes and groups vying
for resources and control.

Marxists argue that the bourgeoisie (capitalist class) exploits the proletariat
(working class) in a capitalist system, leading to class conflict. This perspective
highlights issues like economic inequality, exploitation, and oppression.

Critics suggest that the conflict perspective can oversimplify complex social
interactions and may downplay the role of cooperation and consensus in society.
However, it has been influential in shedding light on social injustice and
inequality.

4. Social Exchange Theory:

Social exchange theory, rooted in economics and psychology, posits that
individuals engage in social interactions to maximize rewards and minimize
costs. It assumes that people are rational actors who make calculated decisions
in their interactions with others.

In social exchange, individuals weigh the benefits and disadvantages of

relationships or interactions. If the rewards (e.g., emotional support, material
gain) outweigh the costs (e.g., time, effort), they are more likely to engage in
the interaction.

This perspective is often applied to understanding interpersonal relationships,

marriage, and economic transactions. It provides insights into how individuals
make choices that affect their social connections.
Critics argue that social exchange theory can be overly individualistic and may
not consider factors like cultural norms or emotions in decision-making.

5. Symbolic Interactionism:
Symbolic interactionism, developed by George Herbert Mead and Herbert
Blumer, focuses on the micro-level processes of social life. It examines how
individuals create and interpret symbols (e.g., gestures, language) to
communicate and construct meaning in their interactions.

Key concepts in symbolic interactionism include the "self," which is formed

through social interaction and the interpretation of symbols, and the "looking
glass self," which refers to how individuals see themselves based on how they
believe others perceive them.

This perspective is valuable for understanding the construction of identity, the

role of language and symbols in communication, and the way individuals
develop their sense of self within society.

Critics argue that symbolic interactionism may not address larger structural
issues in society and can sometimes overlook the impact of power and
inequality.

6. Postmodernism:
Postmodernism is a critical perspective that challenges traditional sociological
theories. It questions the existence of objective truth and grand narratives that
claim to explain all of society. Postmodernists argue that reality is subjective
and influenced by language, culture, and power dynamics.

This perspective emphasizes diversity and the multiplicity of human experiences

and perspectives. It rejects the idea of a single, universal truth and instead
explores how different groups and individuals construct their own truths.

Postmodernism has influenced various fields, including literature, art, and

sociology. It encourages a more inclusive and pluralistic approach to
understanding society and culture.
Critics argue that postmodernism can be overly skeptical, making it difficult to
establish any shared understanding or knowledge. It also raises questions about
the potential for relativism and the challenges of addressing social issues
without a common frame of reference.

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 BASIC CONCEPTS
 Meaning of Society
 The term society is derived from the Latin word ‘Socius’ which means
companionship.

 Companionship means sociability.

 George Simmel has pointed out that sociability is the essence of Society.

 Society is indeed a complex social structure that encompasses the

organization of individuals, groups, and institutions. This structure is built
upon social relationships and connections.

 Society thrives on social interactions, which can encompass a wide range

of activities, from communication and cooperation to conflict and
competition. These interactions shape individuals and their roles within
the larger framework of society.

 Members of a society share a common environment or geographical

space, whether it's a small community or a nation. This shared
environment plays a significant role in shaping the interactions and
relationships among its members.

 Society is where individuals and groups coexist and live their lives. They
may share resources, work together, and collectively address various
social, economic, and cultural needs and challenges.

 Society provides the backdrop for various social activities, including

economic production, cultural practices, political engagement, and more.
These activities are essential for the functioning of society as a whole.
  Characteristics of Society
1. Social Interactions:
- Social interactions are the foundation of society. They encompass all forms of
communication, engagement, and relationships among individuals.

- Types of social interactions include verbal communication (conversation),

non-verbal communication (body language), cooperation (working together
towards a common goal), conflict (disagreements and disputes), and more.

- Social interactions can be formal, such as business meetings, or informal, like

casual conversations with friends.

- These interactions shape the development of social norms (accepted

behaviors) and values (shared beliefs), which are essential for maintaining social
order and cohesion.

- Social interactions also help individuals acquire social roles and identities
within the society.

2. Shared Culture:
- Shared culture includes a wide range of elements that connect members of a
society, creating a sense of identity and belonging.

- Language is a primary component of shared culture, allowing people to

communicate and express thoughts and ideas effectively.

- Beliefs and values are the moral and ethical foundations of culture,
influencing individual and collective decision-making and behavior.

- Customs and traditions are practices that have been passed down through
generations and are a vital part of cultural identity.

- Art, literature, music, and other forms of expression are manifestations of

culture that reflect the collective creativity and identity of a society.
3. Institutional Framework:
- Institutions are formal structures that govern various aspects of society and
provide order and stability.

- Family: The family unit plays a crucial role in socialization, child-rearing, and
the transmission of cultural values.

- Education: Educational institutions impart knowledge, skills, and socialization

to the younger generation, preparing them for their roles in society.

- Government: Governments establish laws, regulations, and policies that

maintain order, protect citizens' rights, and provide public services.

- Religion: Religious institutions often provide moral and spiritual guidance,

rituals, and a sense of community.

- Economic institutions, such as businesses and financial systems, drive

economic activities and livelihoods.

4. Norms and Values:

- Norms are the explicit or implicit rules and expectations that dictate
acceptable behavior within a society. They guide how people interact and
conduct themselves.

- Values represent the shared beliefs and ideals that people in a society
consider important. They influence personal choices and judgments.

- Norms and values vary across societies and cultures, leading to diverse ways
of life and social norms.

- Violations of societal norms may result in social sanctions, which can range
from informal disapproval to legal consequences.

- The interplay of norms and values helps maintain social cohesion and
establishes a moral compass within the society.
5. Social Roles:
- Social roles are the positions that individuals occupy within society based on
their characteristics, roles, and social status.

- Roles are often associated with particular expectations, duties, and

responsibilities. For instance, the role of a parent includes caring for and
nurturing children.

- Social roles help distribute labor and responsibilities within society,

contributing to its functioning and organization.

- People can occupy multiple roles simultaneously, such as being a student, a

sibling, and a friend.

- The concept of role differentiation highlights how different roles contribute

to the overall stability and functioning of society.

 Types Of Society
1. Preindustrial Societies:
-Characteristics: Preindustrial societies are typically characterized by agrarian
economies and manual labor. They rely on traditional methods of production,
such as farming and craftsmanship, and are often marked by limited
technological advancements.

-Economic Base: Agriculture is the dominant economic activity, with the

majority of the population engaged in farming. Production is labor-intensive,
and technology plays a minimal role in the economy.

-Social Structure: Preindustrial societies often have hierarchical social

structures with clear divisions of labor based on factors like age, gender, and
social status. Social mobility is limited.
 -Lifestyle: Life in preindustrial societies is closely tied to the land and seasons.
Communities tend to be smaller, and there is a strong reliance on local
resources and self-sufficiency.

-Examples: Feudal societies in medieval Europe, agrarian societies in ancient

civilizations like Egypt and Mesopotamia, and many indigenous communities
around the world represent preindustrial societies.

2. Industrial Society:
- Characteristics: Industrial societies are marked by significant technological
advancements, the mechanization of production, and the growth of urban
centers. They are often associated with the Industrial Revolution that began in
the late 18th century.

-Economic Base: Industrialization leads to a shift from agrarian economies to

manufacturing and industry. Factories and machines become central to
production, leading to increased efficiency and economic growth.

-Social Structure: Urbanization and the growth of factories lead to changes in

social structure. There is often a shift from agrarian, hierarchical societies to
more urban, class-based structures.

-Lifestyle: Urbanization becomes a prominent feature of industrial societies,

with people moving from rural areas to cities in search of employment. There is
a shift from agrarian lifestyles to wage-based work in factories and industries.

-Examples: The United Kingdom during the 19th century, the United States
during its industrialization period, and many Western European countries during
the same era exemplify industrial societies.
3. Postindustrial Society:
-Characteristics: Postindustrial societies are characterized by a shift from
manufacturing and industry to service-based economies, advanced technology,
and information-driven sectors.

-Economic Base: The postindustrial economy is driven by services, technology,

information, and knowledge. There is a decline in traditional manufacturing
industries.

- Social Structure: Postindustrial societies often have more diverse and flexible
social structures. Knowledge workers and professionals become increasingly
important, and there may be a rise in the gig economy and freelance work.

-Lifestyle: Information and communication technologies play a central role in

daily life. There is a greater emphasis on education, innovation, and the use of
digital technologies.

-Examples: Many developed countries in the 21st century, such as the United
States, Canada, and Western European nations, are considered postindustrial
societies as they have shifted away from traditional manufacturing and
agriculture toward service-based and knowledge-driven economies.

 Nature of Indian Society

The nature of Indian society is characterized by remarkable cultural diversity,
reflecting a tapestry of languages, religions, and traditions. India's linguistic
pluralism results in hundreds of languages spoken across the country,
highlighting its multicultural essence. The vast geographical expanse contributes
to distinct regional identities, each with its own customs and traditions.
Religious pluralism is a defining feature, with various faiths coexisting
harmoniously and influencing one another. However, the caste system has been
a historical social institution that categorizes people into distinct groups,
impacting social dynamics. Despite rapid modernization and urbanization,
traditional values, close-knit family structures, and a strong sense of community
remain integral to Indian society. Gender dynamics are evolving, but challenges
related to gender-based discrimination persist. India's rich cultural heritage,
including ancient texts, arts, and festivals, adds vibrancy to this complex and
multifaceted society, balancing tradition and progress.

A. Linguistic Pluralism:
- India's linguistic diversity is staggering, with several hundred languages
spoken throughout the country. While Hindi and English serve as the official
languages at the national level, each of the 28 states and 8 union territories
often designates its own official language(s).

- This linguistic richness reflects India's multiculturalism, as each language

community contributes to the country's identity and heritage.

- Major language families in India include Indo-Aryan (e.g., Hindi, Bengali),

Dravidian (e.g., Tamil, Telugu), and Tibeto-Burman (e.g., Tibetan, Bodo).

- Language preservation and promotion efforts are critical to maintaining this

linguistic diversity.

B. Regional Pluralism:

- India's diverse geography, spanning from the Himalayas in the north to

coastal areas in the south, has given rise to distinct regional identities.

- Each region has its own unique customs, traditions, and practices that often
reflect the geography, climate, and historical influences of that area.

- For example, North India is known for its spicy cuisine, while South India is
famous for its dosas and idlis.

Ethnic Pluralism:

- India is home to a wide array of ethnic groups, including the Indo-Aryans,

Dravidians, Mongoloids, and various tribal communities.

- Each ethnic group often has its own distinct language, culture, social
practices, and sometimes even physical characteristics.
 - Ethnic pluralism is particularly pronounced in regions with a high
concentration of specific ethnic communities, such as the northeastern states
with their diverse tribal populations.

C. Cultural Pluralism:

- India's cultural diversity is celebrated globally. It encompasses a rich tapestry

of art, music, dance, literature, and religious traditions.

- Hinduism is the majority religion, but India is also home to significant

populations of Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists, and others, leading to
religious pluralism.

- Festivals such as Diwali, Eid, Christmas, Holi, and Durga Puja are celebrated
with enthusiasm, and they often transcend religious boundaries, emphasizing
cultural unity.

- Classical dance forms like Bharatanatyam and Kathak, along with various
traditional art forms, contribute to India's cultural mosaic.

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 Social Groups
Social group is a basic concept in sociology. Society is made up of social groups.
In common parlance group means merely a collection in a physical area, but in
sociological sense its meaning is different. A group means a collection of two or
more people among the direct or indirect contact and communication. The
people are collected in a geographical area on the basis of certain qualities like
common interest, features, feelings, believes, tastes etc. Short term or long
term groups are found in society. Interrelationship is the nature of group.

Different sociologists conceptualize social group in different ways the

DEFINITION of groups are given below

1. MacIver and Page defines “social group as any collection of human beings
who are brought into human relationships with one another.”

2. Harry M Johnson defines “a social group is a system of social interaction.”

Sociol Groups have certain CHARACTERISTICS which are given below.

1. Collection of individuals: one individual cannot say a group which means two
or more persons collected in a particular geographical area.

2. Interaction among members: A mere congregation of individual do not form a

group, two or more individual collected in particular are among them direct or
indirect contact and communication.

3. Common quality: It is the nature of group. The members of a group have a

common quality that may be a common interest, feeling, believes, features,
ideology, aims or any qualities similar to others.

4. We-feeling: It means feeling of oneness. It represents group unity. It refers to

the tendency on the part of the members to identify themselves with the
groups. It creates cooperation among group members and helpful to protect
and attain the common goal.
5. Mutual awareness: Mutual awareness is the quality of group members and it
involves in group life. The members are aware of one another and their
behavior, their ideologies and they respect and give priority like their own.

6. Unity and solidarity: It is a characteristic of social group. Unity means a state

of oneness but solidarity is a psychological sense of unity. The members have a
unity on the basis of dependence is called solidarity but the equal consideration
to one another is unity.

Types of Groups
Man is a social animal he is interested to live in group. Group means a collection
of people who establish and maintain direct or indirect contact and
communication. Interaction is the basis of any group. Social groups are divided
into different types on the basis of nature of interaction, and characteristics
such as primary group and secondary group, in group and out group, Organized
and unorganized groups and Reference groups

1) Primary Group And Secondary Group

Charles Horton Cooley (1864-1929), an American Sociologist and a prominent
sociologist in Chicago School. He classified group as primary and secondary
group on the basis of the characteristics of relationship found in group.

 Primary Groups

 Intimacy and Emotional Bonds: Primary groups are characterized by close,

intimate, and emotional relationships among their members. These
relationships are based on trust, affection, and a deep sense of belonging.

 Small Size: Primary groups are typically small in size, consisting of a

limited number of members. This small size allows for more meaningful
and personal interactions.
 Long-lasting Relationships: The relationships within primary groups tend
to be enduring and long-lasting. Members often have a history of shared
experiences and a commitment to maintaining the group.

 Goals in Themselves: In primary groups, the primary purpose of the group

is the social and emotional support it provides. The group's existence is
not primarily driven by external goals but rather by the inherent value of
the relationships within it.

 Examples: Examples of primary groups include families, close-knit

friendship circles, neighborhood groups, playgroups of children, and
community organizations focused on building strong social bonds among
its members.

 Secondary Groups

 Impersonal Relationships: Secondary groups are characterized by more

impersonal and instrumental relationships among their members. These
relationships are often based on shared objectives rather than deep
emotional bonds.

