International Journal of Applied Power Engineering (IJAPE)

Vol. 13, No. 3, September 2024, pp. 755~767

ISSN: 2252-8792, DOI: 10.11591/ijape.v13.i3.pp755-767  755

Maximizing energy efficiency in drones through accurate state

of charge estimation using extended Kalman filter

Kamal Anoune1, Anas El Maliki2, Merouan Belkasmi3

1
EMIT Laboratory, Energy & Materials, Instrumentation & Telecom, Physics Department, Faculty of Sciences and Technologie FST-Settat,
Hassan First University (UHP), Settat, Morocco
2
Laboratory of Electronic Systems, Information Processing, Mechanics and Energetics, Faculty of Sciences, University Ibn Tofail,
Kenitra, Morocco
3
LERMA Laboratory, International University of Rabat (UIR), Sala Al Jadida, Morocco

Article Info ABSTRACT

Article history: This paper delves into the critical aspect of managing energy consumption in
drone operations to achieve the utmost range and ensure accurate state of
Received Sep 30, 2023 charge (SoC) estimation. Effective energy management is pivotal in
Revised Mar 17, 2024 determining the operational range of drones, allowing for longer distances and
Accepted Apr 26, 2024 heavier payloads. The integration of precise energy estimation algorithms into
operational planning extends the range of drones, facilitating swift,
environmentally-conscious missions for sustainable and efficient logistics
Keywords: solutions. The paper introduces a mathematical model to understand energy
consumption and battery behavior in drones, utilizing the hybrid pulse power
Battery management systems characterization test and recursive least square with forgetting factor for
Drones parameter identification. To overcome the limitations of linear filters, the
Extended Kalman filter paper employs the accurate extended Kalman filter (EKF) in the nonlinear
Lithium-ion battery filter section. The EKF significantly enhances the battery management system
State of charge by furnishing precise SoC data. The study evaluates two SoC estimation
techniques: SoC-AH (ampere-hours) and SoC_EKF, using root mean square
error for comparison. The SoC_EKF technique demonstrates higher accuracy,
boasting a lower errors value of 0.78%, thus making it superior for precise
drone battery SoC estimation. These findings contribute to the improved
performance, reliability, and overall safety of drones.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-SA license.

Corresponding Author:
Kamal Anoune
LMIET Laboratory, Physics Department, Faculty of Sciences and Technics FST-Settat
Hassan 1st University
Settat, Morocco
Email: [email protected], [email protected]

1. INTRODUCTION
In recent years, drones have emerged as one of the most extensively researched logistics technologies,
incorporating technical elements that align with modern transportation and societal developments, including
autonomy, adaptability, and agility. The first factor influencing a drone's battery life is the payload weight.
Heavier payloads require more energy to fly, resulting in shorter battery life. For instance, a few kilograms of
payload can significantly reduce the drone's flight time compared to flying without any payload. Additionally,
wind speed affects battery life, as flying against the wind consumes more energy while flying with the wind can
extend flight time. Temperature also plays a crucial role; high temperatures can lead to battery overheating, and
low temperatures reduce battery capacity and overall performance. Furthermore, flight height influences battery
life, as maintaining stability and continuous flight demands more energy, resulting in shorter battery life.

