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Introduction to
Health Physics
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Notice
Medicine is an ever-changing science. As new research and clinical experience broaden our
knowledge, changes in treatment and drug therapy are required. The authors and the pub-
lisher of this work have checked with sources believed to be reliable in their efforts to provide
information that is complete and generally in accord with the standards accepted at the time
of publication. However, in view of the possibility of human error or changes in medical
sciences, neither the author nor the publisher nor any other party who has been involved in
the preparation or publication of this work warrants that the information contained herein
is in every respect accurate or complete, and they disclaim all responsibility for any errors
or omissions or for the results obtained from use of the information contained in this work.
Readers are encouraged to confirm the information contained herein with other sources.
For example and in particular, readers are advised to check the product information sheet
included in the package of each drug they plan to administer to be certain that the informa-
tion contained in this work is accurate and that changes have not been made in the rec-
ommended dose or in the contraindications for administration. This recommendation is of
particular importance in connection with new or infrequently used drugs.
FM.indd 2 30-03-2017 12:21:57

Introduction to
Health Physics Fifth Edition
Thomas E. Johnson, PhD

Professor
Department of Environmental and Radiological Health Sciences
Colorado State University
Fort Collins, Colorado
New York Chicago San Francisco Athens London Madrid Mexico City
Milan New Delhi Singapore Sydney Toronto
FM.indd 3 30-03-2017 12:21:58

Copyright © 2017 by McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act
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claim or cause arises in contract, tort or otherwise.
To Sylvia Cember
and to the memory of
Dr. Elda E. Anderson
and
Dr. Thomas Parran
To my wife, Melissa
and to the memory of
Dr. Herman Cember
“And whatever you do, in word or in deed, do everything in the name of the Lord Jesus, giving thanks
to God the Father through him.”
FM.indd 5 30-03-2017 12:21:58

This page intentionally left blank
FM.indd 6 30-03-2017 12:21:58

Contents
Preface/xi
1. INTRODUCTION/1
2. REVIEW OF PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES/3
Mechanics/3
Relativistic Effects Review/7
Electricity/12
Energy Transfer/26
Quantum Theory/43
Summary/50
Problems/52
Suggested Readings/56
3. ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR STRUCTURE/57
Atomic Structure/57
The Nucleus/70
Summary/77
Problems/77
4. RADIATION SOURCES/81
Radioactivity/81
Transformation Mechanisms/81
Transformation Kinetics/95
Activity/101
Naturally Occurring Radiation/107
Serial Transformation/117
Summary/133
Problems/135
vii
FM.indd 7 30-03-2017 12:21:59

viii Chapter 2
Contents
5. INTERACTION OF RADIATION WITH MATTER/141

Beta Particles (Beta Rays)/141
Alpha Particles/159
Gamma Rays/165
Neutrons/181
Summary/196
Problems/197
6. RADIATION DOSIMETRY/205
Units/205
External Exposure/207
Internally Deposited Radionuclides/236
External Exposure: Neutrons/270
Summary/275
Problems/276
7. BIOLOGICAL BASIS FOR RADIATION SAFETY/285
Dose–Response Characteristics/286
The Physiological Basis for Internal Dosimetry/291
Radiation Effects: Deterministic/312
Radiation Effects: Stochastic/321
Radiation-Weighted Dose Units: The Sievert and The Rem/337
Summary/338
Problems/339
8. RADIATION SAFETY GUIDES/345
Organizations That Set Standards/345
Philosophy of Radiation Safety/350
ICRP Basic Radiation Safety Criteria/354
United States Nuclear Regulatory Program/423
Ecological Radiation Safety/437
Summary/440
Problems/440
9. HEALTH PHYSICS INSTRUMENTATION/447
Radiation Detectors/447
Particle-Counting Instruments/448
Dose-Measuring Instruments//467
Neutron Measurements/485
FM.indd 8 30-03-2017 12:21:59