 Larger Size: Secondary groups tend to be larger and more formalized than
primary groups. They are often organized around specific tasks or goals,
requiring a larger membership.

 Temporary Existence: Unlike primary groups, secondary groups typically

come together for a specific purpose or goal and may disband once that
goal is achieved. Their existence is often temporary.

 Distant Relations: Members of secondary groups may not have the same
level of personal connection or emotional attachment as in primary
groups. Their interactions are more task-oriented.

 Goal-oriented: The primary purpose of secondary groups is to achieve

specific objectives, such as completing a project, reaching a business goal,
or achieving a particular outcome.
  Examples: Examples of secondary groups include workplace teams,
project groups, professional associations, and clubs formed for a specific
purpose (e.g., a hiking club or a volunteer group for a particular cause).

Thus, Charles Horton Cooley's distinction between primary and secondary

groups is based on the nature of relationships within the group, the group's size,
the duration of the group's existence, and its primary purpose. Primary groups
emphasize close, enduring, and emotionally rich relationships, while secondary
groups prioritize task-oriented, larger, and often temporary associations. These
concepts are valuable for understanding the dynamics of social interactions and
group behavior in society.

2) In-Group" and "Out-Group

William Graham Sumner's concept of "In-Group" and "Out-Group" is an
important sociological concept that sheds light on the dynamics of social
identity, belonging, and intergroup relations.

 In-Group
 Definition: The in-group refers to a group to which an individual belongs
or identifies with. It is the "we" group, where individuals feel a sense of
belonging and loyalty.

 Strong Sense of Identity: In-group members share a strong sense of

identity, common interests, and values. They often have a deep
emotional connection to the group.

 Respect and Consideration: Members of the in-group tend to respect and

consider the opinions, preferences, and well-being of fellow group
members. There is a sense of camaraderie and mutual support within the
in-group.

 Positive Bias: Individuals within an in-group often have a positive bias

towards their own group and its members. They may view their group as
superior or more favorable compared to out-groups.
  In-Group Loyalty: In-group loyalty can lead to behaviors such as favoritism,
cooperation, and support for fellow group members, even in the face of
conflict with out-groups.

 Out-Group
 Definition: The out-group refers to a group to which an individual does
not belong. It is the "they" group, and individuals may have limited
knowledge or contact with out-group members.

 Evaluation Based on In-Group Norms: Individuals tend to evaluate out-

groups based on the qualities and norms of their own in-group. This can
lead to biases and stereotypes about out-group members.

 Perceived Differences: Members of the out-group are often perceived as

different or "other" in some way, which can lead to feelings of suspicion
or even hostility.

 Potential for Prejudice: The perception of out-groups as different or

inferior can contribute to prejudice, discrimination, and intergroup
conflicts.

 Group Boundaries: The boundaries between in-groups and out-groups can

be fluid and can change based on various factors, including social identity,
culture, and context.

Thus, in-group and out-group helps us understand how individuals categorize

themselves and others into social groups, leading to the development of group
identities and the potential for both cooperation and conflict between different
groups. These concepts are important for studying social psychology, intergroup
relations, and issues related to prejudice and discrimination.

3) Organized & Unorganized Groups

The classification of social groups into organized and unorganized groups is
based on the degree of structure and organization within these groups. Let's
explore these two categories in more detail:
  Organized Groups (Associational Groups)
1. Well-Built Organizations: Organized groups, also known as associational
groups, are characterized by a well-structured and organized framework. They
have clear goals, rules, and often formal leadership roles.

2. Small in Size: These groups are typically smaller in size, which allows for
better coordination and management of their activities. They may consist of a
limited number of members who share common interests or objectives.

3. Specific Purpose: Organized groups are established purposefully to fulfill

specific interests or objectives. They exist to achieve particular goals, such as
advocating for workers' rights, promoting a specific cause, or advancing the
interests of their members.

4. Permanent Nature: Many organized groups are permanent in nature and

continue to operate over an extended period. They often have established
routines, meetings, and ongoing activities to achieve their objectives.

5. Examples: Examples of organized groups include labor unions, professional

associations, political parties, environmental organizations, and advocacy
groups dedicated to various causes.

 Unorganized Groups (Temporary or Spontaneous Groups)

1. Lack of Formal Structure: Unorganized groups, as the name suggests, lack a

formal and organized structure. They often come together spontaneously
without pre-established roles or rules.

2. Large in Size: Unorganized groups can be quite large, and they may consist of
a large number of individuals who gather for a common purpose or event.

3. Temporary Nature: These groups are typically temporary in nature. They form
for a specific event, situation, or purpose and may disband once that event or
purpose has been fulfilled.
4. Limited Coordination: Due to their lack of formal structure, unorganized
groups may have limited coordination and may rely on spontaneous actions
rather than planned strategies.

5.Examples: Examples of unorganized groups include crowds at a sporting event,

participants in a spontaneous protest, people gathering at a concert, or
individuals who come together during a natural disaster to help one another.

Thus,the classification of social groups into organized and unorganized groups is

based on factors such as the degree of organization, size, purpose, and
permanence. Both types of groups serve various social functions and play roles
in society.

4) Reference Groups
Definition and Origin
The term "Reference Group" was coined by American sociologist Herbert
Hyman in 1942. It was later popularized and applied in social psychology by
Turkish social psychologist Muzafer Sherif in his book "An Outline of Social
Psychology" in 1948.

Key Points:

 Group for Comparison: A reference group is a group of people that an

individual uses as a standard of comparison for evaluating their own
attitudes, behaviors, beliefs, and values.

 Contrast with Membership Group: It is important to distinguish between

a reference group and a membership group. A membership group is one
to which an individual belongs, whereas a reference group is a group that
does not include the individual but significantly influences their behavior
and self-concept.

 Impact on Behavior and Self-Concept: Reference groups have a powerful

influence on an individual's behavior and self-perception. People may
 strive to conform to the norms and standards of their reference groups, or
they may differentiate themselves from these groups.

 Social Comparison: The concept of reference groups is closely related to

the psychological theory of social comparison. People tend to evaluate
themselves by comparing their attributes or achievements to those of
others, often within the context of reference groups.

 Examples: Examples of reference groups can vary widely and include

professional associations, social classes, cultural or ethnic groups, peer
groups, celebrity groups, and even imaginary or aspirational groups that
individuals look up to.

 NORMS
1. Definition: Norms are social standards and rules that define appropriate and
acceptable behavior within a given society or group. They guide individuals in
understanding what is expected of them in various social situations.

2. Types of Norms: Norms can be categorized into formal and informal norms.
Formal norms are explicitly written, codified rules and laws enforced by
institutions like governments. Informal norms, on the other hand, are unwritten,
implicit rules governing everyday behavior. They include customs, traditions,
and etiquette.

3. Cultural Variation: Norms vary across cultures and can even differ within
subcultures or social groups. What is considered normal behavior in one culture
might be seen as unusual or unacceptable in another. This cultural relativity
underscores the dynamic nature of norms.

4. Social Order and Cohesion: Norms play a crucial role in maintaining social
order and cohesion. They provide a shared framework that helps reduce conflict
and ensures that people can predict and understand the behavior of others in
their society.
5. Sanctions: Norms are enforced through social sanctions, which can be
positive (rewards for conforming behavior) or negative (punishments for
violating norms). Sanctions can range from praise and social approval for
following norms to ostracism or legal penalties for norm violations.

6. Evolution of Norms: Norms are not static and can evolve over time. Societal
changes, shifts in values, and technological advancements can lead to the
emergence of new norms and the fading of old ones.

7. Role in Sociology: The study of norms is essential in sociology because it helps

researchers understand how societies regulate behavior, maintain stability, and
adapt to changing circumstances.

 VALUES
1.Definition: Values are fundamental beliefs and principles that guide
individuals' and societies' attitudes, choices, and behaviors. They represent the
core of what is considered morally right and important.

2. Personal and Cultural Values: Values can be personal, reflecting an

individual's unique beliefs and priorities, or they can be cultural, shared by a
group, society, or culture as a whole. Cultural values influence the collective
identity and behavior of a community.

3. Foundation for Ethics: Values provide a foundation for ethical decision-

making. They help individuals and societies distinguish between right and wrong,
good and bad, and guide judgments about morality and fairness.

4. Value Conflicts: Conflicts can arise when individuals or groups with different
values interact. These conflicts can occur within families, workplaces, or even
between nations, and they can be a source of tension and negotiation.

5. Change and Adaptation: Values can change over time due to various factors,
such as exposure to new ideas, generational shifts, or major societal events. For
example, changing attitudes toward gender equality or environmental
conservation reflect evolving values.
6. Examples of Values: Values can include honesty, integrity, justice, freedom,
equality, compassion, and loyalty, among others. These values influence
personal decisions, social policies, and cultural norms.

7. Impact on Decision-Making: Values play a significant role in shaping individual

decisions, from career choices to political affiliations and personal relationships.
They provide a moral compass that guides behavior.

8.Sociological Study: Sociologists study values to understand cultural dynamics,

social change, and how values influence social institutions, norms, and
structures.

 COMMUNITY
1. Definition: A community is a group of individuals who share common
interests, characteristics, or experiences and who interact with one another,
often providing a sense of belonging and support.

2. Basis for Community: Communities can be formed around various factors,

including geographic proximity (neighborhoods), shared cultural or ethnic
backgrounds, hobbies, interests, or shared experiences (e.g., veterans'
communities).

3. Social Support: Communities often serve as sources of social support, where

members can rely on each other for emotional, practical, or informational
assistance.

4. Identity and Belonging: Being part of a community contributes to an

individual's sense of identity and belonging. It helps shape one's self-concept
and cultural identity.

5. Physical and Virtual Communities: Communities can be physical, such as

neighborhoods or clubs, or virtual, like online forums, social media groups, or
gaming communities.
6. Norms and Traditions: Communities often have their own unique norms,
traditions, and rituals that define the acceptable behavior and practices within
the group.

7. Socialization: Communities play a role in socialization by transmitting values,

beliefs, and cultural practices from one generation to the next. They help
individuals learn the rules and expectations of their society.

8. Social Capital: Communities can provide social capital, facilitating networking

and cooperation among members. Social capital can have economic,
educational, and social benefits.

 ASSOCIATIONS

1. Definition: Associations are organized groups of individuals who come

together for a specific purpose or shared interest. They often have formal
structures, membership requirements, and common objectives.

2. Types of Associations: Associations can encompass a wide range of

organizations, including clubs, professional associations, labor unions, advocacy
groups, and sports teams.

3. Formal Structures: Associations typically have formal structures, including

leadership positions, rules, and bylaws that govern their operations.

4. Social Interaction: Associations provide opportunities for social interaction,

collaboration, and collective action among their members, who often share a
common goal or interest.

5. Social Identity: Membership in associations can enhance an individual's social

identity, as it reflects their interests, affiliations, and values. It can also create a
sense of belonging.

6. Influence and Advocacy: Many associations work toward influencing public

policy, advocating for specific causes, or advancing the interests of their
members. They can have a significant impact on society.
7. Diversity: Associations can vary widely in terms of size, influence, and scope.
Some may have a global reach, while others are localized and niche-focused.

8. Civil Society: Associations are integral components of civil society, which is

the sphere of social activity and organizations that exists between the state and
the individual. They contribute to civic engagement and social cohesion.

 Institutions
1. Definition: Institutions are formalized systems and structures within society
that fulfill essential functions and provide a framework for organizing and
regulating various aspects of social life.

2. Types of Institutions: Common institutions include family, education,

government, religion, healthcare, and the economy. Each institution has specific
functions and norms.

3. Formal Rules and Roles: Institutions often have formal rules, roles, and
hierarchies that guide behavior within them. For example, educational
institutions have teachers, students, and administrators with defined roles.

4. Stability and Order: Institutions contribute to social stability and order by

providing predictability and structure to society. They help maintain continuity
and ensure the functioning of society.

5. Change and Adaptation: Institutions can change over time due to cultural
shifts, technological advancements, and political developments. For example,
changes in marriage laws reflect evolving family institutions.

6. Interconnectedness* Institutions are interconnected and can overlap in their

functions. For instance, the education system prepares individuals for roles in
the workforce, which is governed by economic institutions.

7. Socialization: Institutions play a significant role in socialization by imparting

values, beliefs, and cultural practices to individuals. They contribute to the
transmission of cultural norms and values.
8. Study in Sociology: Sociologists study institutions to understand how they
influence behavior, shape individual and collective identity, and impact social
change and stability. Institutions are key components of social structure and
social systems.

 Status and Role

1. Status: Status refers to an individual's position or rank within a social
hierarchy. Statuses can be ascribed (assigned at birth) or achieved (earned
through effort or accomplishment).

2. Types of Statuses: Statuses can be multiple and overlapping. For example, a

person can have a status as a parent, a teacher, and a community leader
simultaneously.

3. Role: Roles are the behaviors, obligations, and expectations associated with a
particular status. They guide how individuals are expected to act in society.

4. Role Conflict: Role conflict occurs when the expectations of different roles a
person occupies clash. For example, a working parent may experience role
conflict when balancing work and family responsibilities.

5. Dynamic Nature: Roles are dynamic and can change over time or in different
social contexts. For instance, the role of a child may evolve into that of a
caregiver as parents age.

6. Navigating Social Interactions: The combination of statuses and roles helps

individuals navigate social interactions by providing a framework for
appropriate behavior in various situations.

7.Social Identity: Statuses and roles contribute to an individual's social identity.

How one is perceived and treated by others is often influenced by their social
status and the associated roles.
8. Sociological Perspective: Understanding status and role is fundamental in
sociology because it helps researchers analyze social dynamics, hierarchies, and
the expectations that shape individual behavior within the larger context of
society.

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 MARRIAGE
INTRODUCTION:
Marriage is one of the social institutions that is universal and found insome form or the other in
every society. It is the institution that admitsindividuals into family life. In fact, it is the basis of
family. It is an institution that has been formed to regulate the sexual life of people inany
society.

DEFINITION:
1. Marriage has been defined as „a union between man and a womansuch that children born
to the woman are recognized legitimate offspring of both parents.
2. According to Malinowski says that marriage is a “contract for the production and
maintenance of children.”
CHARACTERISTICS OF MARRIAGE:
From these definitions, it can be seen that marriage is a social institutionthat establishes an
enduring or continuing bond between men and women, the main aim of which is procreation
and establishment of the family.
1) Marriage is a Universal Institution:
It is found in some form or the other in all types of societies, from mostprimitive ones to
most modern societies.
2) Marriage by Definition Takes Place between Two Adults:
Marriages between minors is considered illegal in most countries aroundthe world and will
not be accepted in any court of law as legal, unless it has taken place with the permission of
the court or under special circumstances.