Journal homepage: http://ijape.iaescore.com

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Considering these aspects becomes critical when planning drone operations, especially with payloads, to ensure
the drone has sufficient battery life to complete tasks safely and effectively. Drones find extensive use in remote
guidance and encompass a variety of vehicles, including submarines and land-based autonomous vehicles.
Notably, hybrid-wing drones, a recent addition to the market, possess fixed and rotary-wing capabilities,
enabling rapid destination reach through gliding and utilizing four rotors for hovering [1], [2]. Achieving
operational drones requires addressing three significant challenges through automation research: vehicle design,
positioning and routing, and vehicle coordination. The vehicle design aspect involves creating equipment that is
not only efficient but also capable of hovering and adapting to various scenarios while maintaining reliability
comparable to commercial airliners. This ambitious task demands numerous iterations, necessitating the
collaboration and contributions of experts from diverse fields to bring forth innovative solutions [3]. Numerous
studies reveal that drones have some negative limitation related to estimation of disposable energy. Kirschstein
et al. [4] introduces an energy usage model tailored for drones, aiming to delineate the energy needs for drone
deliveries based on environmental conditions and flight patterns. The model is subsequently employed to gauge
the energy consumption of a stationary package delivery system, which operates from a designated depot and
serves a specific number of clients. A comparative analysis is conducted between drone energy consumption
and the energy requirements of diesel and electric trucks that cater to the same clients from a similar depot. To
bolster the accuracy and dependability of SoC estimation, the dynamic attributes of a lithium-ion battery (LiB)
are approximated through an auto-regressive and moving average model. This model effectively compensates
for potential discrepancies stemming from voltage and discharge current measurements, thereby elevating the
precision and reliability of state of charge (SoC) estimation [5].
Gaining profound insights into LiB performance and its underlying instrument offers valuable
knowledge. Such understanding facilitates battery performance testing, enabling the identification of several
factors that impact performance and the governing laws behind their influence. To develop practical battery
system models for battery management systems (BMS) [6], modeling methods can be employed. These models
provide satisfactory accuracy while minimizing complex computations. During operation, adaptive control
technology is utilized to identify battery system parameters, estimate critical battery states such as SoC, state
of health (SoH), and state of function (SoF), and detect faults. This information is then communicated to the
vehicle manager over network, ensuring the vehicles' safe and dependable operation [7]. In their research,
Xia et al. [8] conducted a study focused on the routing problem of drones featuring load-dependent
characteristics. The researchers introduced docking hubs as collaborative facilities for trucks and drones,
effectively expanding the service coverage. To handle the complexities arising from nonlinear load-dependent
energy consumption, they proposed a mixed-integer model. While predicting the operational range for drones
has not been a significant challenge due to fast and readily available refueling options, accurately estimating
the driving or flying range for battery-operated vehicles has become crucial. This increased importance arises
from the widespread adoption of battery-operated vehicles in countless areas [9]. Addressing energy
consumption becomes a fundamental constraint in realm of drone operations, unlocking full possible of
achieving maximum range, cost reduction, and accurate SoC estimation. Optimizing energy usage directly
influences drones' operational range, determining the distance they can cover and the payload they can carry.
To fully harness the benefits of drones, it is imperative to develop efficient energy management strategies that
maximize range while minimizing power consumption. These strategies necessitate considering numerous
factors, including flight dynamics, payload weight, wind conditions, and operational requirements. Developing
an accurate energy estimation algorithm and integrating it into operational planning enable drones to extend
their operational range, facilitating rapid and environmentally friendly operations. Ultimately, this contributes
to advancing sustainable and efficient last-mile logistics solutions.
The optimization of energy consumption plays a critical role in determining the operational range and
payload capacity of drones. To fully harness the potential benefits of drones, efficient energy management
strategies must be developed to maximize range while minimizing power usage. This challenge also extends
to aerial drones, where precise flight range planning is essential to ensure continuous service and prevent
battery depletion during flights. Accurate estimation of the SoC through an effective BMS is crucial for reliable
power usage modeling. However, existing comprehensive drone models may not precisely align with the actual
energy strained from LiB due to its non-idealities. To address these issues, this research presents a novel
contribution focused on predicting and optimizing drone range. The proposed approach offers flexibility in
accommodating varying levels of accuracy and complexity in both drone and battery models, resulting in
improved range estimation and planning capabilities. Additionally, drones are often hailed as energy-efficient
transportation options, given their battery-powered operation. However, to ensure an accurate representation
of energy requirements for specific drone applications, we have developed a MATLAB program based on
extended Kalman filter (EKF) to precisely estimate battery charge.
The paper follows a structured organization as follows: In the introduction, the problem statement is
highlighted, emphasizing the significance of energy consumption in drone operations. Moving to the system

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modeling section, the focus shifts to the modeling of drones' energy consumption, offering insights into the
approach used for estimating energy usage in drones. Next, the paper delves into battery modeling, presenting
a mathematical model for characterizing battery behavior. Additionally, the utilization of the hybrid pulse
power characterization (HPPC) test and the recursive least square with forgetting factor (FFRLS) for parameter
identification in battery modeling is introduced. In nonlinear filter section, the implementation of EKF is
discussed, serving as a powerful tool for battery state estimation, and overcoming the limitations of linear
filters. Subsequently, an overview of BMS employed in the study is provided, highlighting its role in effectively
managing and optimizing battery performance. Finally, the paper concludes by summarizing the key points,
emphasizing the contributions made by the research, and discussing the broader implications of the study in
the field of drone energy consumption and battery management.

2. METHOD
The proposed approach for estimating the operational range of drones involves the gathering of both
drone and battery data. The drone data encompasses mechanical and electrical characteristics that influence
power consumption, such as motor power, weight, and aerodynamic drag. This data provides valuable insights
into the energy requirements of different drone types. On the other hand, battery data focuses on the electrical
properties of the battery cell and its scaling for the battery pack, enabling a comprehensive understanding of
the energy storage capabilities.
To estimate the drone's range, a battery model is formulated, taking into consideration power
conversion efficiency. By analyzing voltage and current waveforms, the model calculates the battery's SoC
and, consequently, the drone's range. The methodology is designed to be adaptable to various drone types and
also takes into account variables like weather conditions. It incorporates efficiency trade-offs and adjustments,
including speed control mechanisms, to optimize power consumption and maximize the drone's operational
range. This approach ensures a comprehensive estimation of the drone's range and provides insights for
enhancing flight performance and efficiency.