contents ix
Review of Physical Principles
Calibration/498
Counting Statistics/506
Summary/528
Problems/528
10. EXTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY/535
Basic Principles/535
Optimization/597
Summary/600
Problems/601
11. INTERNAL RADIATION SAFETY/607
Internal Radiation/607
Principles of Control/608
Surface Contamination Limits/616
Waste Management/617
Assessment of Hazard/643
Optimization/652
Summary/655
Problems/656
12. CRITICALITY/663
Criticality Hazard/663
Nuclear Fission/663
Criticality/669
Nuclear Reactor/675
Criticality Control/679
Summary/686
Problems/686
13. EVALUATION OF RADIATION SAFETY MEASURES/691
Medical Surveillance/691
Estimation of Internally Deposited Radioactivity/692
Individual Monitoring/706
Radiation and Contamination Surveys/706
Air Sampling/711
Continuous Environmental Monitoring/733
Combined Exposures/733
Source Control/735
FM.indd 9 30-03-2017 12:21:59

x C
ontents
Summary/736
Problems/736
14. NONIONIZING RADIATION SAFETY/747
Units/748
UV Light/749
Lasers/754
Radiofrequency Radiation and Microwaves/785
Principles of Radiation Safety/817
Summary/820
Problems/821
Answers to Problems/829
Appendix A Values of Some Useful Constants/835
Appendix B Table of the Elements/837
Appendix C The Reference Person Overall Specifications/841
Appendix D Specific Absorbed Fraction of Photon Energy/851
Appendix E Total Mass Attenuation Coefficient, μ/ρ, cm2/g/887
Appendix F Mass Energy Absorption Coefficient, μa/ρ, cm2/g/895
Appendix G Mass Stopping Power in Units of cm2/g for Monoenergetic Electrons/903
Index/909
FM.indd 10 30-03-2017 12:21:59

Preface
The practice of radiation safety is a continually evolving activity. Many of the changes in the
practice of ionizing and nonionizing radiation safety, in calculation methodology, and in the
methods for demonstrating compliance with the safety standards that have occurred since
the publication of the previous edition of Introduction to Health Physics are incorporated in
the fifth edition.
Since their inception in 1928, the Recommendations of the International Commission
on Radiological Protection have formed the scientific basis for ionizing radiation safety
standards issued by regulatory authorities throughout the world. Generally, earlier recom-
mendations were successively more restrictive than the previous ones. The 2008 and 2015
recommendations, however, are essentially the same as the previous recommendations
made in 1990. The main difference is that the 2008 and 2015 recommendations are made
on the basis of the increased knowledge acquired since 1990 and for the first time, environ-
mental protection is explicitly addressed. This is not surprising, since no harmful radiation
effects have been observed among the population of radiation workers whose doses had
been within the previous standards. The new recommendations continued to stress that all
unnecessary exposure be avoided and that all exposures should be kept as low as reasonably
achievable, economic, and social factors being taken into account. A reasonable question,
therefore, that is raised by the ICRP recommendations is “How safe is safe?” This question
lies in the field that Dr. Alvin Weinberg, the late director of the Oak Ridge National Labo-
ratory, called transscience. Transscientific questions have a scientific basis, but they cannot
be answered by science alone. Safety is a subjective concept that can be interpreted only
within the context of its application. Policy decisions regarding matters of health and safety
should be made in the context of public health. In the practice of public health, we find that
numerous diseases and threats to health are always present in every community. The cost
of controlling these threats to health is borne by the community. Since the community has
limited resources, it must set priorities regarding which of the many real or perceived health
threats to control. One of the techniques for quantifying the likelihood of the expression of a
potential risk is called quantitative risk assessment. In the area of radiation safety, this usually
deals with two main risks: (1) failure of a large technological system, such as a nuclear power
plant, and (2) the long-term effects of low-level radiation. The results of quantitative risk
assessment are often perceived as the determination of a real threat to life or limb, no mat-
ter how small the calculated chance of occurrence. However, quantitative risk assessment is
xi
FM.indd 11 30-03-2017 12:21:59

xii preface
a calculation that almost always assumes the most pessimistic, and in many cases entirely
unrealistic, values for parameters whose magnitudes include several different uncertainties.
In addition to statistical uncertainties, for example, we must choose among several different
equally reasonable models to which to apply the statistical data. One of the purposes of this
edition is to provide the technical background needed to understand the calculation and
use of quantitative risk assessment for radiation hazards in order to help us allocate our
limited resources.
Although it has been a number of years since the ICRP recommended that health physics
quantities be expressed in the meter–kilogram–second (MKS) units of the SI system rather
than the traditional units based on the centimeter–gram–second (cgs) system, the change to
the SI units has not yet been universally implemented in the United States. For example, the
U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission continues to use the traditional system of units in its
regulations. For this reason, this edition continues to use both systems, with one or the other
equivalent quantity given in parentheses.
I also owe a debt of gratitude to Herman Cember, for allowing me to be a part of this
book. I wish to thank Alex Brandl, Sanaz Hariri Tabrizi, Yuanlin Peng, and the many per-
sons, too numerous to mention by name, for their helpful suggestions.
Thomas E. Johnson
FM.indd 12 30-03-2017 12:21:59