Marriages take place between two individuals of the opposite sex, though in today‟s world
certain variations of this have been observed (for example, marriages between individuals of the
same sex, and somegroups are fighting to make these marriages legal).
i. Marriage legalizes and legitimizes a sexual relationship between manand woman.
ii. A marriage takes place through a civil or religious ceremony. This isnecessary in order to
ensure religious and social sanction. In fact, for most marriages, family members and
guests are invited to witness the marriage, which is one way of ensuring social
acceptance.
iii. Marriage is an enduring relationship between a man and a woman.
iv. Marriage is necessary for setting up a family.
v. Marriage legalizes the rights and obligations of members of a familytowards each other.
 It ensures legality to certain rights, such as those ofproperty, maintenance in case of
break-up of marriage, and so on.

FUNCTIONS OF MARRIAGE:
The institution of marriage is important for any society, and the functions that this institution
performs is instrumental in the smoothfunctioning of society.
1) The most important function of marriage is the control of sexual behavior of people in
a society. Without marriage, there would bewidespread sexual promiscuity, and no
control over the most basichuman instinct of satisfaction of sexual desires.
2) A marriage legalizes a sexual relationship existing between two adultsof opposite sex.
In doing so, it recognizes certain legal rights that are given to the married individuals.
3) A marriage legitimizes the sexual relationship between individuals. This legitimacy is
both religious and social in nature. A religious or civilceremony ensures religious
acceptance, and social witnessing of a marriage results in social acceptance and
legitimacy.
4) Marriage is necessary for setting up a family, with all legal rights andobligations. A
family may also be established outside or without a marriage, but it does not entail
any legal rights to any of the family members.
5) Marriage is necessary for procreation and having children with legal rights.

TYPES OR FORMS OF MARRIAGE:

As a universal social institution marriage is found to exist in all societiesand at all stages of
development. Types or forms of marriage vary from society to society but the institution of
marriage is very much the same. In some societies, marriage is a religious sacrament whereas in
others it is a social contract. However, there are several types of marriage that areclassified on a
different basis. This can be classified into three types as Monogamy, Polygamy and group
marriage.
1) Monogamy:
Monogamy is an ideal, widespread and rational type of marriage. Itis found in all civilized
societies. Monogamy refers to a marriage inwhich one man marries one woman. Monogamy is
of two types suchas serial Monogamy and non-serial Monogamy.
a) Serial Monogamy:
In serial Monogamous marriage, the possibility of remarriage exists in case of divorce
or death. Inspite of his remarriage he remains to be monogamous.
b) Non-serial Monogamy:
In the case of non-serial monogamy, the question of remarriage does not arise by either
of the couples. Here a spouse has the same single-spouse throughout his life.

2) Polygamy:
Polygamy is a type of marriage in which there is a plurality of partners. It allows a man to
marry more than one woman or a womanto marry more than one man at a time. Polygamy is
of two types such as polygamy and polyandry.
a) Polygyny: Polygyny is a type of marriage in which a man marries more than one wife
at a time. It was practiced in most of the ancientcivilizations. It prevailed among the
ancient Hebrews,Assyrians, Babylonians, Indian and others. At present, it is widespread
among primitive tribes but it is often simply confined to the wealthier classes. It is
practiced among the Eskimo tribes, Crow Indians, African Negroes, the Naga,Gonds
and Baigas of India. However, it is also permitted in Muslim Community. Polygyny is
of two types:

 Sororal Polygyny: Sororal polygyny is often called a surrogate. The term

surrogate comes from the Latin word „sorer‟ whichmeans sister. Accordingly, it
refers to a marriage practicein which a man marries the sisters of his wife at a time
or after the death of his wife.

 Non-Sororal Polygyny:It is just opposite of the sororal polygyny, when a man

marries several women at a time who are not necessarilysister to each other it is
known as non-sororal polygyny.
 b) Polyandry: Polyandry is a very rare type of marriage in the present day. Inthis type of
marriage, a woman marries several men at a time.In the words of K.M. Kapadia,
“Polyandry is a form of unionin which a woman has more than one husband at a time
or inwhich brothers share a wife or wives in common”. It ispracticed among the
Tibetans, Marquesas Islanders ofPolynesia, the Bahamas of Africa, the tribals of Samoa
and others. In India, the tribes such as Tiyan, the Toda, the Kota, the Khasa and Ladakhi
Bota also practice polyandry. The Nairs of Kerala were polyandrous previously.
Polyandry is divided into two types:

 Fraternal Polyandry: When several brothers share a common wife it is called

fraternal or adelphic polyandry. Draupadi‟s marriage toPandavas is a fine example
of fraternal polyandry. The determination of the father is associated with some
rituals. It is prevalent among the Todas.

 Non-fraternal Polyandry:It is just the opposite of fraternal polyandry. In this typeof

marriage husbands of a woman is not necessarily brother to each other. This type of
marriage is found among the Nairs of Kerala, Wife goes to spend some time with
each of her husbands. So long as a woman liveswith one of her husbands, the others
have no claim on her. This mainly happens due to the scarcity of women.

3) Cenogamy or Group Marriage:

Group marriage means the marriage of two or more women with two or more men. Every
woman is the wife of every man belongingto a particular group. Sociologists, like Dr. Rivers
call it a kind of sexual communism. This type of marriage is found among some tribals in
Australia, India, Tibet and Ceylon are believed to have practiced group marriage.
4) Levirate Marriage, custom or law decreeing that a widowshould, or in rare cases must,
marry her dead husband‟s brother. The “brother” may be a biological sibling of the
deceased or a person who is socially classified as such. Where the brother is required to be
younger than the deceased, the custom is called the junior levirate. The levirate often co-
occurs with the sororate, a practice inwhich a widower should or must marry his dead wife‟s
sister.
5) Sororate Marriage, custom or law decreeing that a widower should, or in rare cases
must, marry his deceased wife‟s sister. The “sister” may be a biological or adopted sibling
of the first wife or aperson who is socially classified as such. The sororate often co- occurs
with the levirate, or marriage of a widow to her deceased husband‟s brother.
 6) Hypergamy Marriage
In a hypergamous marriage a woman preferably marries a superior or marries an equal; a
man should not marry a woman of higher status than himself. Though hypergamy is
prevalent in India it is not universal.
7) Hypogamy Marriage: Hypogamy is the act of marrying someone of a lower social and
economic class than your own. Hypogamy has been found to be practiced more by men
than by women. For men power and controlis the one of the strongest attainments and what
often leads them topursue a hypogamous relationship.

RULES OR MARRIAGE RESTRICTIONS

Marriage is not a mere license to live as spouses. It provides the basis of social structure and
involves social, mutual and individual obligations. Marriage bonds are, therefore, in every
society strictly disciplined by exogamous and endogamous restrictions. Marriage is made
possible under the conditions that society deems fit. The restrictions differ from society to
society; so also differ from time to time. The conditions have been laid and changed also in the
interest of harmony and betterment. Endogamy and exogamy are the two main rules of marriage
that conditionmarital choice.

1) ENDOGAMY OR ENDOGAMOUS MARRIAGE:

Endogamy is the form of marriage in which one must marry withinone‟s own caste or other
group. This rule does not permit marriage of close kin. These endogamous groups
specifically refer to tribe, caste, sub-caste, and varna endogamy.
i. Tribal or Divisional Endogamy: This is the endogamy in which no individual can
marry outside his own tribe or division. Like caste, a tribe is also an endogamous
unit.
ii. Caste Endogamy: This form of caste endogamy, it prohibits the members of a caste
to marry outside their own caste.
iii. Sub-caste endogamy: This is the type of endogamy in which choice for marriage is
restricted to the sub-caste.
 iv. Varna Endogamy: Varna endogamy prescribes marriages between the members of
the same Varna. Marriage between the members of the same varan was regarded as
proper andidea
2) EXOGAMY OR EXOGAMOUS MARRIAGE:
Exogamy refers to the rule that a man must marry someone outsidehis own group. It
prohibits marrying within-group such as gotra, pravara, sapinda and village.
i. Gotra Exogamy: Gotra refers to the clan. Members of a particular gotra orclan are
supposed to have close blood relations among themselves. Hence the Hindu practice of
one marrying outside one‟s own „gotra‟ is gotra exogamy.
ii. Pravara Exogamy: Pravara means siblings. People originating from a common saint are
said to belong to a particular Pravara.According to Pravara exogamy, one has to marry
outsideone‟s own pravara. Marriage within pravara is forbidden.
iii. Sapinda Exogamy: Sapinda means-lineage. People belonging to five generations from
the father side and three or seven generations from the mother side are known as
sapindas.They believed to belong to a particular pinda. Hence according to sapinda
exogamy marriage within one‟s own sapinda is forbidden. They are supposed to marry
outside one‟s own sapinda.
iv. Village Exogamy: According to this principle marriage within one‟s own village is
forbidden each and every society prescribes certain rules relating to marriage. Some
societies put several restrictions on marriage among kins whereas some other societies
allow marriage between a limited number of kins.

CHANGES OCCURRING IN THE MARRIAGE PATTERNS

1) Changes in the Forms of Marriage:

Though in the traditional Hindu society, monogamy was the prime form of marriage yet
polyandry, polygamy, bigamy and marriage byexchange were quite popular. Now over time
polygamy, polyandryand exchange marriages have severely declined and monogamy is
being followed by most people of Indian society.
2) Change in the Aim and Purpose of marriage:
The traditional Hindu marriage considers “dharma” as for the performance of religious
duties. Earlier the marriages were to perform the sacred duties and functions. The prime
function was tobecome kins and protectors of the family. With the advent of a variety of
factors like mass media, consumerism, globalization the sacred types of relations are
turning fade. The aims and purposes have changed their meaning from respect, faithfulness,
sincerity to less respect, greed and unfaithfulness etc.
3) Change in Process of Mate Selection:
 In olden times, parents usually selected the spouse and there was hardly any say of the girl.
There are numerous stories and stocks which support that parents used to marry their
daughters accordingto their own will.
4) Change in the Age at Marriage: Legally, the age for a girl‟s marriage is 18 years and
boys 21 years.Further due to the arrival of professional education, children are busy in
studies for a longer time and hence marriages get delayed in25-30 years.
5) Change in the stability of Marriage (Increase in Divorce Rates):In the olden times, an
institution of marriage was quite stable and hardly any divorce was noted. Fear of kinship
system, strong social codes, never allowed married couples to break up marriages even if
they want to live together or not.
6) Change in the field of selection (Increasing number of Inter- caste Marriage): Until
sometime back, marrying a person belonging to some other caste or religion was not
permitted by the families.
7) Change in Economic Aspects of Marriages: Marriage is often held in cities as a social
or a civil ceremony than a religious ceremony. The concept of Indian weddings has seen
drastic changes, over the last few years. In the past, the ceremony was a family affair,
confined to an economic budget, even though the guest list was long.

HINDU MARRIAGE
From the days of Grihas Sutra, Dharma Sutra and Smritis the forms of marriage are said to be
eight. But according to historical point of view there were more prevalent forms than eight. It is
believed that the other forms of marriage, apart from the eight forms of marriage as ordained by
the sastrakaras, were based on custom and convenience of 18 people. N.C. Sengupta believes
that inferior forms of marriage might have been adopted in the Aryan society form non-Aryan
sources. However, the smriti recognized eight modes of obtaining a maiden as one‟s wife and
these have come to be known in Hindu law as the eight forms ofmarriage.

RITES AND RITUALS OF HINDU MARRIAGE

1) Samskara: Cosmic rituals constitute an important part of Vedic practices/the Hindu
religion. Rituals were designed to builda solid foundation for Dharmic living. They are
known as Samskaras. Their purpose is to spread awareness and uplift social
consciousness.
2) Kanyadana: The Kanyadana ceremony is performed by the bride's father. If the father
has died, a guardian of the bride's choosing performs the ritual. The father brings the
daughter, then takes the bride's hand and places it in the grooms. This marks the
beginning of the ceremony of giving awaythe bride. The groom accepts the bride's
hand, while the kama-sukta (hymn to love) is pronounced, in thepresence of the father,
the bride and the groom.
3) Panigrahana: The ritual of Panigrahana comes after Kanyadana. It is sometimes
preceded by the vivaha-homa rite, wherein a symbolic fire is lit by the groom to mark the
start of a new household. Panigrahana is the 'holding the hand' ritual as a symbol of
the bride and groom's impending marital union, with the groom acknowledging a
responsibility to four deities: Bhaga signifying wealth, Aryama signifying
heavens/milky way, Savita signifying radiance/new beginning, and Purandhi
signifying wisdom.
4) Vakdaanam: This step is a part of Kanya Varanam, where the groom-to- be
(brahmachari) sends two elders on his behalf to the father of a girl whom he wishes to
marry. The elders conveythe message of the brahmachari and ask for the daughter's hand.
5) Mangalya Dharanam: There is no Veda Mantram for tying the mangalasutram
(auspicious thread) around the neck of the bride by the groom.
6) Saptapadi: The long form of Saptapadi starts with a preface announcedby the priest,
introducing a series of vows the groom and bride make to each other, as follows. With the
completion ofthe seventh step the two become husband and wife.