2.1. Battery modeling

Battery storage system holds paramount importance in electric vehicles, calling for the utilization of
sophisticated battery models to refine energy processes and design. In tasks such as estimating drones' flight
duration and predicting their operational range, advanced lithium-ion battery (LiB) models and estimation
techniques play a crucial role. Existing literature outlines three primary categories of LiB models:
mathematical, electrochemical, and electrical equivalent circuit models (ECMs). Considering the complexities
associated with parameter identification and the computational demands of mathematical and electrochemical
models, we have opted for an ECM to emulate battery performance. This decision enables us to strike a
harmonious balance between precision and computational efficiency, rendering it well-suited for practical
applications in both drones and electric vehicles [10], [11].

2.1.1. Mathematical model

An ECM consists of resistors, capacitors, and voltage or current sources, providing a reasonably
balanced deals among accuracy and simplicity. In domain of electronic design, the ECM depicted in Figure 1
is widely recognized as a standard configuration due to its effectiveness and practicality. Accurately estimating
the SoC of LiBs hinges on the precise representation of its dynamic characteristics using an equivalent model.

Figure 1. Electric circuit model for batteries

Thevenin's model offers a promising solution by incorporating a Rint model with a parallel RC circuit,
effectively addressing the limitations of the Rint model, which fails to capture the dynamic properties of Li-
Maximizing energy efficiency in drones through accurate state of charge … (Kamal Anoune)
758  ISSN: 2252-8792

ion batteries. As depicted in Figure 1, this model visualizes the terminal voltage as U L, the ohmic voltage as
UR, and the ohmic internal resistance as R0. The RC circuit includes a polarization resistor Rp and a polarization
capacitor Cp, effectively characterizing the polarization effect in Li-ion batteries, with the voltage across the
polarization element denoted as Up. By employing Kirchhoff's law, in (1) establishes the voltage and current
representations within the equivalent circuit, enabling an improved and more accurate estimation of the
battery's SoC. These advanced modelling technics own a big possibility for enhancing battery management
systems and optimizing battery performance in numerous applications, including electric vehicles and portable
electronic devices [12].

𝑈𝐿 = 𝑈𝑜𝑐 − 𝐼𝑅0 − 𝑈𝑝
{ ̇ 1 1 (1)
𝑈𝑝 = − 𝑈𝑝 + 𝐼
𝐶𝑝 𝑅𝑝 𝐶𝑝

2.1.2. Hybrid pulse power characterization (HPPC) method for parameter identification
The hybrid pulse power characterization (HPPC) method stands as a pivotal technique in
comprehensively characterizing LiB. It involves subjecting the battery to a series of hybrid pulse power
profiles, essentially a set of distinct current pulses with varying magnitudes and durations, while concurrently
measuring the battery's response in terms of voltage and current. This method operates under varying
conditions, encompassing different load levels, charging, and discharging cycles, to gather an expansive
dataset. HPPC conditions encompass a spectrum of scenarios, simulating real-world usage patterns by
integrating abrupt changes in load conditions, rapid charging, and discharging. Through this controlled yet
diverse dataset, HPPC facilitates the extraction of critical parameters that significantly influence LiB behavior.
Parameters obtained through HPPC encapsulate vital attributes such as internal resistance, capacity, and voltage
response at varying SoC. Method enables the derivation of critical battery model parameters like open circuit
voltage (OCV) versus SoC relationship, which forms the fundamental basis for predicting the battery's behavior
under different operating conditions. This method not only aids in enhancing battery model accuracy but also
plays a crucial role in predicting battery behavior and performance across a range of real-world scenarios.
The battery model is developed using parameters derived from characterization. Extracting these
parameters requires a series of characterization tests, following established standards and research
methodologies [13]. Initially, the capacity test determines the battery's effective nominal capacity through a
standard charge and discharge test. The second OCV test, is conducted to extract the OCV-SoC
relationship and battery model parameters. This approach deviates from employing the hybrid pulse power
characterization (HPPC) test, as the study exclusively focuses on the standard C-rate. Baccouche et al.'s
research [14] emphasizes accurate modeling of the nonlinear OCV-SoC relationship crucial for adaptive Li-ion
battery operation. This model, employing five parameters within double exponential and quadratic functions,
closely aligns with experimental curves, boasting a mere 1 mV fitting error. It covers wide temperature ranges,
accounts for OCV voltage hysteresis, and when integrated into EKF for SoC estimation, significantly
minimizes execution time and reduces estimation error to 3%, outperforming other models at 5%. Rigorous
experiments validate the model's reliability and precision across diverse loads and temperatures.