1 Introduction
Health physics, radiation protection, radiological health, radiation safety, and radiological
engineering are synonymous terms for the area of public health and environmental health
engineering that deals with the safe use of ionizing and nonionizing radiation in order to
prevent harmful effects of radiation to individuals, to population groups, and to the bio-
sphere. The health physicist is responsible for safety aspects in the design of processes,
equipment, and facilities utilizing radiation sources and for the safe disposal of radioactive
waste so that radiation exposure to personnel is minimized and is at all times within accept-
able limits; he or she must keep personnel and the environment under constant surveillance
in order to ascertain that these designs are indeed effective. If control measures are found to
be ineffective or if they break down, the health physicist must be able to evaluate the degree
of hazard and make recommendations regarding remedial action.
Public policy vis-à-vis radiation safety is based on political, economic, moral, and ethical
considerations as well as on scientific and engineering principles. This textbook deals only
with the scientific and engineering bases for the practice of health physics.
The scientific and engineering aspects of health physics are concerned mainly with
(1) the physical measurements of different types of radiation and radioactive materials,
(2) the establishment of quantitative relationships between radiation exposure and biologi-
cal damage, (3) the movement of radioactivity through the environment, and (4) the design
of radiologically safe equipment, processes, and environments. Clearly, health physics is a
professional field that cuts across the basic physical, life, and earth sciences as well as such
applied areas as toxicology, industrial hygiene, medicine, public health, and engineering.
The professional health physicist, therefore, in order to perform effectively, must have an
appreciation of the complex interrelationships between humans and the physical, chemical,
biological, and even social components of the environment. He or she must be competent
in the wide spectrum of disciplines that bridge the fields between industrial operations and
technology on one hand and health science, including epidemiology, on the other. In addi-
tion to these general prerequisites, the health physicist must be technically competent in the
subject matter unique to health physics.
CH01.indd 1 30-03-2017 12:26:00

2 Chapter 1
The main purpose of this book is to lay the groundwork for attaining technical com-
petency in health physics. Radiation safety standards undergo continuing change as new
knowledge is gained and as the public’s perception of radiation’s benefits and risks evolve.
Radiation safety nomenclature too changes in order to accommodate changing standards.
Because of the nature of the subject matter and the topics covered, however, it is hoped
that the book will be a useful source of information to workers in environmental health as
well as to those who will use radiation as a tool. For the latter group, it is also hoped that
this book will impart an appreciation for radiation safety as well as an understanding of the
philosophy of environmental health.
CH01.indd 2 30-03-2017 12:26:00

2 Review of Physical
Principles
MECHANICS
Units and Dimensions
Health physics is a science and hence is a systematic organization of knowledge about the
interaction between radiation and organic and inorganic matter. The Health Physics Society
defines health physics as “The science concerned with the recognition, evaluation, and con-
trol of health hazards to permit the safe use and application of ionizing radiation.” Quite
clearly, the organization of health physics must be quantitative as well as qualitative since the
control of radiation hazards implies knowledge of the dose–response relationship between
radiation exposure and the biological effects of radiation.
Quantitative relationships are based on measurements, which, in reality, are comparisons
of the attribute under investigation to a standard. A measurement includes two components:
a number and a unit. In measuring the height of a person the result is given, for example,
as 70 inches (in.) if the Imperial system of units is used or as 177.8 centimeters (cm) if the
metric system is used. The units inches in the first case and centimeters in the second case tell
us what the criterion for comparison is, and the number tells us how many of these units are
included in the quantity being measured. Although 70 in. means exactly the same thing as
177.8 cm, it is clear that without an understanding of the units the information contained in
the number above would be meaningless. In the United States, the imperial system of units
(now U.S. customary units) is used chiefly in engineering, while the metric system is widely
used in science.
The International Vocabulary of Metrology defines a quantity as “property of a phenom-
enon, body or substance where the property has a magnitude that can be expressed as a
number and a reference.” The magnitude of the physical quantity is a numerical value, and
the reference or standard will be the measurement unit, measurement procedure, or refer-
ence material. In the imperial system of units, these quantities are measured in feet, slugs
(a slug is that quantity of mass that is accelerated at a rate of one foot per second per second
by a force of one pound; a mass of 1 slug weighs 32.2 pounds), and seconds, respectively,
CH02.indd 3 03-04-2017 07:45:50