Manu‟s description of the eight forms of marriage is given below:

1) Brahma form of marriage: Brahma form of marriage is said to be the best and mostly
practiced throughout India. It is considered an advanced stage of social progress.Manu, the
Hindu law-giver, laid so much importance on this form of marriage that he placed it even
above divine marriage. Manu describedthis Brahma form of marriage as “the gift of a
maiden spontaneously after clothing and reverencing her, to one learned in the Vedas and
of good character,”
2) Daiva form of Marriage: The Daiva form of marriage was slightly different from the
Brahmaform of marriage in the sense that the suitor was an official priest. Special qualities
like good character, scholarship in the Vedas or good family background of the bridegroom
were not emphasized in selection.“The rite which sages call „Daiva‟ is the gift of a daughter
whom her father has decked in gay attire when the sacrifice is already begin, to the
officiating priest, who performs the act of religion.
3) Arsha form of Marriage: “When the father gives his daughter away after having received
from thebridegroom one pair of kine, or two pairs for uses prescribed by law, thatmarriage
is termed Arsha”. This form of marriage is called Arsha because it was current mostly in
the priestly families as its very name suggests. In this form of marriage, the pair of kine, or
two pairs, constitute the price of the bride.
4) Prajapatya form Marriage: In this form of marriage, the father gives away his daughter
with due honour saying, distinctly: “May both of you perform together your civiland
religious duties “You two be the partners for performing religious and secular duties. The
 very name Prajapatya indicates that the pair enters the solemn bond for repayment of debts
or rinas to Prajapati for procreation and upbringing of children.
5) Asura form of Marriage: In the Asura form of marriage, the bride was given to the
husband in payment of a consideration called „sulka” or bride-price. When the bridegroom,
having given its much wealth as he can afford to the fatheror paternal kinsmen and to the
damsel herself, takes her voluntarily as his bride „ it Is called the Asura Marriage.
6) Gandharva form of marriage: The Gandharva form of marriage is the union of a man
and a woman by mutual consent. According to Manu “The voluntary connection of a
maiden and a man is to be known as a Gandharva union which arises from lust”. Thus “the
reciprocal connection of a youth and a damsel with mutual desire is the marriage
denominated “Gandharva”, contractual for the purpose of amorous embraces and
proceeding from sensual inclination.”
7) Rakshasa form of marriage: In simple terms the „Rakshasa‟ form of marriage may be
described as marriage by capture, resembling the right of a victor to the person of thecaptive
in war. Manu holds, “The seizure of a maiden by force from herhouse while she weeps and
calls for assistance, after her kinsmen and friends have been slain in battle or wounded, and
their houses broken open, is the marriage styled Rakshasa”.
8) ‘Paishacha’ form of marriage: It is the worst form of marriage among the Hindus. When
the lover secretly embraces the damsel, either sleeping of flushed with strong liqueur, or
disordered in her intellect, that sinful marriage, called paishacha is the eighth and the lowest
form. This form of marriage wasthe most abominable and reprehensible, originating from
a sort of rapecommitted by man upon a damsel either when asleep or when made drunk by
administering intoxicating drug.

Muslim Marriage

Muslim Marriage or Nikah is held as a legal civil contract between a manand a woman
carried out on the basis of ijab-o-qabool. Ijab is a proposalfrom one party and Qubool is
acceptance from other. According to Sharia law, this contract is considered as integral to a
religiously valid Islamic marriage that legalises sexual relation between man and woman to
produce children. The contract is never permanent and can be broken at the will of husband
and wife.
Key features of Muslim Marriage: -
 Marriage in Islam is not considered as sacrament (sacred) but a social contract of
obligation between a man and woman to live together and to procreate children.
 This contract is legitimate only when there are two male or one male & two female
witnesses and accepted by both the parties in single sitting.
 This contract is not permanent. Couple are not assumed to live together till death. The
contract can be broken by seeking divorce by the either party.
  The husband has to pay „Mahr‟ a payment to the bride before entering ina contract
which she can spend as per her will.
Types of Marriages in Muslims
There are four types of marriages practiced by Muslims as follows:
1) Sahih Marriage: This is the valid form of marriage as per the Sharia Law. The children
born from this marriage are legitimate. It is obligatory for husband to payMahr as a dower
his wife. The wife is entitled to get maintenance from her husband. The husband has rights
to prohibit his wife movements underthis marriage.
2) Fasid Marriage: This marriage is an irregular marriage as the two parties fails to fulfil the
prerequisite norms required for the valid marriage. Irregularities like marriage without
witness, marriage with fifth wife etc.
3) Muta Marriage {temporary marriage}: This marriage is carried out under a contract for
temporary period. It is legitimate in Shia Muslims only. Shia Muslims practice such
marriage with a woman from Mahomedan, Jewish, Christian religion.
4) Batil marriage: This type of marriage is completely unlawful according to Muslim law
because the marriage takes place through forced consent of woman and other prohibited
grounds. The offspring from such marriage is illegitimate.
Divorce in Muslim marriage
Muslim marriage is not a permanent, husband and wife both can end theirmarriage by
dissolution of contract through divorce. There are six types of divorce in Muslims, where
a man and a woman both can seek for divorce.
1) Talaq: It is the simplest way to end the marriage where the husband simply has to
say Talaq thrice in order to discard his wife whenever he chooses to doso for any
reasons good, bad or no reason.
2) Talaq bu Tafweez: This type of divorce is given by the wife to her husband by virtue
of the power delegated to her husband at the time of marriage or even thereafter.
3) Kula: Here the divorce is held by request of the wife in which she has a right tobuy
her release from marriage from her husband. She has to return the Mahr if she
dissolves the marriage through „Kula‟ divorce otherwise she can keep the Mahr.
4) Mubaraat: Divorce is held through the mutual consent of both husband and wife
where they together decide to separate from the marriage agreement.
5) Illah: Here the husband swears to God for not having sexual relation with his wife
for 4 months and fulfilling the said condition leads to divorce whichis irrevocable.
6) Zibar: It is a mode of divorce in which the husband intentionally compares his wife
with his mother or any other female within prohibited degree to endthe marriage.
 7) Lian: Here, the wife files a suit for dissolution of marriage for the false chargesof
adultery on her by her husband.
Conclusion:
Marriage is customary in nearly every known society. The fact that it exists nearly
everywhere does not mean marriage takes the same form oris recognized in similar ways.
Marriage is a socially legitimate sexual union, begun with a public announcement and
undertaken with some idea of permanence; it is assumed with a more or less explicit
marriage contract which spells out reciprocal rights and obligations between spouses, and
between the spouses and their future children.

FAMILY
INTRODUCTION:
Family is one of the most important social institutions. It is the very basic unit of the social
structure in any society. It is a universal social institution and has existed throughout the history
of human society in some form or the other. This is as true among simple societies as within the
complex modern societies. However, it varies in its internal organisation, in its degree of
autonomy and in the sanctions and taboos by which it is protected and perpetuated.
It is the simplest and most elementary group found in a society. It is a social group consisting of
a father, mother and one or more children. It is the most immediate group a child is exposed to.
In fact, it is the most enduring group, which has tremendous influence on the life of an
individual, from birth until death. It also accounts for the most enduring social relationship
found in society. Family has been defined by different social scientists.

MEANING AND DEFINTION

 Maclver: Family is a group defined by sexual relationship, sufficiently precise and
enduring to provide for the procreation and upbringing of children.‟
 Robert Bierstedt: The family, almost without question, is the most important of any groups
that human experience offers … the family … is with us always, or more precisely, we are
with it.‟
The word “Family” has come from the Latin word Tumulus” which means a servant. In Roman
law, the word denoted a group of producers and slaves and other servants as well as members
connected by common descent or marriage. Thus originally, family consisted of a man and a
woman with a child or children and servants.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A FAMILY
1) Marital relationship: A family comes into existence when a man and a woman establish
 mating relation between them through the institution of marriage in order to satisfy their
sexual desire. When the marital relations breakup, the family disintegrates.
2) Forms of Marriage: Various form of marriage like monogamy, polygamy, polygynous or
group marriage may take place to establish mating relationship between man and woman.
Partners may be selected by parents or by the elders, or choice may be left to the wishes of
the individual concerned.
3) A system of nomenclature: Every family is known by a name and has its own system of
reckoning descent. Descent may be reckoned through the male line or through the female
line. When a descent is reckoned through the father, it is called patriliny. When it is
reckoned through the mother it is called matriliny. When descent is traced through both the
lines it is called biliny.
4) An Economic provision: Every family needs an economic provision to satisfy the
economic needs of its members. So the head of the family and other members of family
carry on certain profession or business to earn money in order to maintain family.
5) A common habitation: A family requires a home for the living of family members.
Without a dwelling place the task of child bearing and child rearing can‟t be adequately
performed. The family thus a biological unit implying institionalised sex relationship
between husband and wife. It results from the physiological union of two married persons
who creates the other members of the unit. It is both an association and institution.

FUNCTIONS OF THE FAMILY

The family has been an indispensable unit of every society. Based on this, the family as a social
institution performs a number of pertinent functions for society. These functions which are
inevitable for the continued survival of society justify its existence. They are as follows:

1) Sexual Regulation
The family provides the only socially approved means for the satisfaction of man‟s
sexual desire. This is true as no society allows its members to engage in random sexual
behaviour. The family in a nutshell helps to regulate or control undesired sexual
activities.

2) The Reproductive Function

The reproductive function guarantees the continued existence of human beings in the
world. When a man and a woman marry, they will definitely start a new family and in the
process reproduce children that would take after them. Basically, all societies in the globe
need to replace their members especially as many grow old and die.
3) Educational Function
The institution of the family provides the children the educational tools they desire.
Before the advent of Europeans and the introduction of formal education, the family
inculcated in the children the basic societal norms that shaped their behaviour in the
society. In all ramifications, the family educates the people which has positive influence
on the society in general.

4) Protective Function: The family provides protective function to the people. Its members
are physically, emotionally, psychologically and economically protected. There is always
mutual respect and understanding among family members as attack or even assault on a
family member automatically is seen as an assault to every member of the family.

5) Status Placement Function: The initial status of a child is determined by his family. A
child born in a family automatically enters into the status of the parents. The institution of
the family is the first point of contact of a child. It is from the classification of parents
that we start out in life which may possibly be changed later. The family always acts as a
springboard towards the development and growth of a child. For instance, most ascribed
and achieved statuses are always inherited from the family. In any society that is
stratified according to class, the class status of a child‟s family greatly determines the
opportunities and rewards available to that child, and this head-start substantially
determines his entire life chance including his adult status.

6) Socialization: Every society has its norms, values, customs and approved behavioural
codes of conduct which is passed on from generation to generation. The family performs
the function of socialization, teaching the young ones the values and norms of the society.
Indeed the earliest and continuous form of education and socialization takes place within
the family.

7) Legitimizing Inheritance: The family often confers inheritance rights on the members.
It does this by identifying relationships through kinship. In most Nigerian communities,
except one is able to trace relationship to a family, he or she could be denied of land
rights.

8) Social placement: As earlier mentioned, the family is the basic unit of identity for every
individual. An individual acquires his identity and place in society through his family.
The family ascribes many statuses to its members such as; race, ethnic affiliation,
nationality, religion, royalty etc.
TYPES OR FORMS OF FAMILY:

1) Based on Birth:

 Family of Orientation: The family in which an individual is born is his family of

orientation.

 Family of Procreation: The family where an individual sets up after his/her

marriage is his/her family of procreation.

The family of orientation and procreation may live together under the same roof, but can
still be distinguished.

2) Based on Marriage:

 Monogamous Family: This family consists of one husband and wife, including
children and is based on monogamous marriages.

 Polygynous Family: A family consisting of one husband, and more than one wife,
and all the children born to all the wives or adopted by each of them. This type of
family has its basis in the polygynous form of marriage.

 Polyandrous Family:A family made up of one wife and more than one husband,
and the children, either born or adopted with each one of them. This family is
based on polyandrous marriage.

3) Based on Residence:

 Family of Matrilocal Residence: When a couple stays in the wife‟s house, the
family is known as family of matrilocal residence.

 Family of Patrilocal Residence: When a family stays in the house of husband, the
family is known as family of patrilocal residence.

 Family of Changing Residence: When a family stays in the husband‟s house for
some time, and moves to wife‟s house, stays there for a period of time, and then
moves back to husband‟s parents, or starts living in another place, the family is
called a family of changing residence.
  Family of Neolocal Residence: Neolocal residence is a type of post-marital
residence in which a newly married couple resides separately from both the
husband's natal household and the wife's natal household.

4) Based on Ancestry or Descent:

 Matrilineal Family: When ancestry or descent is traced through the female line, or
through the mother‟s side, the family is called matrilineal family.

 Patrilineal Family:A family in which the authority is carried down the male line,
and descent is traced through the male line or the father‟s side, is called a
patrilineal family.

5) Based on Authority:

 Matriarchal Family: Matriarchal families are generally found in matrilineal

societies. In these families, a woman is the head of the family, and authority is
vested in her. Succession of property is through the female line, i.e., only daughters
inherit the property. After marriage, the husband resides in the wife‟s house and
descent is traced through the mother‟s side. Here, children are brought up in
mother‟s house. Thus, in matriarchal societies, the matrilocal system exists.
Matriarchal families are found only in matrilineal societies, which are very limited
in number all over the world. They are found in parts of Latin America, Ceylon,
parts of Africa and India (the Khasis and the Garos).

 Patriarchal Family: Patriarchal families are commonly found in all parts of the
world, since most societies in the world are patrilineal societies. In patriarchal
families, the head of the family is a male, and authority is vested in him. Descent
and property is passed through the male line and children are brought up in father‟s
house. Such families are patrilocal in nature.

6) Based on the Nature of Relations:

 Conjugal Family: The conjugal family is made up of adults among whom there is a
sexual relationship. It refers to a family system of spouses and their dependent
children. The emphasis is placed on the marital relationship that exists between
spouses. In modern times, the term „conjugal family‟ is being used for partners,
who have a long- term sexual relationship, but are not actually married.
  Consanguine Family: A consanguine family is made up of members among whom
a blood relation exists, or those who are consanguineal kin, i.e., a family consisting
of parent(s) and children, or siblings (brothers, sisters, or brothers and sisters).

7) Based on state or structure:

 Nuclear Family: A nuclear family is a small group consisting of a husband, a wife

and children, natural or adopted. It is more or less an autonomous unit that is not
under the control of adults or elders of the family. It consists of two generations
only. In all modern societies, nuclear family is the most common type of family. In
fact, nuclear family is both the consequence as well as the cause of the
disintegration of joint family.

 Joint Family: A joint family consists of three generation, living together under the
same roof, sharing the same kitchen and purse or economic expenses. It is a family
consisting of three nuclear families living together. According to Iravati Karve, a
joint family is „a group of people, who generally live under the same roof, who eat
food cooked at one hearth, who hold property in common, and who participate in
common family worship and are related to each other as some particular type of
kindered.‟

 Extended Family: An extended family can include a wide array of relationships.

There can be genealogical connections between affinal relations (e.g., in-laws,
adoptive or foster families, aunts/uncles), consanguineous relations (e.g., cousins,
half-siblings), “fictive kin” (those perceived as extended family members, though
they are not related by blood or law, e.g., godparents, best friends), or sundry other
relations (e.g., stepparents or stepsiblings in blended/reconstituted families).