Figure 2. Experimental OCV-SOC curves at 25 °C

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Int J Appl Power Eng ISSN: 2252-8792  759

Figure 2 illustrates the experimental OCV discharge test [14]. The test involves initially fully charging
the battery, followed by discharging current pulses equivalent to 5% of the SoC step. This is interspersed with
a 30-minute rest time to ensure complete cell discharge and stabilize the OCV at a consistent value. Extracting
OCV points at different SoC levels is essential to construct the analytical model representing the mapping
between OCV and SoC
HPPC test involves several key steps. Firstly, it is employed to establish the (OCV-SoC) connection,
and it also serves to identify parameter values from ECM derived through the offline parameter identification
method [15]. The HPPC test commences by placing the battery cell in at 25 °C for four hours. Subsequently,
constant current of 1C is applied to the cell until it reaches a voltage of 4.2 V, which is then maintained until
the current decreases to ≤0.05C. After 1 hour break, cell is discharged with a 1C current until it reaches a SoC
of 90%. Following another 1-hour break, the cell is further discharged with a 3C current for 10 seconds,
followed by a 30-second rest period. Lastly, the cell is loaded with a 2.25C current for 10 seconds. This
sequence is repeated for various SoC values, ranging from 80% to 10%. Subsequently, a sextic polynomial (2)
is employed to accurately fit the relationship where 𝑘0 ~𝑘6 are the constants.

𝑉𝑜𝑐𝑣 = 𝑘0 + 𝑘1 𝑆𝑜𝐶 + 𝑘2 𝑆𝑜𝐶 2 + 𝑘3 𝑆𝑜𝐶 3 + 𝑘4 𝑆𝑜𝐶 4 + 𝑘5 𝑆𝑜𝐶 5 + 𝑘6 𝑆𝑜𝐶 6 (2)

By utilizing the HPPC test in conjunction with advanced fitting algorithms, the battery's parameters can be
accurately determined in real-time, providing valuable insights for battery management and performance
optimization in practical applications.

2.1.3. FFRLS algorithm

In addition to the careful selection of an appropriate battery model, ensuring compatible parameters
is of equal importance. To assess the impact of different OCV-SoC curves on SoC estimation individually, it
is logical to mitigate the influence of pulse input method (PIM) outcomes related to Ohmic resistance and the
RC network on SoC estimation. Consequently, this study utilizes the widely accepted fast Fourier recursive
least squares (FFRLS) method for the identification of key parameters [16], [17], specifically R0, RP, and CP.
The derivation processes are outlined as follows. Applying the Laplace transformation to (3) [18], [19], the
frequency-domain function of the Thevenin model can be expressed as in (3):

𝑅𝑝
𝑈𝑡 (𝑠) − 𝑈𝑜𝑐 (𝑠) = 𝐼𝑡 (𝑠) (𝑅0 + ) (3)
1+𝑅𝑝 𝐶𝑝 𝑠

where s denotes the frequency operator. By introducing 𝐸𝑡 (𝑠) = 𝑈𝑡 (𝑠) − 𝑈𝑜𝑐 (𝑠) transfer function can be
represented as in (4):

𝑈(𝑠)−𝑈𝑜𝑐 (𝑠) 𝑅𝑝
𝐺(𝑠) = = (𝑅0 + ) (4)
𝐼(𝑠) 1+𝑅𝑝 𝐶𝑝 𝑠

to convert the transfer function into a discrete form, this paper employs the commonly used bilinear
transformation, with the formulation provided in (5).

2 1−𝑧 −1
𝑠= (1)
𝑇𝑠 1+𝑧 −1

Where z is the discretization operator and Ts is set to 1 in this paper. Moreover, the discrete form of equation
(G(s)) can be expressed as in (6).

𝑎2 −𝑎3 𝑧 −1
𝐺(𝑧 −1 ) = (6)
1+𝑎1 𝑧 −1

these coefficients 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎3 are formulated as in (7).

2𝑅𝑝 𝐶𝑝 −1
𝑎1 =
2𝑅𝑝 𝐶𝑝 +1
𝑅0 +𝑅𝑝 +2𝑅0 𝑅𝑝
𝑎2 = (7)
2𝑅𝑝 𝐶𝑝 +1
𝑅0 ∆𝑡+𝑅𝑝 ∆𝑡−2𝑅0 𝑅𝑝 ∆𝑡
𝑎3 =
{ 2𝑅𝑝 𝐶𝑝 +1

The model parameters can be expressed as in (8).

Maximizing energy efficiency in drones through accurate state of charge … (Kamal Anoune)
760  ISSN: 2252-8792
𝑎2 −𝑎3
𝑅0 =
1−𝑎1
2(𝑎1 𝑎2 +𝑎3 ) 𝑎2 −𝑎3
𝑅𝑝 = − (8)
1+𝑎12 1−𝑎1
(1+𝑎1 )2
{𝐶𝑝 = 4(𝑎1𝑎2 +𝑎3 )