4 Chapter 2
while the metric system is divided into two subsystems: the mks, in which the three quan-
tities are specified in meters, kilograms, and seconds, and the cgs, in which centimeters,
grams, and seconds are used to designate length, mass, and time.
By international agreement, the metric system has been replaced by the Système
International, the International System of Units, or simply the SI system. Although many
familiar metric units are employed in SI, it should be emphasized that SI is a new sys-
tem and must not be thought of as a new form of the metric system. The International
System of Quantities (ISQ, ISO/IEC 80000) has a set of seven base quantities from which
all other quantities in the SI system are derived. All the other units such as force, energy,
power, and so on are derived from the basic units of length (meter), mass (kilogram), time
(second), electric current (ampere), thermodynamic temperature (Kelvin or Celsius),
amount of substance (mole), and luminous intensity (candela). Measurement units are real
scalar quantities that can be expressed in base units or derived units. Every measurement
has an uncertainty associated with it, although it may or may not be given in all situations.
Chapter 9 will discuss uncertainty, which for simplicity will be omitted in most calculations.
The basic unit for length, the meter, is also used for determining parameters such as dis-
placement. Displacement is the change in position from one point, x1, to another, x2:
∆x = x2 - x1. (2.1)

Displacement (∆x) over a time interval (∆t) expresses the average velocity (vavg ) in units of
meters per second:
x2 - x1 ∆x
= = vavg .
t 2 - t1 ∆t
where velocity is a vector with magnitude (speed) and direction. Speed is simply the total
distance covered in a time interval, and the instantaneous speed (or velocity) is given by

∆x dx
v = lim = .
∆t →0 ∆t dt
The rate of change of velocity with time is acceleration, and utilizes units of meters per
second per second (m·s−2):

∆v dv
aavg = ; and a =
∆t dt

dv 
d dx  2
d x
a= =   = .
dt dt  dt  dt 2
Deceleration will produce negative values for acceleration.

The derived unit of force, the newton (N), is defined as follows:
One newton is the unbalanced force that will accelerate a mass of one kilogram at a
rate of one meter per second per second.
Expressed mathematically, the result is Newton’s Second Law:
Force = mass × acceleration,
CH02.indd 4 03-04-2017 07:45:52

Review of Physical Principles 5
that is,

Fnet = ma , (2.2)
where the net force on a body is the vector sum of all forces on that body.
The units associated with force in newtons are
m /s
F = kg ⋅ .
s
Since dimensions may be treated algebraically in the same way as numbers, the dimension
for acceleration is written as m/s2. The units for force in units of newton (N), therefore, are
kg ⋅ m
N= .
s2
The unit of force in the cgs system is called the dyne (1 dyne = 10−5 N). A dyne is defined
as the force required to accelerate one gram at a rate of one centimeter per second squared.
Although all health physics measurements are readily expressed in SI units, the U.S. Nuclear
Regulatory Commission continues to use the traditional cgs units in its regulatory activities
and cgs units will occasionally be utilized to illustrate various concepts throughout the text.
Work and Energy

Energy is defined as the ability to do work. Since all work requires the expenditure of energy,
the two terms are expressed in the same units and consequently
have the same dimensions.
Work W is done, or energy expended, when a force F is exerted through some distance x:

W = ∫ F ⋅ dx. (2.3)
In the SI system, the joule (J) (named after the British scientist who measured the mechan-
ical equivalent of heat energy) is the unit of work and energy and is defined as follows:
One joule of work is done when a force of one Newton is exerted through a distance
of one meter. Since work is defined as the product of a force and a distance, the
units for work and energy are as follows:
kg ⋅ m kg ⋅ m 2
Joule = newton ⋅ meter = 2
⋅m = .
s s2
The unit of work or energy in the cgs system is called the erg and is defined as follows:
One erg of work is done when a force of one dyne is exerted through a distance of
one centimeter. The joule is a much greater amount of energy than an erg.
1 joule = 107 ergs.
Although the erg is very much smaller than a joule, it nevertheless is very much greater
than the energies encountered in the submicroscopic world of the atom. When working on
the atomic scale, a more practical unit called the electron volt (eV) is used.
CH02.indd 5 03-04-2017 07:45:55

6 Chapter 2
The electron volt is a unit of energy and is defined as follows:
l eV = 1.6 × 10−19 J = 1.6 × 10−12 erg.
When work is done on a body, the energy expended in doing the work is added to the
energy of the body. The energy expended when work (W) is done to accelerate a body
appears as kinetic energy in the moving body.