THE NUCLEAR FAMILY

MEANING AND DEFINITION

According to IP Desai ("Nuclear family is a family in which the members are not related to
their other Kin though or by Property or income or the rights and obligations pertaining to them
as are expected and related by kinship.")
Based on the above definitions we can say that husband, wife and their unmarried children are
found in the central family. When the children get married, they start living in a separate family.
These families are united on the basis of marriage. They are also quite small in size only eight
types of relationships are included in this type of family. This kind of family after the marriage,
the newlyweds move to a new place and settle down. They do not live with their parents it can
also be called a reproductive family.

The Structure of Nuclear Family

The nuclear family depends very much on incest taboos; The members of the family cannot
have marriage from among themselves. Hence it is confined to two generations only. A third
generation can be established by the formation of new families. This can be done by an
exchange of males and females between existing nuclear families. It means daughters can be
given in marriage to other nuclear families and girls of the other nuclear families can be taken in
as spouses to the sons. This gives rise to two kinds of nuclear families:-
a) The family of orientation, and
b) The family of procreation
Every normal adult in every human society belongs to two nuclear families. The first is the
family of orientation in which the person was born and brought up, and which includes his
father, mother, brothers and sisters. The second is the family of procreation which the person
establishes by his marriage and which includes the husband or wife, the sons and daughters.
The structure of the nuclear family is not the same everywhere.

Bottomore makes a distinction between two kinds of family system: -

a) The family systems in which the nuclear family is relatively independent
b) The family systems in which the nuclear family is incorporated in, or subordinated to,
a larger group, that is to the polygamous or the extended family. The independent
nuclear family is more often incorporated in some larger composite family structure.

Functions Of Modern Nuclear Family

Nuclear family continues stay because of the essential functions that is performed even today.
Those essential functions are explained below.
1) Stable Satisfaction of Sex Need: The modern nuclear family continues to be the exe means
of providing sexual satisfaction to its members. No other agency has been able to take up
task to the satisfaction of the members. The family does this task through its agent- the
marriage though pre-marital sex relations are on the increase especially in the West, they
are still treats deviant trends or stray instances.
2) Procreation and Upbringing of Children: The modern family still fulfils the functions
procreating and upbringing of children. The family is regarded as the "proper" authority to
prod children and to bring them up. Even today most of the children are born and brought
up in the family only Family alone is well equipped to produce and bring up children. This
function has been cited with family since centuries. It continues to be the biological group
for procreation and for physical care of the children.
 3) Socialization of Children: The modern family still remains as the main architect of
socialization the new born child. The child develops a 'self and a personality of its own
mainly in its form Most of the social norms, values and ideals are picked up by the child in
the family only. Parents showing more interest now-a-days giving proper social training to
their children.
4) Provision of Home; The modern family provides for its members house to live in. Due
economic and other exigencies, family members may go out for some time but they spend
much of their time in the home itself. It is a happy place to live in both for parents and their
children. It still continues to be the noblest centre of human affection, love and sympathy.
Other agencies such as hotels, hostels, lodging houses, etc., may provide shelter to the
members, but not the needed love and affection. Only the home can provide permanent
homely atmosphere for its members.
Merits of Nuclear Family
It has several benefits which are described below:
1) Higher Status of Women - The Status of Women in Central Family This is because of the
fact that women are now more educated than men in the economic sector- Raises the
economy. In today's world of child and boy parenting it doesn't matter. They both deal with
their confidence as they choose to embark on their play activities the number of divisions
is one or two. As a result, both are given equal status. like this Women have a higher status
in the central family.
2) Higher Standard of Living - Central families usually employ both men and women so that
there is no shortage of money in the family. One can easily buy all the things of one's
comfort. When a person has all the comforts and conveniences available, the standard of
living automatically rises.
3) Mental Satisfaction - Men and women in the central family are completely mentally
satisfied. Living alone makes them fully aware of each other's nature. In this way they can
do everything openly with each other which they cannot do in a joint family. This keeps
the mutual love and sympathy between them.
4) Development of Personality: family one is free to live his life. There is no obligation on
him to take up the family profession, whatever he may do. His personal ability is
paramount. One can achieve social status with one‟s personal ability. Parents also begin to
consider the child‟s ideals as their own.
5) Feeling of Co-operation - Feeling of co-operation is more prevalent in central families.
Parents and all children are directly and personally connected to each other. One of the
reasons for this is lack of other relatives like uncles and aunts. In the past, in joint families,
there was a lot of interference from other relatives, so the husband and wife kept fighting
among themselves. But there is no such problem in the central family and there is a strong
 sense of cooperation among the members.
6) Limited State -The number of members in the central family is limited to three or four
Occurs. Because of this, each member gets a place in the house according to his need. To
children there is a separate living room.
Demerits of Nuclear family
The central family has some disadvantages which are described as follows:
1) Obstacles in household chores - Due to the small number of members in the central family,
if one of the men and women falls ill, then in that case the chores in the household is
interrupted.
2) Unemployed person's livelihood impossible - Unemployed person cannot live in a central
family. If the woman is illiterate and the husband dies then the house is somehow
destroyed.
3) Disintegration of families- In earlier times, women depended on men. But by reading and
writing, when she started working, she started equalizing man in every field are lying. Man
does not tolerate all this. Because of this woman also abuses man Does not want to endure
Such a situation increases the divorce rate.

JOINT FAMILY
Meaning and Definitions
According to IP Desai,” We call that house hold a joint family which has greater generation
depth than the nuclear family and the member of which are related to one another by property,
income and mutual rights and obligations”
Thus, looking at these definitions we can say that there are many generations of people living in
a joint family. They all live in the same house and eat bread made in the same kitchen. In a joint
family the power of the house is in the hands of the men of the house due to which the status of
women in the house is also low. The property of the house is in the hands of the elders but all
the members have equal rights in it. Each member is given a job according to his / her ability
and he / she fulfills his / her duty as per his / her duty.

Characteristics of a joint family

3) Large in size - The joint family is quite large in size. It is home to parents as well as their
siblings, sons, daughters, grandchildren and great-grandchildren. In addition, the children's
grandparents live together. Thus a joint family consists of members of at least three
generations. Members of several generations in a joint family who belong to the father's
lineage live together in the same house. As a result, it is larger in size.
4) Common property - In a joint family the property is owned by all the members of the
 family. Each member contributes to the property to the best of his ability. The owner of the
property takes care of all the property. The ownership of the property is the same for all
the members and the head of the family takes care of it.
5) Feeling of cooperation - In this type of family all the patience of the family helps each
other. Whether they do more or less, they do not fight among themselves. They all work
for a common goal i.e. the welfare of the family.
6) Division of labor - The work of the members of a joint family is divided among themselves
and the men take care of the work outside the home. The doer's place is at the top and then
of his wife. The position of the widow is very low. Each member's position is different and
he has to play his role or work according to his position.
7) Head in joint family - Karta plays a major role in joint family. The oldest person in the
family is the doer of the family. All-important family decisions are made by him. He also
looks after the family's shared property. All members of the family obey him. After Karta's
death, his eldest son takes care of the family.
8) Low status of women - The status of women in a joint family is very low. The main work
of women is limited to having children or taking care of the kitchen. Husbands and wives
cannot live together during the day. There is always a fight between the bride and the
mother-in-law. A woman can neither get a divorce nor separate. His life becomes
suffocating. The widow's condition is even worse. Thus the status of women in joint
families is low.
9) Common kitchen - Another important feature of a joint family is that all its members share
a common kitchen. This means that their food is made in one place and they sit together
and eat it. They also share their thoughts while eating and this keeps their mutual love alive.
8. Common residence - Another important feature of a joint family is the common
residence of the family. All members of the family live under one roof. If the residence of
the family members is separated then the family will not be united as is the case with central
families.
10) Security of members - Another feature of a joint family is that all its members work.
Everyone has an equal right to property. Therefore, if a member falls ill, other members of
the family take care of him. After the death of a member, his wife and children are taken
care of. Unemployed members also get protection. That way, all members are completely
safe.
11) Continuity of culture - In a joint family, the doer has authority over the family
members. Members of several generations live together in a joint family, which maintains
a cultural continuity. It is passed down from father to son and then from son to son. In this
way the cultural values of the family remain the same due to the continuity of the culture.
There is a pressure on every member of the family to follow the cultural rules.
Merits or Functions of Joint Family
1) Security of culture - All activities are carried out in accordance with social traditions,
customs and customs under the supervision of divisions in joint families. Due to this many
elements of culture get permanent form. In addition, the joint family helps maintain the
continuity of the culture. People of at least three generations live in it. The previous
generation passed on the culture to the next generation without any change. India was ruled
by many foreigners but the joint family has been a major contributor to the preservation of
Hindu culture.
2) Social Security - A joint family provides protection to its members in difficult times like
death, accident, unemployment etc. It's like an insurance company. It supports the elderly
and widows. Socialize children. Here the children are brought up in the care of the division.
Mentally and physically weak people are taken care of. The joint family provides full
support during illness. After the death of a person, his wife and children are taken care of.
In this way the joint family provides security to its members.
3) Taking care of children – joint family in the full development of children plays a very
important role. Living here allows the child generosity, service, cooperation, love learns
emotions like believing. From an early age children learn to live for others. Children are
fully monitored. Adult knowledge is very useful for children. Like this every member of
the family is interested in raising children.
4) Social control - The family has the most important place as an institution of informal
control. The head of the family rules the family. No one can avoid what he said. Each
member of a joint family is dependent on the family for their needs. Therefore, he cannot
violate the dignity of the family. The mutual relations and love of the members prevent the
member from going against each other. Family members have strict control over the little
ones. Thus, the joint family is a very important tool of social control.
5) Center of recreation - The joint family provides great entertainment to its members.
Festivals and other occasions are celebrated by all the members together. This
entertainment is special because all the members provide entertainment according to their
age.

Demerits of joint family

1) Low status of women - The joint family usually occurs in societies. Women are limited to
having children and taking care of the house the wife's relationship is limited to the
fulfillment of sexual desires. During the day when they were not together there is always a
fight between the bride and the mother-in-law. A woman can neither divorce nor separate
can this is because they are financially dependent on the husband. In this way the status of
 women in the family is very low.
2) Carelessness - In a joint family, when everyone knows whether they want to work or not,
they have to get bread. In this situation some family members work harder and some prefer
to be idle. They find happiness in not working. In this situation some members end their
lives to take care of the whole family and some waste their time drinking in idleness.
3) Conflicts - There are a lot of fights in a joint family. Sometimes it happens that one brother
becomes another enemy and does not even hesitate to kill him for property. The peace of
home is destroyed.
4) More children - The responsibility of raising and educating children is shared in a joint
family. So, no one pays attention to the control of procreation. The situation is similar for
those with fewer children and those with more children. The children of both get the same
food, drink and clothing. Thus, family planning or making more money does not directly
benefit anyone. So, they steal from work and produce more children.
5) Poverty - the plight of women in poverty, autocracy, lack of responsibility and as a result
of having more children, the economic condition of the joint family becomes thinner. With
strife if the land or property is divided then the situation gets worse. Family property of all
No one pays attention to it because it is a common property and sometimes, we have to
face days of starvation.

Changing Patterns in the Trends of Family

There is nothing in this world that has not changed since its inception. In the same way the
social institutions in the society which were created to help us are also changing in these social
institutions with the passage of time. In this way many changes have taken place in family name
since its inception. Many changes have taken place in its structure as well as in its functions. If
there were joint families in the earlier period. Now they are turning into central families. There
have also been many changes from the spiritual side and a lot of its work has gone to other
organizations. The description of the changes in the family is as follows:
1) Increasing nuclear families - Traditional rural hope in Indian society where joint families
were found in ancient times. Since the main source of income was agriculture, the family
needed more sons. That is why joint families were found in our society. But over time ---
with the rise of education and the rise of social mobility people started moving to cities.
People left their families and moved to cities and settled in central families. Thus the
structure of the family began to change and the central family began to emerge instead of
the joint family.
2) Changes in economic functions: The family's economic functions a lot has changed. In
ancient times the economic activities of the individual were confined to the family. The
only source of income was the family, such as threshing wheat or grinding flour. The family
 had all the means of subsistence. But over time the society changed and industrialization
started in our societies. The family's economic affairs shifted to industries such as flour is
now ground on mills or cloth is made into larger ones. Thus the family's economic
production work gradually came to an end and the family's financial work passed to other
institutions.
3) Changed in educational functions - In ancient times the task of educating children was
done either in the Gurukul or at home. Even if the child went to the Guru for education, he
was taught only Vedas, Puranas etc. He was not given any education related to his
profession or work and this work was done by his family. Every family had a traditional
occupation and the family knew the qualities associated with that profession. The family
gradually taught their children about the profession and the children completed their
education. But over time, that is likely to change.
4) Decreasing unity of family –Before this people mostly lives in villages and all members
of the family worked for the village. They sacrificed their villages for the watchman's
father. Family members were united. The members obeyed the elders and carried out their
duties well. But over time, that is likely to change. Joint families began to disintegrate and
central Patiala began to emerge. All the members of the family have their own interests
and no family gives up its interests for the sake of interests. Everyone has their own ideals
which is why sometimes they even leave home. At times like this At the same time, there
has been a decline in family unity.
5) Change in social functions – The social functions of the family have also changed a lot.
In ancient times the family played an important role as a means of social control. The
family had complete control over its members. He kept an eye on her good and bad habits
and warned her from time to time to do bad things. The members were also afraid of the
elders of the family which kept them under control. At the same time, however, the family's
control over the individual began to wane and formal means of control emerged, such as
the police, the army, the court, the prison, and so on.
With this, in ancient times, a woman considered her husband to be God and gave him the
record of God. She would give up her will in the face of her husband's wishes. But now the
perception has changed that the wife considers the husband not as God but as her partner
or friend. So that they can solve their problems. Families used to take care of their children
and take care of them till they grow up. But nowadays there are central families and women
are employed which is why the child does not grow up in the family but in the catches. In
this way many of the family's social functions have shifted to other organizations.
6) Change in religious functions In ancient times children were given religious education in
Guru's Ashram and they were taught Vedas, religious texts etc. there but still family taught
them religious education. He also used to give. He was taught religion and ethics. From
time-to-time religious rites etc. were performed in the family which helped the children to
 know something about religion. In this way the children received religious education within
the family. But over time a lot of research has been done, science has progressed and
science sees logic in everything. People began to forget religion after learning science.
People are now beginning to weigh every religious rite on the test of logic as to why and
how it is. Now people do not have time for religious Yagya. Now people can devote only
a little time to religious activities and that too according to their time. Now people celebrate
religious rites like marriage as a social celebration so that more people can be invited.
People spend more and more money on these, which has diminished the importance of
religious beliefs. As a result, the family's religious activities have diminished.