2.2. Energy modeling of drones

Drone operation is affected by a multitude of factors, encompassing the drone type, battery capacity,
and weather conditions. Several factors can impact the battery life of a drone, such as payload weight, wind
speed, temperature, and flight altitude. Ensuring that the drone's battery has sufficient power for the round trip,
accounting for payload and unpredictable weather conditions, is crucial. Careful planning of the flight path is
necessary to avoid obstacles like buildings, power lines, and trees, as well as densely populated areas and
sensitive sites like airports. Additionally, climate conditions, such as velocity, temperature, and precipitation,
can significantly affect drone performance and stability. Checking the weather forecast before each flight and
avoiding adverse conditions is essential. Anderea [3] conducted valuable research on the techno-economic
analysis of drone operations with such specifications. The study focused on understanding key factors
impacting the cost and profitability of drone operations in this context, including drone cost, battery life,
payload weight, and operating environment. Furthermore, the research explored the potential applications of
drones with these specifications. The power consumption in kW can be approximated by the research findings.

(mp +mv )v
PCons = + Pelec (9)
370ηr

The power consumption in kW can be calculated using the following approximation, as shown in (9).
Furthermore, a study by Anderea provides parameter values, where the cruising velocity has a direct impact on
the power consumption of the drones (see Table. 1). Figure 3 illustrates the power consumption (P_Cons) for
various combinations of payload mass and cruising velocity using the given input parameters. The 3D bar plot
visually represents power consumption trends across different payload masses and cruising velocities. The
overview of the data indicates the size of the matrix and a minimum, maximum, mean, and standard deviation
of power consumption. The optimal operating point is identified as the payload mass and cruising velocity
combination with the lowest power consumption, while the worst operating point is the combination with the
highest power consumption. The 3D bar plot helps visualize how power consumption changes with varying
payload masses and cruising velocities, providing valuable insights into power consumption behavior.

Table 1. Input parameter

Parameter Description Value
PCons Power consumption in kW
Pelec Power consumption of electronics in kW 0.1 kW
mp mp represents the payload mass in kg 2 kg
mv Vehicle mass in kg 4 kg
v Cruising velocity in km/h from 0 to 45 km/h
r Represents the lift-to-drag ratio 3
η Power transfer efficiency 0.5

Figure 3. Power consumption of a drone as a function of velocity and payload mass

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Int J Appl Power Eng ISSN: 2252-8792  761

To derive an estimation of the worst-case energy requirement in kilowatt-hours (kWh), a practical

approach can be utilized. By employing precise calculations and thoughtful considerations, it becomes feasible
to approximate the system's highest energy demand it might encounter. This estimation holds significant
importance in determining the suitable capacity and sizing of energy storage systems, ensuring optimal
performance and dependable operation in (10).

d (mp +mv ) Pelec

PCons (worst) = ( + ) (10)
1−HWF 370ηr v

The maximum range, represented by "d" and measured in kilometers, is influenced by the head wind
factor (HWF), which signifies the ratio of headwind to airspeed. To illustrate with numerical examples: Let's
assume a maximum range varying from 2 to 25 km, an airspeed range from 0 to 45 km/h, and a headwind of
30 km/h. The graph in Figure 4 illustrates multiple lines representing the worst-case power consumption for an
aerial vehicle system, considering different combinations of cruising velocity and maximum range. The results
demonstrate that power consumption increases with higher cruising velocities and maximum ranges,
attributed to the heightened energy requirements for propulsion and electronics. For example, at a cruising
velocity of 30 km/h and a maximum range of 10 km, the worst-case power consumption is approximately 8.5
kW. As the cruising velocity increases to 45 km/h and the maximum range extends to 15 km, the power
consumption peaks at around 12.3 kW. This analysis emphasizes the significance of optimizing flight
parameters to minimize power demands and progress efficiency and endurance of the aerial vehicle system.
Additionally, the power consumption trend reveals that higher cruising velocities generally lead to increased
power consumption due to greater air resistance. The sensitivity to the head wind factor (HWF), which is
assumed as 2/3 of the headwind-to-airspeed ratio, is not explicitly depicted in the graph; however, it is
considered a constant factor in the power consumption equation. Next, let's consider the economic aspect:
Energy cost per kilometer compared to cruising velocity.

𝐶𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐 (mp +mv ) Pelec

ECost (𝑘𝑚) = ( + ) (11)
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑓 370ηr 𝑣

An estimation of the average energy cost per kilometer can be represented as 𝐶𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐 is the cost of electricity à
0.12 $/kW h and 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑓 is charging efficiency (about 0.8).