W = ∫ F ⋅ dx = ∫ F ⋅ v ⋅ dt = ∫ v ⋅ d p = ∫ v ⋅ d (m ⋅ v ) (2.4)
Assuming that the mass, m, is constant,

1 1 1
W = m∫ v ⋅ d (v ) = m∫ d (v ⋅ v ) = m∫ dv 2 = mv 2 . (2.5)
2 2 2
Kinetic energy (Ek) is defined as the energy possessed by a moving body as a result of its
motion, or the work done accelerating an object.
W = ΔEk = Ek,f − Ek,i(2.6)
When the body is initially at rest, Ek,i = 0, and bodies of constant mass m, moving “slowly”
with a velocity v less than about 3 × 107 m/s, the kinetic energy, Ek, is given by
1
Ek = Ek,f = W = mv 2 . (2.7)
2
Potential energy is defined as energy that a body possesses by virtue of its position in
a force field. In the case where work was done in lifting a body, the mass possesses more
potential energy at the higher elevation than it did before it was lifted. Work was done, in
this case, against the force of gravity and the total increase in potential energy of the mass is
equal to its weight, which is the force with which the mass is attracted to the Earth, multi-
plied by the height through which the mass was raised.
For example, if a mass is lifted from one elevation to another, the energy that was
expended during the performance of the work is converted to potential energy (Ep):

∆Ep = -W = ∫ F ⋅ dx. (2.8)
The total energy of the body is equal to the sum of its potential energy and its kinetic
energy:
Et = Ep + Ek,(2.9)
assuming no external forces act on the system, and there are no internal forces (such as fric-
tion). The total energy, E, of a system can only change by the amount of energy transferred
to or from the system.
W = ΔEp + ΔEk + ΔEthermal + ΔEinternal (2.10)
For an isolated system,
ΔE = ΔEp + ΔEk + ΔEthermal + ΔEinternal = 0. (2.11)
CH02.indd 6 03-04-2017 07:45:58

When the speed of a moving body increases beyond about 3 × 107 m/s, we observe inter-
esting changes in their behavior—changes that were explained by Albert Einstein.
RELATIVISTIC EFFECTS REVIEW

According to the system of classical mechanics that was developed by Newton and the other
great thinkers of the Renaissance period, mass is an immutable property of matter; it can
be changed in size, shape, or state but it can neither be created nor be destroyed. Although
this law of conservation of mass seems to be true for the world that we can perceive with
our senses, it is in fact only a special case for conditions of large masses and slow speeds. In
the submicroscopic world of the atom, where masses are measured on the order of 10−27 kg,
where distances are measured on the order of 10−10 m, and where velocities are measured in
terms of the velocity of light, classical mechanics is not applicable. Albert Einstein’s special
theory of relativity provides us with an explanation for these circumstances.
There are three main postulates of Einstein’s special theory of relativity:
1. The velocity of light in a vacuum is constant at 299,792,458 m/s (for practical purposes,
a value of 3.00 × 108 is used) relative to every observer in any reference frame.
2. He also postulated that the speed of light is an upper limit of speed that a material body
can asymptotically approach, but never can attain. Photons travel at the speed of light in
a vacuum and in all inertial reference frames, as they have no mass.
3. The physics are the same for observers within the all inertial reference frames. Classi-
cal mechanics, optics, and other physics basics remain the same for all observers within
any inertial reference frame. Making measurements from different frames of reference
requires us to consider relativity.
Although the laws of physics are the same for all observers in inertial reference frames,
measured values may not be the same for all observers. For example, time intervals as mea-
sured in two reference frames will depend on both space and time separation. For example,
the observer of a person moving at a velocity close to the speed of light will measure a time
“dilation.” The time interval, t′, observed in the moving frame (from the point of view of the
stationary observer) will be longer than the time interval observed by that observer in his/
her resting frame (t). The time dilation, t′, can be calculated using the following equations:
1
∆t ′ = ∆t . (2.12a)
v2
1- 2
c
When the following are substituted:
v2
β 2 = 2 , (2.13)
c
1 1
γ= 2
= , (2.14)
v 1- β 2
1-
c2
we obtain the following equation:
Δt′ = γΔt.(2.12b)
CH02.indd 7 03-04-2017 07:46:01