CONCLUSION:
Families were and are the omnipresent entity on which the very existence of society depends.
The biological and psychological difficulties of the family are fulfilled. The family is to a large
extent the center of human activity because. Looking at all the explanation, we can say that
there has been a lot of change in the functioning and structure of the family. Much of the
family's work has been transferred to other organizations. Even though these changes have
come with the passage of time, we can still say that the importance of family in one's life cannot
be replaced by any other institution.

KINSHIP
INTRODUCTION:
Man is a social animal he lives with his kin in the society. Since his birth he is accompanied by
number of people in his life like relatives, neighbors and his friends. But he is bound to people
who are related to him either on the basis of blood, descent or marriage.
The people bind by blood relation or by marriage or adoption is called kinship. In simple words
Kinship is a “bond formed on the basis of descent, blood, marriage or adaptation which binds
people together as a group”. It is universal social institution found in every corner of world.

DEFINITION:
„Kinship is the recognition of relationships between persons based on descent or marriage. If
the relationship between one person and another is considered by them to involve descent, the
two are consanguine (“blood”) relatives. If the relationship has been established through
marriage, it is affinal.‟ – L. Stone

CHARACTERISTICS OF KINSHIP STRUCTURE: -

 1) Changing system: According to Brown kinship systems are made and remade by men
through social processes.
2) Solidarity of the sibling group: Another characteristic of the kinship system is the
solidarity of sibling group.
3) Unity of the sibling group: This refers to the unity of the group in relations to a person
outside it and connected with it by a specific relation to one of its members.
4) Sex as the principle of differentiation: In many kinship systems, sex is an important basis
for differentiation between different members.
5) Seniority as the principle of differentiation: Where seniority is strongly emphasized, a
man may distinguish between the senior brother and the junior brother either in behavior
alone or both in behavior and terminology, but there still remains a common element in the
pattern of behavior towards all brothers.
6) Division into generation: The distinction of generation has its basis in the elementary
family, in the relations of parents and children. A certain generalizing tendency is
discoverable in many kinship systems in the behavior of relatives of different generations.
There is, in fact, a generalized relation of ascendancy and subordination between the two
generations.
7) Combinations of alternate generations: This means that relatives of the grandfather‟s
generation are thought of as combined with those of one‟s own generation over against the
relatives of the parents‟ generation.

TYPES OF KINSHIP:
In any society, kin relationships are based either on birth (blood relations), or marriage. These
two aspects of human life are the basis for the two main types of kinship in society.

i. Consanguineal Kinship: It refers to the relationships based on blood, i.e., the

relationship between parents and children, and between siblings are the most basic and
universal kin relations.

ii. Affinal Kinship: It refers to the relationships formed on the basis of marriage. The most
basic relationship that results from marriage is that between husband and wife.

DEGREE OF KINSHIP:
Any relationship between two individuals is based on the degree of closeness or distance of that
relationship. Kinship basically has three degrees, which can be explained in the following ways:
Primary Kins These kins have very close relation or direct relation between each other. There
are total eight direct primary kin relations form between Father, mother, Husband, wife, son,
daughter, brother and sister.
Secondary Kins Secondary Kins have relation with the primary kins. In other word they are not
the primary kins but are the primary kin of the primary kin.
Tertiary Kins Here the tertiary kins are the secondary kin of our primary kin and the primary
kin of our secondary kin. Like the wife of brother-in-law (sala) is tertiary kin because brother-
in-law is secondary kin and his wife is the primary kin of brother-in-law similarly.

DIMENSIONS OF KINSHIP SYSTEM

There are two important Kinship terms under which kin are designated:
1) Classificatory System: In this system kins are included in one category and referred under
same term. For example, the common term „uncle‟ is used to designate chacha, mausa,
mama, tau (elder father‟s brother) foofa etc. Similarly, the common terms like „nephew‟,‟
cousins‟ or „in-laws‟ are used to designate various kins.
2) Descriptive System: Unlike classificatory system in descriptive system one term is referred
to only one relation. Under this terminology an exact relation between two persons is
highlighted. For example, in English nomenclature the term father and mother are
descriptive terms. Whereas in Hindi there are many descriptive term which depict exact
relation like mama, bhatija, mausa, bhanja, tau, bhabhi, devar, sala, bahnoi, nandoi, etc.

RULE OF DESCENT
The term „Descent‟ in sociology refers to the social recognition of the biological relationship
between the individuals. Whereas, the „rule of descent‟ is a set of principles used by an
individual to trace back his biological relations.
The biological relation can be trace by an individual on the basis of three rules of descent.
 1) Patrilineal Descent: Here, the descent of an individual is traced through the father‟s line.
That means the descent will be traced only from the common male line/ancestor or father‟s
kin group. This is also known as agnatic or patrilineal kin.
2) Matrilineal Descent: Here, the descent of an individual is traced through the mother‟s kin
group or female exclusively. Here female descendants are called uterine or matrilineal kin.
Both of these two rules of tracing the descent are called “unilineal descent rule” as in both
the modes they select one “line” either the male or female.:
3) Bilateral Descent: In this rule, both the lines of male and female descendants are used to
trace the descent of an individual. This rule is extensively used to trace the descent by an
individual than the above two rules as here both male and female lines are considered.

Kinship Groups
In order to seek above benefits it is important to identify the form of descent or of tracing one‟s
relationships. For tracing one‟s relationships it is important to trace the descent line under rules
of descent and for this it is important for an individual to understand Kin groups these are:
1) Family: it is the smallest social unit consisting of group of people living together that have
blood relation among them.
2) Lineage: It is the line of descendants of common ancestors mainly from the unilateral
(Male line or female line) descent group.
3) Clan or Sib: It is also a unilateral descent group who are regard themselves as the
descendent of common ancestor but the common ancestor of a clan is generally a mythical
figure.
4) Phratry: Phratry is composed of two or more clan of a unilateral descent group.
5) Moiety: It is a biggest kinship group which is the half of a social group formed from the
splitting of a society on basis of descent.

KINSHIP USAGES
1) Avoidance: It means that two kins normally of opposite sex should avoid each other. In
almost all societies avoidance rules prescribe that men and women must maintain certain
amount of modesty in speech, dress and gesture in a mixed company. Thus, a father-in-law
should avoid daughter-in-law. The purdah system in Hindu family in the north illustrates
the usage of avoidance.
2) Teknonymy: According to the usage of this usage a kin is not referred directly but is
referred to through another kin. In a traditional Hindu family wife does not directly utter
the name of her husband but refers to her husband as the father of so and so.
 3) Avunculate: It refers to the special relationship that persists in some societies between a
man and his mother's brother. This usage is found in a matriarchal system in which
prominence is given to the maternal uncle in the life of his nephews and nieces.
4) Amitate: The usage of amitate gives special role to the father's sister. Here father's sister
is given more respect than the mother. Among Todas the child gets the name not through
its parents but through the father's sister. Naming the child is her privilege.
5) Couvade: The usage of couvades prevalent among the Khasi and the Todas tribes makes
the husband to lead the life of an invalid along with his wife whenever she gives birth to a
child. He refrains from the active work, takes diet and observes some taboos which are
observed by his wife. According to Malinowski the usage of couvade contributes to a
strong marital bond between the husband and wife.
6) Joking relationship: A joking relationship involves a particular combination of
friendliness and antagonism between individuals and groups in certain social situations. In
these situations one individual or group is allowed to mock or ridicule the other without
offence being taken. The usage of the joking relationship permits to tease and make fun of
the other.

CONCLUSION:
Kinship is one of the main organizing principles of society. It is one of the basic social
institutions found in every society. This institution establishes relationships between individuals
and groups. People in all societies are bound together by various kinds of bonds.

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 ECONOMIC INSTITUTION
INTRODUCTION
From the time of Karl Marx, Max Weber and Emile Durkheim and other sociologists of 19th
and early 20th centuries have had a long and deep interest in economic institutions, especially
as these relate to non-economic aspects of social life such as the family, education and the state.

These institutions include production agriculture and industry and the distribution, exchange
and consumption of commodities, goods and services necessary for human survival. Secondary
economic institutions are credit and banking system, advertising, co-operatives, etc.

DEFINITION
The term „economic institutions‟ is usually used for socially sanctioned such concepts and
structures which men have developed in the process of satisfying their material needs.
Economic institutions provide basic physical subsistence for society and meet needs for food,
shelter, clothing and other necessities of life.

What are Economic systems?

An economic system is a societal structure for the production and exchange of goods and
services, as well as the distribution of resources. Property ownership is an important component
of economic structure since it determines who owns and controls the means of production.

During the Industrial Revolution, there were three primary economic systems:
1. Capitalism: It is a type of economic system that promotes individual ownership and
competition. Private individuals or organizations will control the money and production,
and the primary purpose will be to make a profit via commerce. Everyone has the
opportunity to prosper or fail, and only the strongest will survive.
2. Communism: Communism is based on collective ownership and a planned economy in
which the government controls all decisions. Karl Marx established this system in 1848
when he published "The Communist Manifesto." In communism, everyone gets the same
outcomes, no matter how hard or how little they work.
3. Socialism: Socialism falls somewhat between capitalism and communism, where all the
means of production are in the hands of the government but people are not paid equal
wages. They get paid based on several factors like qualification, the difficulty of the job,
 social need, etc. In socialism, high taxes are imposed on the rich to provide more
government services.
The Economy Is The Institution That Provides For:
a. Production
b. Distribution
c. Consumption of goods and services.

As with social institutions such as family, religion and government, the economic system
shapes other aspects of social order and is in turn, influenced by them.

BASIC FUNCTIONS OF ECONOMY:

1) Production:
Production refers to any activity which creates goods or renders services to satisfy human
wants.
Different factors necessary to produce goods are:
i. Natural Resources
ii. Labor
iii. Capital
iv. Technology
v. Entrepreneur
vi. Government

Ultimate end of all production is consumption. Consumption helps the economy to grow.
2) Consumption can be regulated through:
i. Control on production and distribution
ii. Advertising and Education
iii. Legal restrictions by Government
3) Distribution:
Distribution refers to the process by which the gross value of an economic good is
divided among those who have contributed to its production. The one of the major
functions which the economy provides for society is the distribution of goods and
services among different individuals and groups of individuals.
The whole mechanism of distribution includes determination of the pattern of distribution
by kinship, caste or religious affiliation or allocation may be by government control or
through a price system. Wholesale and retail outlets, transportation and communication
facilities all make contributions to the final distribution of the products.
 4) Property (Ownership):Property is essentially part of distributive system. It consists of
the rights and duties of one person or group as against all other persons and groups.

Classification of Economic Institutions:

1) Property Rights: A property right is the only authority to decide how a resource is
utilized, regardless of whether the resource is held by the government or by people. With
state-administered force and social ostracism, society endorses the uses chosen by the
holder of the property right. Some examples of property rights are Land tenure,
inheritance law, patents, copyright, etc.

2) Political Behavior: People need to compete for basic resources everywhere due to their
scarcity. Markets are one method of organizing and channeling competition. Another
example is politics. People utilize both markets and politics to direct resources toward
their preferred goals. Political action, on the other hand, is opposed to voluntary trade in
markets. In a democracy, organizations can do far more in politics than they might in the
commercial sector. Some of them are critical to the overall welfare of the community,
such as the management of health-threatening air pollution from a variety of sources that
affect millions of people, or the provision of national defense.

3) Law and Economics: Economics has made significant contributions to our knowledge of
the law, but the law has also made significant contributions to our understanding of
economics. Courts deal with the realities of economic abstractions like property and
contract regularly. Thus, studying law allows economists to have a better understanding
of some of the principles underpinning economic theory.

4) Free Market: All trades in primitive societies are done through barter or direct
exchange. Two people trade two directly useful things, but as society evolves, a step-by-
step process of mutual benefit results in the selection of one or two generally beneficial
and valued commodities on the market as a medium of indirect exchange.

5) Federal Reserve system: Since its inception in 1913, the Federal Reserve System (the
Fed) has served as the United States' central bank. A central bank's primary function is to
manage the availability of money and credit to the economy.

Role of Economic Institutions in Economic growth:

The work done by these economic institutions can help determine economic growth in the
following ways: -
 1) People with sufficient capital will be more eager to invest if the economic institution
guarantees their property rights. If investing becomes reasonably easy and activities such
as trading, acquiring credit, and maintaining a sufficient part of earnings without
excessive taxation become simpler, a large number of firms or more informal economic
organizations will emerge.
2) Power is the purposeful influence over people‟s ideas, feelings, and behaviors, whereas
authority is the formal power to act. Economic riches confer power and Wealth is a huge
power that allows people to influence many agencies, organizations, and resources.
3) Secure intellectual property rights are expected to encourage private investment in
innovative research and development. Any country's technological situation will benefit
from this.
4) When institutions allow transactions and cooperation between individuals, whether
within formal firms or less formal co-operatives, the economic organization is likely to be
more effective and efficient, offering the benefits of specialization and economies of
scale where they apply.
5) The primary role of economic institutions is to meet the human needs for which they
were created. In this regard, all sectors of the economy play a significant
role. Individuals' economic existence depends heavily on their ability to find work.
Employees' requirements will be met if they are well compensated.

CONCLUSION:
Generally, there are two ways to define economic institutions, depending on the context in
which the term is used. First, it is thought of as an organization, whether public or private, that
engages in the collection and research of economic data or that provides a service or product
deemed economically central to a nation‟s economy.

POLITICAL INSTITUTION
INTRODUCTION
Political institutions in the narrower sense are understood to mean the state with government,
parliament, and administration as well as federal and communal institutions.

In general, democratic political regimes are divided into two types: presidential (headed by a
president) and parliamentary (headed by a parliament). Legislatures built to support the regimes
are unicameral (only one house) or bicameral (two houses—for example, a senate and a house
of representatives or a house of commons and a house of lords).
DEFINITION
Political Institutions are organizations which create, enforce, and apply laws; that mediate
conflict, make (government) policy on the economy and social systems, and otherwise provide
representation for the populous.