Figure 4. Worst-case power consumption vs. velocity and maximum range

Figure 5 illustrates the energy cost per kilometer (E_Cost) for an aerial vehicle system, considering
various cruising velocities within the range of 0 to 45 km/h. The results show that as the cruising velocity
increases, the energy cost per kilometer generally decreases. For instance, at a low cruising velocity of 5 km/h,
the energy cost is approximately $0.022 per kilometer. However, as the cruising velocity rises to 30 km/h, the
energy cost reduces to around $0.008 per kilometer. This inverse relationship is due to higher cruising velocities
resulting in better energy efficiency and lower energy consumption per kilometer. The analysis emphasizes the
economic benefits of optimizing cruising velocities for cost-effective operations, wherein higher speeds can
lead to significant savings in energy expenses per kilometer traveled [8], [20].
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762  ISSN: 2252-8792

Figure 5. Energy cost per kilometer vs. cruising velocity

2.3. Nonlinear filter: Extended Kalman filter (EKF)

Estimating SoC is decisive for enhancing the performance and reliability of drones. However, SoC
estimation is heavily influenced by complex issues such as self-discharge, discharge current, and battery aging,
which can lead to imprecise results. To tackle this challenge, several SoC estimation methods have been
developed. One commonly used approach is the ampere-hour (AH) method, chosen for its simplicity. Yet, in
practical applications, this method is susceptible to errors arising from factors like noise and random
interference, which accumulate over time. To address these random errors, various model-based algorithms
have been proposed [21].
Model-based methods, such as the equivalent circuit model, are commonly employed for SoC
estimation. The Kalman filter is a widely utilized model, but its applicability is limited to linear systems. To
address the nonlinearity in battery systems, researchers have developed extensions like the extended Kalman
filter (EKF) [22], [16], [23]. While the EKF reduces convergence time and accurately estimates system states
under various operating conditions, it comes at the cost of augmented computational load on LiB management
system. EKF achieves accurate SoC estimation through first-order polynomial accuracy, achieved by
discarding higher-order terms. However, for complex system monitoring, especially in Li-ion battery packs,
further improvements are necessary. To estimate SoC using the EKF, a linearized state-space model must be
utilized near the latest estimate. This model is then combined with linear Kalman filter (LKF) equations, with
the charge/discharge current serving as input and the battery voltage as output. This comprehensive approach
is essential for achieving precise and reliable SoC estimation in complex battery systems [24], [25].
When dealing with a nonlinear system, the formulation of the discrete state-space model equation
becomes more intricate, as it must account for the dynamic behavior of LiB. Discrete state-space model
considers relationships between the system's states, inputs, and outputs at discrete time intervals. Incorporating
the system dynamics into this equation is essential to accurately capture the nonlinearities and complexities
inherent in the system's behavior. By accounting for the dynamics, the discrete state-space model provides a
more comprehensive representation, enabling precise modeling and estimation of the system's states and
responses over time. This approach is particularly valuable when dealing with nonlinear systems, such as
complex battery dynamics in real-world applications, where accurate modeling and estimation are critical for
efficient and reliable operation.

𝑥𝑘+1 = 𝐴𝑥𝑘 + 𝐵𝑢𝑘 + 𝑑𝑘

(12)
𝑦𝑘 = 𝐶𝑥𝑘 + 𝐷𝑢𝑘 + 𝑠𝑘

The expression of discrete state-space model equation, which incorporates system's dynamics, takes
the following form:

𝑥𝑘+1 = 𝑓(𝑥𝑘 , 𝑢𝑘 ) + 𝑑𝑘
(13)
𝑦𝑘 = 𝑔(𝑥𝑘 , 𝑢𝑘 ) + 𝑠𝑘

Incorporating the nonlinear state transition function 𝑓(𝑥𝑘 , 𝑢𝑘 ) and measurement function 𝑔(𝑥𝑘 , 𝑢𝑘 ), where x_k
represents state variables and u_k denotes input variables, the state equation can be formulated. Additionally,
considering measurement noises, we can further express in (14).

𝑥𝑘+1 = 𝐴̂𝑘 𝑥𝑘 + 𝑓(𝑥̂𝑘 , 𝑢𝑘 ) − 𝐴̂𝑘 𝑥̂𝑘 + 𝑑𝑘

(14)
𝑦𝑘 = 𝐶̂𝑘 𝑥𝑘 + 𝑔(𝑥̂𝑘 , 𝑢𝑘 ) − 𝐶̂𝑘 𝑥̂𝑘 + 𝑠𝑘

Upon considering the discussed linearization process, it becomes evident that EKF effectively overcomes
limitations of linear Kalman filter (LKF) by integrating the nonlinear system model into both the state

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Int J Appl Power Eng ISSN: 2252-8792  763

prediction and correction steps. EKF effectively utilizes nonlinear LiB modeling to predict both the system
state and output. At each time step 𝑘, the nonlinear LiB modelling is linearized based on the predicted state
𝑥̂_𝑥̂𝑘− to derive the matrices 𝐴̂𝑘 , 𝐵̂𝑘 , and 𝐶̂𝑘 . These matrices are crucial in calculating and updating the
covariance matrix of the state estimation errors, as well as in determining the Kalman gain.
In essence, the EKF overcomes the challenges of linearization encountered in LKF by skillfully
incorporating the nonlinear battery model. By doing so, it ensures accurate state estimation and improved
overall performance. This integration of nonlinear battery models in the EKF enables the filter to handle the
complexities and variations present in real-world battery systems, providing reliable and precise state
estimations even in dynamic and challenging conditions. Thus, the EKF stands as a powerful tool for state
estimation in BMS, enhancing performance and reliability of LiBs applications [26], [27]. Even though EKF
estimation is utilized for SoC estimation, initial values of Kalman parameters are strongminded in following
manner:
−1
𝑃0 = [1𝑒 0 ], 𝑄 = [2𝑒 −8 0 ] and 𝑅 = 2𝑒 −1 (15)
0 1𝑒 −1 0 5𝑒 −3