8 Chapter 2
EXAMPLE 2-1(a)
If the mean life (t) of a muon is 2.2 × 10-6 seconds, with a velocity of 99.88% of the speed of
light, what would the mean life (t′) appear to be from a person in the rest frame?
Solution
Substituting values into Eqs. (2.14) and (2.12b),
Δt′ = γ Δt,
1 1
γ= = = 20.42,
v  1-(0.9988)2
1- 
c 
Δt′ = 20.42 × (2.2 × 10-6 s) = 4.49 × 10-5 s.
Not only can time dilation be observed between two reference frames, but also the length
of a path in the resting frame (rest length L) will be longer than length measured in the mov-
ing frame (L′) along the direction of movement. This follows directly from time dilation.
For the classical case, the length L traveled can be found by
L = v ⋅ Δt.(2.15a)
To find the length traveled in the moving frame, L′, the previous reasoning on time dila-
tion has to be reversed. The “observer” now appears in the moving frame, but the proper
length (L) is measured in the stationary frame which now moves (in the opposite direction)
with respect to that observer. The stationary observer measures both the proper time and
the proper length, such that the moving observer consequently has to experience a prop-
erly contracted time interval. Effectively, the indices between the two reference frames have
switched, such that now Eq. (2.12b) changes, and is rewritten as
Δt = γ Δt′.(2.12c)
The length traveled in the moving frame then becomes
L′ = v ⋅ Δt′.(2.15b)
Solving the above equation for Δt′ and substituting in Eq. (2.12c) for the moving frame
of reference:
∆t L
L ′ = v ⋅ ∆t ′ = v = , (2.15c)
γ γ
L = γ ⋅ L′, (2.15d)
where γ > 1, L > L′, as the distance traveled must be longer in the rest frame.
CH02.indd 8 03-04-2017 07:46:03

EXAMPLE 2-1(b)
Find the distance that the muon in Example 2.1(a) travels in the rest frame, L. Note that
the muon experiences the mean life in its rest frame (which in this example is the moving
frame). The indices on t and t′ are reversed.
Solution
From Example 2.1(a)
γ = 20.42,
Δt′ = 2.2 × 10-6 s (mean life that the muon experiences).
Combining Eqs. (2.15b) and (2.15d),
L′ = ν ⋅ Δt′,
L = γ ⋅ L′ = γ · v ∙ Δt′,
 m
L = 20.42 ⋅ 0.9988 ⋅ 3 ×108  ⋅ 2.2 ×10-6 s,
 s
L = 1.35 × 104 m.
The distance we would “expect” the muon to travel with nonrelativistic effects would be
20.42 times less than what we actually observe.
Velocity transformation follows, where u is the rest frame velocity, u′ is the velocity in the
primed reference frame, and the primed reference frame is moving at velocity v with respect
to the rest frame:
u′ + v
u= . (2.16)
 v
1 + u′ 2 
 c 
Relativistic momentum can thus be found by

p = γmv , (2.17)
and acceleration (note that acceleration decreases with increasing velocity) by
3/2
F  u2 
a= 1-  . (2.18)
m  c 2 
The equivalence of mass and energy is one of the most important consequences of Einstein’s
special theory of relativity. According to Einstein, the relationship between mass and energy is
E = mc2,(2.19)
where E is the total energy of a piece of matter whose mass is m and c is the velocity of light
in vacuum. Note that mc2 is independent of velocity and is frequently referred to as “rest
CH02.indd 9 03-04-2017 07:46:06

10 Chapter 2
energy.” Equations (2.20a) and (2.20b) are expressions for kinetic energy and must be used
whenever the moving body experiences observable relativistic effects, less the “rest energy”
when relativistic effects are considered:
Ek = γmc2 − mc2,
Ek = mc2(γ – 1), (2.20a)
 