CHARACTERISTICS OF POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS

1) Effective participation: One of the functions of contemporary political institutions is to
ensure that citizens to whom they are entitled participate effectively in decisions in
whatever form. This aspect gives legitimacy to every institution.
2) Freedom of expression: Institutions ensure that citizens can express their opinion freely
by any means. However, this freedom is penalized in some countries when freedom of
expression is used to instigate hatred, war, racism Or xenophobia.
3) Alternative Information: Freedom of information is the right of the media to freely
broadcast news without restrictions or threats. The fact of journalistic research seeks to
have informed citizens, a public opinion substantiated and to achieve a more transparent
society.
4) Autonomy to associate: Free association with political, social, professional or any other
purpose is one of the essential conditions that political institutions must guarantee.
As long as they conform to the laws and do not seek to promote profound changes
through violent actions.
5) Citizen inclusion: All actors in society are equal for the laws, no one can be excluded
from their rights by thinking differently. Political institutions ensure the establishment of
a regime that guarantees equality And justice for all the inhabitants.
The characteristics of modern political institutions are closely linked to the notions of
democracy, given that the democratic order is that which provides a society with greater
levels of tolerance and regulation of political life.

TYPES OF POLITICAL SYSTEMS

The political system consists of both politics and government and involves the law, economy,
culture, and other social concepts.

The most popular political systems that we know of around the world can be reduced to a few
simple core concepts. Many additional types of political systems are similar in idea or root, but
most tend to surround concepts of:

i. Democracy: A system of government by the whole population or all the eligible members
of a state, typically through elected representatives.
 ii. Republic: A state in which supreme power is held by the people and their elected
representatives and that has an elected or nominated president rather than a monarch.
iii. Monarchy: A form of government in which one person reigns, typically a king or a
queen. The authority, also known as a crown, is typically inherited.
iv. Communism: A system of government in which the state plans and controls the
economy. Often, an authoritarian party holds power and state controls are imposed.
v. Dictatorship: A form of government where one person makes the main rules and
decisions with absolute power, disregarding input from others.

THE FUNCTION OF A POLITICAL SYSTEM

In 1960, Gabriel Abraham Almond and James Smoot Coleman gathered three core functions of
a political system, which include:

i. To maintain the integration of society by determining norms.

ii. To adapt and change elements of social, economic, and religious systems necessary for
achieving collective (political) goals.
iii. To protect the integrity of the political system from outside threats.

In modern-day society in the United States, for example, the main function of the two core
political parties is seen as a way to represent interest groups and constituents and to create
policies while minimizing choices. Overall, the idea is to make legislative processes easier for
people to understand and engage with.

The two main institutions which play significant role in maintaining social order in
the society are:

a. State
b. Government

The State is one of the most important agencies of social control. Government is an
instrument of State through which it carries out its various policies

ROLE OF STATE AND GOVERNMENT IN SOCIAL CONTROL:

1) Safeguards Fundamental Rights: Freedom of speech, freedom to earn and maintain
property, protection against exploitation etc. are some of the fundamental rights which
are granted to every citizen and state safeguards them.
2) Regulates Family Relations: State fixes up age of marriage, sets conditions for
marriage, and defines rules of succession and mutual rights and duties of all members in a
 family. These rules fix up responsibility of looking after the children, wife and other
member of the family.
3) Welfare Organization: Modern state makes policies to provide basic facilities to
backward classes and tribes. At times one group is exploited by the other in society, and
then it acts as welfare agency.
4) Control by Punishment: State has power to give physical punishment to any criminal.
Fear of punishment often checks the anti-social and illegal activities of the people.
5) Formulates Law: In order to save society from splitting up into small vested interested
groups, the State often formulates such laws as are essential for common welfare of
society and it checks anti-social activities.
6) Spread Education: Most of the states are taking educational set up in their own hands to
spread education to all—poor and rich. Different schemes are framed and scholarships
are given to Backward Classes of Society.
7) Internal and External Protection: With the help of Police, Army and Border Security
Force (BSF) every State provides security against internal and external attacks.
8) Health Protection: State sets up hospitals, maternity and child centers, dispensaries and
health centers to protect its citizens against diseases. It also promotes family planning.
CONCLUSION:
Political institution is the organization which is responsible for formulation and execution of
law. It also works as mediator to resolve conflict and formulate economic and social system
policies. It is responsible for representing the general population. Political institutions have
impact on economy, education, culture and society. Political parties, trade unions, legislature
and judiciary are the examples of political institutions.

RELIGION
INTRODUCTION
For centuries, humankind has sought to understand and explain the “meaning of life.” Many
philosophers believe this contemplation and the desire to understand our place in the universe
are what differentiate humankind from other species. Religion, in one form or another, has been
found in all human societies since human societies first appeared. Archaeological digs have
revealed ancient ritual objects, ceremonial burial sites, and other religious artifacts. Much social
conflict and even wars have resulted from religious disputes. To understand a culture,
sociologists must study its religion.

DEFINITION
 According to H.M. Johnson, “Religion is a more or less coherent system of beliefs and
practices concerning a super-natural order of beings, forces places or other entities.”
  According to Malinowski, “Religion is a mode of action as well as a system of belief
and a sociological phenomenon as well as a personal experience.”

BASIC ELEMENTS OF RELIGION:

According to Anderson and Parker religion mainly consists of four primary components such
as:
1) Belief in Supernatural Power: Every religion believes in some supernatural power i.e.
powers outside of man and the present world. The supernatural powers are believed to
influence human life and conditions.
2) Man’s adjustment to Supernatural Powers: It is another component of religion. As
man is dependent on these supernatural powers hence, he must adjust himself to the
powers. As a result, every religion provides for some external acts or rituals such as
prayer; Kirtans Utterance of hymns etc. Non-performance of these rituals regarded as
sinful.
3) Acts defined as Sinful: It is another component of religion. Every religion defines some
acts as sacred and some other as sinful which supposed to destroy the harmonious
relationships between man and god.
4) Method of Salvation: It is another component of religion. Man needs some method by
which he can attain salvation or Nirvana or by which harmony between man and God
will be re-established by the removal of guilt or bondage. Because every religion consider
salvation as the ultimate aim of life. But besides the above components religion may have
some other components which are as follows.
5) Belief in some sacred things: Every religion believes on some holy or sacred things
which constitute the centre of religion. These sacred or holy things are symbolic. But this
belief based on faith. For example, Cow is sacred for Hindus.
6) Procedure of Worship: It is another component of religion. Every religion has its own
specific procedure of worshipping. The follower of religion worships the supernatural
power either in the form of a statute or in a formless manner.
7) Place of Worship: Every religion has its own definite place of worship in which its
followers offer their prayer to the supernatural power.

COMPONENTS/ ELEMENTS OF RELIGION

Every religion is made up of certain elements. These elements are as follows:
 Beliefs: A belief is a conviction. Religious beliefs refer to the belief in the existence of
supernatural powers, which take the shape of divine beings i.e. God. Different societies
and different religions have different sets of religious beliefs.
 Rituals: Every religion is associated with a set of practices, rites, and rituals, which are
ceremonies or repetitive practices. Religious rituals are prescribed sacred acts.
  Symbols: Every religion uses certain symbols, with which it is usually associated. The
cross denotes Christianity, the Muslim symbol is the crescent moon and star, the Hindus
have the Swastik.
 Organization: Most modern societies have organized religious groups, which are used to
affirm religious beliefs and sentiments.
 Emotions: All religions evoke strong emotions in the believers or followers. Generally,
religious emotions are associated with things that are sacred and close to the hearts of the
believers.

FUNCTIONS/SIGNIFICANCE OF RELIGION
 It gives formal approval to existing social arrangements. In other words, it justifies our
society‟s norms and customs.
 Many social customs and rituals are based on religion. This idea is called legitimating.
 Religion brings a sense of unity. We unite together and take care of each other because of
this. For example: charities, friendships, etc.
 Religious practices appear to have enormous potential to address today‟s social problems,
as it provides a sense of understanding. A reason why we are here and why we
exist.Religious practices acts as control mechanism.
 Religion alone can control human social crime in the name of God and salvation
(Mokshya), that even tons of army force or police troops of state cannot do.

SACRED AND PROFANE

French sociologist, Emile Durkheim extensively studied the functions of religion and was
among the first to distinguish between the „sacred‟ and the „profane‟. According to him all
aspects of human experiences can be divided into these two opposite categories. Let‟s take a
look at these two concepts in more detail.
SACRED
The sacred, for Durkheim, refers to things set apart by man, including religious beliefs, rites,
duties, or anything socially defined as requiring special religious treatment. The sacred has
extra-ordinary, super-natural, and often dangerous qualities and can usually be approached only
through some form of rituals such as prayer, incantation, or ceremonial cleansing. Almost
anything can be sacred: a god, a rock, a cross, the moon, the earth, a king, a tree, an animal or
bird, or a symbol such as a Swastik. These are sacred only because some community has
marked them as sacred. Once established as sacred they become symbols of religious beliefs,
sentiments, and practices.
PROFANE
Profane is anything ordinary. It is a part of the ordinary realm rather than the supernatural
world. The profane or ordinary or unholy embrace those ideas, persons, practices, and things
that are regarded with an everyday attitude of commonness utility, and familiarity. The unholy
or profane is also believed to contaminate the holy or sacred. A rock, the moon, a king, a tree,
or a symbol may also be considered profane. It means something becomes sacred or profane
only when it is socially defined as such by a community of believers.

TYPES OF RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS

Cults, like sects, are new religious groups. In popular usage, this term often carries pejorative
connotations. Today, the term “cult” is used interchangeably with the term new religious
movement.
A sect is a small and relatively new group. Most of the well-known Christian denominations in
North America today began as sects. For example, the Presbyterians and Baptists protested
against their parent Anglican Church in England, just as Henry VIII protested against the
Catholic Church by forming the Anglican Church. From “protest” comes the term Protestant.
A denomination is a large, mainstream religious organization, but it does not claim to be
official or state sponsored. It is one religion among many. For example, The Church of England
in Canada, the Presbyterian Church, the United Church, and Seventh-day Adventist are all
Christian denominations.
The term ecclesia, originally referring to a political assembly of citizens in ancient Athens,
Greece, now refers to a congregation. In sociology, the term is used to refer to a religious group
that most members of a society belong to. It is considered a nationally recognized, or official,
religion that holds a religious monopoly and is closely allied with state and secular powers.
Canada does not have an ecclesia by this standard.

TYPES OF RELIGIONS
CONCLUSION:
Religion, in its most basic form, is a rigorous system of moral ideas and rules that exist in
varied forms in every community. In the context of society, religion‟s role can be understood
through a variety of approaches, all of which give significant assertions. According to
Durkheim, religion is a binding force that determines an individual‟s moral action. Weber
believed that religion has a huge influence on every community and can create societal
transformation. On the contrary, “religion is the opium of the masses,” according to Marx. It is
a stratification mechanism that intensifies society‟s existing disparities.

EDUCATION INSTITUTION
INTRODUCTION:
From the moment a child is born, his or her education begins. At first, education is an informal
process in which an infant watch other and imitates them. As the infant grows into a young
child, the process of education becomes more formal through play dates and preschool. Once in
grade school, academic lessons become the focus of education as a child moves through the
school system. But even then, education is about much more than the simple learning of facts.
Our education system also socializes us to our society. We learn cultural expectations and
norms, which are reinforced by our teachers, our textbooks, and our classmates.
DEFINITION
 Education is the process of training man to fulfill his aim by exercising all the faculties to
the fullest extent as a member of society.-Aristotle
 Education means the bringing out of the ideas of universal validity which are latent in the
mind of every man. - Socrates

CHARACTERISTICS OF EDUCATION
Education is a process of continuous reconstruction of experience. Education exhibits a wide
characteristic among which the most important are:
1) Education is a social process: Education occurs only in social environment and without
it no one can acquire experiences. As we know experience is the most important
ingredient of education and it can only be perceived in social environment, so it is a
social process.
2) Interrelationship of life and education: The different situations and strange incidents
that occur in our life and education, both of them influences our life to a great extent.
Therefore, we can call life is as education and education is as life.
 3) Education is development: Education is directly or indirectly in the all-round
development of child. The aim of education is the development of child to its fullest
extent. So, education is development and development itself life.
4) Education is the root cause of creativity: Education gives new experiences to
individuals and helps them to create new things.
5) Education is the reconstruction of experience: Man acquire different experiences in
different situations. In due course of time some of these were excluded and some were
converted and new experiences fill the empty spaces. In human life this conversion and
reconstruction of experiences is termed as education.
6) Education plays significant role in social conservation: Every society has its own rites
and rituals, ethics, morality, language, culture, beliefs, etc. Education helps the society to
conserve them.
7) Education is an Art: Education is an art. It develops the inherent qualities of child in
beautiful way like Arts. Teaching is also an Art. Therefore, the teacher helps the student‟s
good and healthy personality under his guidance.
8) Education is a socializing process: Every society has its own moral values. With the
help of education people can develop these moral values. Therefore, it is termed as
socializing process.

SOCIAL FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION:

Education as social institution plays a vital role in our society. The function of education is
multidimensional within the school system and outside it. It performs the function of socializing
the individual for a variety of social roles and development of personality. It is also an
important part of the control mechanisms of society. Education is a necessity right from the
simple society to modern complex industrial society.
1) Socialization: The most important function of education is socialization. The people
have no knowledge about the culture of their society. They must learn them and they
must learn the way which their society is functioning. Hence, the children as they grow
up must be introduced into the culture which they are going to face.
2) Development of Personality: Education plays an important role in the development of
personality. The object of education, as said Durkheim “is to awaken and develop in the
child those physical, intellectual and moral states which are required of him both by his
society as a whole and by the milieu for which he is specially designed”. Education helps
the development of the qualities of an individual, such as physical, mental and emotional
make-up as well as his temperament and character.
3) Social Control: Education plays a vital role in regulating individual behavior through
transmitting a way of life and communicating ideas and values to the new generations.
 4) Social Integration: Education, by imparting values, also integrates people into the
broader society. The curriculum of the school, its „extra-curricular‟ activities and the
informal relationship among students and teachers communicate certain values and social
skills such as cooperation or team-spirit, obedience, fair play.
5) Determination of Status: Determination of status of an individual is an important
function of education. Amount of education is a good indicator of socio-economic status,
from lower working class to upper class, education leads to economic opportunity. It is
through education young people secure higher status jobs than their parents. With higher
incomes they come to associate with the persons of higher status. Thus, education
provides the channel to better socio-economic status.
6) Provides Route for Social Mobility: Educational qualifications increasingly form the
basis for the allocation of individuals to social statuses and social mobility. There has
been steady move from one status to other due to educational attainment. An industrial
society like United States or Great Britain places increasing emphasis on the attainment
of both of the skills acquired in elementary, secondary and higher education and of the
educational credentials that a person has acquired the skills for a job.
7) Social Development: Skills and values learned in education are directly related to the
way to which the economy and the occupational structure operate. Education trains the
individuals in skills that are required by the economy.