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

For this study, we leveraged the outcomes derived from an experimental drone flight test conducted
by the team of Chen et al. [28], due to the nonlinear nature of batteries, accurately estimating real flight time
can be challenging, as many battery models do not account for all non-ideal characteristics. In their research,
they present a battery-aware model designed to provide a precise analysis of drone energy consumption. Our
primary objective was to accurately capture the power profile associated with the load and utilize it as an input
profile in our simulation study. This allowed us to gain insights into the battery's performance and its energy
consumption in real-world flight scenarios by ensuring precise SoC estimation. We conducted an in-depth
analysis of energy consumption during an experimental drone test, as depicted in Figures 6 and 7. Our focus
centered on scrutinizing the current load profile and Ampere-hours of SoC for the drones under investigation.
Initially, as shown in Figure 6, the drones operated with fully charged batteries. However, as flight conditions
evolved, including variations in drone velocity and external factors like wind speed, the energy load profile
was directly affected, leading to alterations in input current. To estimate SoC, we applied an empirical
method detailed in the preceding section, and the results of SoC estimation are presented alongside the current
load analysis.

Figure 6. Evaluation of present load profile and Ampere-hours SoC for examined drones [28]

Maximizing energy efficiency in drones through accurate state of charge … (Kamal Anoune)
764  ISSN: 2252-8792

The proposed SoC estimation model comprises three essential components, each component is
necessary for estimation process. First part is data input step, where the input data is initialized. To achieve
this, the model utilizes the FFRLS algorithm and conducts the HPPC test. Through this process, the initial
values of system variables 𝑘0 ~𝑘6 and parameters (𝑅0 , 𝑅𝑝 , 𝐶𝑝 ) are carefully determined. These values form the
fundamental basis for predicting the load state, thereby ensuring accurate and reliable SoC estimation. Next,
the HPPC algorithm is employed to establish the correlation between OCV and SoC of LiBs. The HPPC test
involves subjecting the battery to a series of hybrid pulse power profiles, which generates valuable data about
the battery's behavior. This resulting data is then fitted using a polynomial function of order 6. By fitting the
data with a polynomial equation, the model accurately models the rapport between LiBs OCV and its SoC.
This information is crucial to predict battery's behavior and facilitates the prediction of its performance under
different load conditions. The coefficients 𝑘0~6 , as shown in Table 2, are derived from this fitting process [29].
The system parameter identification is used to obtain model parameter according to the OCV-SoC
curve. The result of parameters based on the FFRLS algorithm is given in Table 3. The graph labeled as
Figure 7 illustrates three distinct curves portraying the SoC of the studied system. The first curve represents
the observed SoC, showcasing actual measured SoC values and serving as the reference for comparison. The
second curve, labeled as SoC extended Kalman filter (SoC_EKF), closely follows the observed SoC curve,
indicating a highly accurate SoC approximation. SoC_EKF employs advanced estimation techniques to
improve the precision. On the other hand, the third curve represents the SoC Amper hours (SoC_AH). While
the SoC_AH curve provides an acceptable estimation of the SoC, it falls slightly short of achieving the same
level of accuracy as the SoC_EKF. The SoC_AH relies on Amper hours techniques to estimate the SoC, which
may introduce some degree of error during the estimation process.
As time progresses, it becomes apparent that the differences between the observed SoC and the
estimated SoCs increase significantly. This trend indicates a deterioration in the accuracy of both the SoC_EKF
and the SoC_AH over time. Several factors could contribute to these increasing errors, including battery aging,
measurement uncertainties, and limitations in the estimation algorithms employed.

Table 2. OCV-SoC fitting results at 25 °C Table 3. Model parameters at 25 °C

𝒌𝟎 𝒌𝟏 𝒌𝟐 𝒌𝟑 𝒌𝟒 𝒌𝟓 𝒌𝟔 𝑹𝟎 (𝛀) 𝑹𝑷 (𝛀) 𝑪𝑷 (𝑭)
𝟑. 𝟑𝟓𝟑 2.478 −9.902 19.01 −14.44 2.351 1.319 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟎𝟑 0.0481 750.6747

Figure 7. SoC_EKF estimation compared with SOC_Ah estimation

According to Figure 8, the EKF method provides an accurate estimation of the SoC, with a lower root
mean squared error (RMSE) value 0.78% making it superior for precise drone battery SoC estimation. These
findings contribute to enhanced drone performance, reliability, and overall safety. In conclusion, SoC_AH