1
Ek = mc 2  1 / 2 - 1.
 (2.20b)
 (1- β )
2

The relativistic expression for kinetic energy given by Eq. (2.20b) is rigorously true for
particles moving at all velocities, whereas the nonrelativistic expression for kinetic energy,
Eq. (2.7), is applicable only to cases where the velocity of the moving particle is much less
than the velocity of light. It can be shown that the relativistic expression reduces to the
nonrelativistic expression for low velocities by expanding the expression (1 − β2)−1/2 in
Eq. (2.19b) according to the binomial theorem and then dropping higher terms that become
insignificant when v << c. According to the binomial theorem,
n n(n -1)an-2b2
(a + b) = an + nan-1b + + . (2.21)
2!
The expansion of (1 − β2)−1/2 according to Eq. (2.21) is accomplished by letting a = 1,
b = −β2, and n = −1/2.
2 -1/ 2 1 3
(1- β ) = 1 + β 2 + β 4 +
2 8
(2.22)
Since β = v/c, then, if v << c, terms from β4 and higher will be insignificantly small and
may therefore be dropped. Then, after substituting the first two terms from Eq. (2.22) into
Eq. (2.20b), we have
 1 v2  1
Ek = m0c 2 1 + 2 -1 = m0v 2 ,
 2 c  2
which is the nonrelativistic case. Equation (2.7) is applicable when v << c.
EXAMPLE 2-2
(a) What is the kinetic energy of an electron that travels at 99% of the velocity of light?
Solution
 
 1 
Ek = m0 c 2  - 1
 1 - β 2 1/2 
( ) 
 

2  
m  1  = 4.99 ×10-13 J.
= 9.11×10 -31
kg 3 ×108  - 1
 s   2
1/ 2

 1 - (0.99)  
 
CH02.indd 10 03-04-2017 07:46:10

(b) How much additional energy is required to increase the velocity of this electron to
99.9% of the velocity of light, an increase in velocity of only 0.9%?
Solution
The kinetic energy of an electron whose velocity is 99.9% of the speed of light is
 

2  
m  1
Ek = 9.11×10 -31
kg 3 ×108  -1 = 17.52 ×10-13 J.
 s   2
1/ 2

 1 - (0.999)  
 
The additional work necessary to increase the kinetic energy of the electron from 99% to
99.9% of the velocity of light is
∆W = (17.52 - 4.99)×10-13 J
= 12.53 ×10-13 J.
In Example 2.2, it has been shown that at a very high velocity (β = 0.99) a kinetic energy
increase of 253% resulted in a velocity increase of the moving body by only 0.9%. In non-
relativistic cases, the increase in velocity is directly proportional to the square root of the
work done on the moving body or, in other words, to the kinetic energy of the body. In
the relativistic case, the velocity increase due to additional energy is smaller than in the
nonrelativistic case.
The principle of relativity tells us that all matter contains potential energy by virtue of
its mass. It is this energy source that is tapped to obtain nuclear energy. The main virtue
of this energy source is the vast amount of energy that can be derived from conversion into
its energy equivalent of small amounts of nuclear fuel.
EXAMPLE 2-3
(a) How much energy can be obtained from 1 g of nuclear fuel?
Solution
2
 m
E = mc 2 = 1×10-3 kg ⋅ 3 ×108  = 9 ×1013 J
 s
Since there are 2.78 × 10−7 kilowatt-hours (kW · h) per joule, 1 g of nuclear fuel yields
J kW ⋅h kW ⋅h
E = 9 ×1013 ⋅ 2.78 ×10-7 = 2.5 ×107 .
g J g
CH02.indd 11 03-04-2017 07:46:12

12 Chapter 2
(b) How much coal, whose heat content is 13,000 Btu/lb, must be burned to liberate the
same amount of energy as 1 g of nuclear fuel?
Solution
1 Btu = 2.93×10-4 kW ⋅ h
Therefore, the amount of coal required is
Btu  -4 kW ⋅ h 
 2 ×103 lb ⋅C tons.
2.5 ×107 kW ⋅ h = 1.3 ×104 2.93 ×10
lb Btu  to
on
Therefore,
C = 3280 tons (2981 metric tons).
The loss in mass accompanying ordinary energy transformations is not detectable