TYPES OF EDUCATION
Educational thinkers, scholars and philosophers have divided education into different into
different types and categories. Among those the most popular
division is types based on institution. According to this division education can be of following
types:
1) Formal Education:
Formal education is the type of education which is provided in certain institutions like
school, college, universities etc. Formal education is designed with fixed aims and
objective and provided according to the curriculum. It has fixed time table, examination
system and discipline. It is provided in accordance with the rules and regulations of the
concerned school and college. The characteristics are as follows:
 It is pre-determined and pre planned.
 It is time bound and regulated by routine.
 It is space bound i.e., institutional.
 It is age bound.
 It follows systematic curriculum.
 It is imparted by qualified teachers.
 It observes strict discipline.
 It is methodical in nature.
 2) Informal Education:
Informal education or incidental education is one which occurs automatically in the
process of living. It is received by one by living with others, such as cycling, horse riding,
fishing etc. Family is one of the most important agencies of informal education as we
learn many things from its members. The main characteristic of informal education is as
follows:
 It is incidental and spontaneous.
 It is not pre planned and deliberate.
 It is not confined to any institution.
 There is no prescribed syllabus and time table.
 It is not time bound and age bound.
 There are many agencies of informal education.
 It is also known as out of school education.
3) Non-formal Education:
Non-formal education is any organized systematic educational activity carried outside the
framework of the established formal system. Non-formal education is provided at the
convenient place, time and level of understanding or mental growth of children and adult.
The main characteristics are:
 Non-formal education is open ended and non-competitive.
 Non-formal education is structured and planned but outside the sphere of formal
Education.
 It is consciously and deliberately organized and implemented.
 It is programmed to serve the need of the homogeneous groups.
 It possesses flexibility in design of the curriculum and process and evaluation.
 In non-formal education teacher pupil relationship is much more intimate.
 Attendance in non-formal education is voluntary.
 In non-formal education many students are working persons

CONCLUSION:
Education is a social institution through which a society‟s children are taught basic academic
knowledge, learning skills, and cultural norms. Every nation in the world is equipped with some
form of education system, though those systems vary greatly. The major factors affecting
education systems are the resources and money that are utilized to support those systems in
different nations.
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 Media
DEFINITION:-
Media is a collective term encompassing diverse communication tools and platforms
designed to reach and influence a broad audience. It serves as a bridge between information
sources and the public, facilitating the exchange of ideas, knowledge, and entertainment.
Media comprises a spectrum of channels and platforms, each with its unique characteristics.
These include traditional forms like print and broadcast media, as well as modern digital
formats. The variety ensures that information can be disseminated through channels suited
to different preferences and technological advancements.

Types of Media:
A. Print Media:
1. Newspapers:

 Periodicals providing news, analysis, and features.

 Usually published daily or weekly.

2. Magazines:

 Periodicals with a focus on diverse topics, including lifestyle, fashion, and

specialized interests.
 Typically published on a regular schedule.

B. Broadcast Media:
1. Television:

 Visual and auditory medium broadcasting a wide range of content, from news to
entertainment.
 Reaches a massive audience globally.
 2. Radio:

 Audio-centric medium delivering news, music, and talk shows.

 Offers a versatile and accessible form of communication.

C. Digital Media:
1. Internet:

 A vast network connecting people globally.

 Platforms include websites, blogs, and online news portals.

2. Social Media:
 Online platforms facilitating user-generated content and interaction.
 Examples include Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and YouTube.

3. Mobile Apps:

 Software applications designed for mobile devices.

 Deliver a wide array of content, from news apps to social networking platform s.

Characteristics:
Reach:

 Media has a broad reach, allowing information to transcend geographical

boundaries.
 Reaches diverse audiences, making it a powerful tool for communication on a
global scale.

Accessibility:

 Various forms of media cater to people with different interests and preferences.
 Enables individuals to access information through channels that align with their
preferences and technological capabilities.
Immediacy:

 Media, especially digital and broadcast media, provides real-time information.

 Facilitates the rapid dissemination of news and updates, keeping the audience
informed in a timely manner.

Interactivity:

 Digital media platforms enhance audience engagement.

 Users can actively participate in discussions, share feedback, and contribute to
content creation, fostering a dynamic and interactive experience.

Multifaceted:

 Media serves a multitude of purposes beyond mere information dissemination.

 Functions include entertainment, education, cultural reflection, and influencing public
opinion.
 Offers a diverse range of content to cater to various needs and interests within society.

Function of media
1. Informative Function:
a. News Reporting:

 Media serves as a primary source of news, covering local, national, and

international events.
 Journalistic reporting provides in-depth analysis, context, and diverse
perspectives on current affairs.

b. Information Dissemination:

 Beyond news, media disseminates information on a wide range of topics,

including science, technology, health, and more.
 Provides a platform for experts and thought leaders to share insights and
knowledge.

c. Public Awareness:

 Raises awareness about social issues, human rights, and global challenges.
 Acts as a watchdog, exposing corruption and holding institutions accountable.
2. Educational Function:
a. Documentaries and Educational Programs:

 Media, especially television and online platforms, produces documentaries and

educational programs.
 Offers informative content on history, science, culture, and various academic subjects.

b. Online Learning Platforms:

 Digital media facilitates online learning through platforms offering courses,

tutorials, and educational content.

 Enhances accessibility to education beyond traditional classrooms.

3. Entertainment Function:
a. Movies and TV Shows:

 Media provides a diverse range of entertainment options, including movies

and television shows.

 Serves as a form of escapism and a source of enjoyment for audiences.

b. Music and Performing Arts:

 Music videos, concerts, and performing arts are disseminated through various
media channels.

 Contributes to cultural enrichment and personal enjoyment.

c. Gaming and Interactive Entertainment:

 Digital media platforms host video games and interactive content.

 Engages audiences in immersive and participatory entertainment experiences.

4. Persuasive Function:
a. Advertising:

 Media is a powerful platform for advertising products, services, and ideas.

 Influences consumer behavior and promotes economic activities.

b. Propaganda and Advocacy:

 Governments, organizations, and individuals use media to convey specific

messages and influence public opinion.

 Advocacy campaigns address social issues, promoting change and awareness.

5. Social Integration:
a. Cultural Representation:

 Media reflects and shapes cultural values, traditions, and norms.

 Contributes to the preservation and evolution of cultural identities.

b. Shared Experiences:

 Through media, individuals share common experiences by consuming popular

content.

 Fosters a sense of community and shared understanding among diverse

audiences.

c. Community Building:

 Social media platforms enable the formation of online communities based on

shared interests, beliefs, and experiences.

 Enhances connectivity and social interaction.

Mass Media
Mass media refers to communication channels that have the capacity to reach a
large and diverse audience simultaneously. It serves as a vehicle for the
distribution of information, entertainment, and cultural content. The traditional
forms of mass media include newspapers, television, and radio, while digital
platforms such as the internet and social media have become increasingly
prominent in recent times.

Impact of Mass Media

1. Information Dissemination:
a. Rapid Spread of News:

 Mass media, particularly through news outlets, delivers information swiftly to a vast
audience.

 Breaking news, updates, and analysis are shared in real-time, keeping the public
informed.

b. Global Connectivity:

 Mass media, especially digital platforms, enables global communication and

information exchange.

 Events from around the world become accessible to audiences regardless of

geographical location.
2. Cultural Influence:
a. Cultural Reflection:

 Mass media reflects and shapes cultural norms, values, and trends.

 Popular media content contributes to the formation of a shared cultural identity.

b. Globalization of Culture:

 Mass media facilitates the global spread of cultural elements, including music, films,
and fashion.

 Contributes to a more interconnected and culturally diverse world.

3. Political Influence:
a. Public Opinion:

 Mass media plays a pivotal role in shaping public opinion on political issues.

 News coverage, editorials, and debates contribute to the formation of political

perspectives.

b. Agenda-Setting:

 Media has the power to set the agenda by highlighting certain issues and downplaying
others.

 Influences the public's perception of what is important in the political landscape.

4. Socialization:
a. Introduction to Societal Norms:

 Mass media serves as a means of socialization by introducing individuals to societal

norms, values, and expectations.

 Shapes perceptions of gender roles, societal structures, and acceptable behaviors .

b. Role Modeling:

 Media, through the portrayal of characters and personalities, provides role models
that influence behavior and aspirations.

 Can contribute to the formation of social identities.

5. Economic Impact:
a. Job Creation:

 The media industry is a significant contributor to employment, providing jobs in

journalism, broadcasting, production, and more.

 Supports a diverse range of professions and skills.

b. Revenue Generation:

 Media generates revenue through advertising, subscriptions, and sales.

 Contributes to the economic ecosystem by supporting businesses and fostering

economic growth.

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 Social Stratification
 Social stratification: meaning , definition & types

In all societies people differ from each other on the basis of their age, sex and
personal characteristics. Human society is not homogeneous but heterogeneous.
Apart from the natural differences, human beings are also differentiated according
to socially approved criteria.

So, socially differentiated men are treated as socially unequal from the point of
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view of enjoyment of social rewards like status, power, income etc. That may be
called social inequality. The term social inequality simply refers to the existence of
socially created inequalities.
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 Meanings:
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Social stratification is a particular form of social inequality. All societies arrange

their members in terms of superiority, inferiority and equality. Stratification is a
process of interaction or differentiation whereby some people come to rank higher
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than others.

In one word, when individuals and groups are ranked, according to some
commonly accepted basis of valuation in a hierarchy of status levels based upon
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the inequality of social positions, social stratification occurs. Social stratification

means division of society into different strata or layers. It involves a hierarchy of
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social groups. Members of a particular layer have a common identity. They have a
similar life style.

The Indian Caste system provides an example of stratification system. The society
in which divisions of social classes exist is known as a stratified society. Modern
stratification fundamentally differs from stratification of primitive societies. Social
stratification involves two phenomena :-
(i) differentiation of individuals or groups on the basis of possession of certain
characteristics whereby some individuals or groups come to rank higher than
others.

(ii) the ranking of individuals according to some basis of evaluation.

Sociologists are concerned not merely with the facts of social differences but also
with their social evaluation.

 Definitions:

1. Ogburn and Nimkoff:

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The process by which individuals and groups are ranked in more or less enduring
hierarchy of status is known as stratification"
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2. Lundberg:

"A stratified society is one marked by inequality, by differences among people that
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are evaluated by them as being "lower" and "higher".

 Types of Social Stratification:

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Social stratification is based upon a variety of principles. So we find different type

of stratification.
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The major types of stratification are

(i) Caste
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(ii) Class

(iii) Sex & Gender

(iv) Race

(v) Ethnic

1) Caste :- Caste is a hereditary endogamous social group, such as Brahmins, Kshyatryas,

Vaishyas, and Sudra Caste, wherein a person's rank, along with its accompanying rights and
obligations, is ascribed based on their birth into a particular group. These caste systems function
as closed stratification systems, limiting individuals' ability to alter their social standing. The
caste system dictates various aspects of an individual's life, including occupations, marriage
partners, and housing, with individual talents or potential offering no avenues for social mobility.

In the Hindu caste tradition, individuals are expected to adhere to their predetermined occupation
and marry within their caste, viewing acceptance of this social standing as a moral duty. Cultural
values further reinforce this system, promoting beliefs in fate, destiny, and the will of a higher
power rather than emphasizing individual freedom. While the official dismantling of the caste
system has occurred in India, its deep-rooted influence persists, particularly in rural areas. In
larger cities, however, individuals now enjoy more opportunities to choose their career paths and
marriage partners. The influence of corporations, implementing merit-based hiring and
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employment, has played a role in shifting cultural expectations surrounding the caste system in
the nation.

2) Class :- class system is based on both social factors and individual achievement. A class
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consists of a set of people who share similar status based on factors like wealth, income,
education, family background, and occupation. Unlike caste systems, class systems are open.
People may move to a different level (vertical movement) of education or employment status
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than their parents. Though family and other societal models help guide a person toward a career,
personal choice and opportunity play a role. They can also socialize with and marry members of
other classes. People have the option to form an exogamous marriage, a union of spouses from
different social categories. Exogamous marriages often focus on values such as love and
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compatibility. Though social conformities still exist that encourage people to choose partners
within their own class, called an endogamous marriage, people are not as pressured to choose
mariage partners based solely on their social location.
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3) Sex & Gender:- Social stratification is the unequal categorization of people into certain
groups based on factors such as gender, race, education, ethnicity, occupation, and wealth. It is a
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system that allows unequal access to money, prestige, power, and other resources. Race,
ethnicity, and gender are social constructs that are used to categorize individuals, forming the
basis of stratification and accompanying challenges.

Gender stratification, also termed gender inequality, is a social phenomenon in which there are
inequalities related to wealth, power, and privilege between men and women. These gender
inequalities may be influenced by culture, biology, or psychology. For example, women in many
cultures are expected to put their careers on hold for childbearing and raising a family while men
earn the money to support the family. Women are less likely to be employed and more likely to
have lower incomes, which translates in most cases to poor health. Women are also less likely to
be authoritative in their jobs, negotiate starting salaries, or request pay increases. As a result,
men are more likely to receive promotions and are generally higher paid than women.

3) Racial Stratification :- Race is an informal classification system of humans based on

shared physical traits that are thought to be common among people with the same ancestral
background. Racial stratification is the term used to describe societal inequalities or hierarchy
based on race. Racial minority groups consist of races that are fewer in number than a dominant
racial group. In the United States, the dominant racial group is white, and disparities such as
education gaps exist between whites and racial minorities. White people are more likely to earn a
bachelor's or advanced degree.

4) Ethnic :- Ethnicity refers to a grouping of people according to national or cultural

traditions, or those who share certain attributes or identities such as religion, language, race, or
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tribe. Ethnic stratification is a system which assigns unequal social status, rewards, or power
based on ethnicity. Ethnic fractionalization is the existence of different religious, cultural, or
linguistic groups within a delineated territory such as a state or country. It refers to the number,
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sizes, geographical location, and socioeconomic distribution of these groups within the region;
these groups are separated by characteristics such as skin color, customs, traditions, history, and
languages. Ethnicity, like race, is socially constructed with influences on income, wealth, and
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education. For example, Hispanic people have less accumulated wealth than whites but more
than blacks.

Links:-
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 YouTube channel link :-

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 Instagram :-
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