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Int J Appl Power Eng ISSN: 2252-8792  765

offers an acceptable estimation of the SoC, but it is slightly less accurate compared to SoC_EKF. This is
because SoC_AH utilizes ampere-hours techniques for estimation, which introduces some degree of error
during the process. To measure the amount value of differences among the estimated SoC versus actual values,
the RMSE is employed, resulting in an RMSE value (0.78e-04) for SoC_EKF. The overall results underscore
a deal between accuracy and computational complexity in selecting an estimation technique for real-world
applications. The SoC_EKF method offers highly accurate estimations but may require more computational
resources, while the SoC_AH method provides a more practical and computationally efficient alternative with
an acceptable level of accuracy.

Figure 8. Errors between the observed SoC and the estimated SoCs

4. CONCLUSION
Addressing energy consumption in drone operations is paramount for maximizing range, reducing
costs, and accurately estimating the SoC. Optimizing energy usage is crucial in determining drones' operational
range and payload capacity, enabling them to cover greater distances and carry heavier loads. By integrating
precise energy estimation algorithms into operational planning, drones can extend their range and facilitate
rapid, eco-friendly missions. Recently, LIBs have gained significant attention due to their sustainable
development. Nevertheless, accurately measuring SoC of LIBs remains a challenge for ensuring their
safe operation.
In this paper, we delve into drones' energy consumption modeling and present a mathematical model
for their energy consumption and battery behavior. We introduce the HPPC test and FFRLS for parameter
identification. In the nonlinear filter section, we focus on implementing an accurate EKF for battery state
estimation, surpassing the limitations of linear filters. The EKF algorithm provides precise SoC data, enhancing
the BMS by enabling more accurate monitoring and optimization of battery performance. In our study, we
present our findings, along with a comprehensive analysis and results interpretation. We investigate the
accuracy of SoC estimation techniques: ampere-hours and extended Kalman filter. The study result
demonstrates that while ampere-hours estimation provides an acceptable SoC estimation, it is slightly less
accurate compared to extended Kalman filter estimation. The ampere-hours technique introduces some degree
of error during the estimation process. Finlay, we employed the RMSE, a amount magnitude of differences
between estimated SoC values and actual values. resulting in an RMSE value of 0.78% for extended Kalman
filter estimation. These results highlight the superiority of the SoC_EKF technique in providing more precise
estimates of the SoC for drone batteries.

Maximizing energy efficiency in drones through accurate state of charge … (Kamal Anoune)
766  ISSN: 2252-8792

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author would like to express their sincere gratitude to the dedicated staff of the Physics
Department, their unwavering commitment to academic excellence and their tireless efforts have played a
pivotal role in the success of our academic and research endeavors.

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BIOGRAPHIES OF AUTHORS

Dr. Kamal Anoune is currently serving as an assistant professor in the Faculty

of Sciences and Technics (FST-Settat) at Hassan First University in Settat, Morocco.
Previously, he held the position of assistant professor at EMSI-Rabat, an integral part of the
esteemed Honoris United Universities between 2020 and 2023. With a distinguished
academic background and Ph.D. in optimization of PV-wind-battery-based micro-grid
systems, Dr. Anoune stands as a leading expert in the field of sustainable energy. His
contributions extend to cutting-edge areas, including smart-grid technology, energy auditing,
green hydrogen research, energy storage systems, and battery management systems (BMS).
Driven by an unwavering dedication to advancing these critical domains, he is committed to
fostering a greener and more sustainable future. Dr. Anoune's influential impact is evident
through his numerous patents, publications, and innovations, with a specific focus on energy
storage technologies and BMS. He plays an active role in scientific committees and serves as
a program committee (PC) session chair member for various international conferences,
contributing significantly to the shaping of renewable energy solutions on a global scale. He
can be contacted at email: [email protected].

Anas El Maliki received a B.S. degree in fundamental physics studies from

Mohammed V University of Rabat, in 2014 and an M.S. degree in physics and new
technology from Hassan II University of Casablanca, in 2017. Currently working toward a
Ph.D. degree in energy storage and sustainable energy at Ibn Tofail University Kenitra. He
can be contacted at email: [email protected].

Dr. Merouan Belkasmi is presently an assistant professor at the International

University of Rabat, where he imparts his extensive knowledge in the fields of electronics,
renewable energy, and energy conservation. He earned his Ph.D. from Mohamed V
University in Rabat, solidifying his expertise in these domains. Dr. Belkasmi's research
contributions have significantly advanced the understanding of electronic systems, with a
particular emphasis on renewable energy technologies and energy storage solutions. His work
stands as a testament to his dedication towards sustainable energy solutions. He can be
contacted at email: [email protected].

Maximizing energy efficiency in drones through accurate state of charge … (Kamal Anoune)