because of the very large amount of energy released per unit mass and the consequent very
small change in mass for ordinary reactions. In the case of coal, for example, the above
example shows a loss in mass of 1 g per 3280 tons. The fractional mass loss is
∆m 1g
f= = = 3.3 ×10-10.
m  3 lb  4.54 ×10 g
3.28 ×10 tons 2 ×10
3 2
 ton  lb
Such a small fractional loss in mass is not detectable by any of our ordinary weighing
techniques.
ELECTRICITY
Electric Charge: The Coulomb
All the elements are electrical in nature and, except for hydrogen, are constructed of mul-
tiples of two charged particles and one uncharged particle. Their electrical properties are
due to extremely small, charged particles called protons and electrons. The mass of the pro-
ton is 1.6726 × 10−27 kg (1.6726 × 10−24 g) and the mass of the electron is 9.1094 × 10−31 kg
(9.1094 × 10−28 g) (see Appendix A for unrounded values). These two particles have charges
of exactly the same magnitude but are qualitatively different.
A proton is said to have a positive charge and an electron has a negative charge. Under
normal conditions, matter is electrically neutral because the positive and negative charges
are homogeneously (on a macroscopic scale) dispersed in equal numbers in a manner that
results in no net charge. However, it is possible, by suitable treatment, to induce either net
positive or negative charges on bodies. For example, combing hair with a hard rubber comb
transfers electrons to the comb from the hair, leaving a net negative charge on the comb.
CH02.indd 12 03-04-2017 07:46:13

The uncharged component in elements is called the neutron; it has a mass of 1.6749 ×
10−27 kg (1.6749 × 10−24 g). For health physics purposes, these three particles—electron,
proton, and neutron—may be considered the basic building blocks of matter (although we
now understand that protons and neutrons themselves are made of still smaller particles
called quarks). It should be pointed out here that high-energy accelerators produce—in
addition to protons, neutrons, and electrons—a number of different extremely short-lived
unstable particles. In the context of health physics, the most important of these particles are
charged and uncharged pions and muons because they give rise to very high energy electrons
and gamma rays when they decay. Muons are produced also by cosmic radiation and con-
tribute to the dose from cosmic radiation.
Charged bodies exert forces on each other by virtue of their electric fields. Bodies with
like charges repel each other while those with unlike charges attract each other. In the case
of point charges, the magnitude of these electric forces is proportional to the product of
the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the charged
bodies (r). This relationship was described by Coulomb and is known as Coulomb’s law.
Expressed algebraically, it is
q1q2
Fe = k , (2.23)
r2
where k, the constant of proportionality, depends on the nature of the medium that separates
the charges, q. In the SI system, the unit of electric charge, called the coulomb (C), is defined
in terms of electric current rather than by Coulomb’s law. For this reason, the constant of
proportionality has a value not equal to 1 but rather
N ⋅ m2
k0 = 9.00 ×109 , (2.24)
C2
when the two charges are in a vacuum or in air (air at atmospheric pressure exerts very little
influence on the force developed between charges and thus may be considered equivalent to
a vacuum). The subscript 0 signifies the value of k in a vacuum. If the charges are separated
by materials, other than air, that are poor conductors of electricity (such materials are called
dielectrics), the value of k is different and depends on the material.
It is convenient to define k0 in terms of another constant, ε0, called the permittivity:
1 N ⋅ m2
k0 = = 9.00 ×109 , (2.25)
4πε0 C2
1 1 C2
ε0 = = = 8.85 ×10-12 .
4πk0 N⋅m 2
N ⋅ m2
4π ⋅ 9.00 ×109
C2
The permittivity of any other medium is designated by ε. The relative permittivity, Ke, of
a substance is defined by
ε
Ke = (2.26)
ε0
and is called the dielectric coefficient.
CH02.indd 13 03-04-2017 07:46:17

14 Chapter 2
For all dielectric materials, the dielectric coefficient has a value greater than 1. If every-
thing else is held constant, a higher dielectric coefficient leads to a greater amount of stored
electric energy.
The smallest natural quantity of electric charge is the charge on the electron or pro-
ton, ±1.6 × 10−19 C. The reciprocal of the electronic charge, 6.25 × 1018, is the number of
electrons whose aggregate charge is 1 C. In the cgs system, the unit of charge is the
statcoulomb (sC), and the electronic charge is 4.8 × 10−10 sC. There are 3 × 109 sC in 1 C (see
Appendix A for exact value).
EXAMPLE 2-4
Compare the electrical and gravitational forces of attraction between an electron and a pro-
ton separated by 5 × 10−11 m.
Solution
The electrical force is given by Eq. (2.23):
q1q2 9 N⋅m
2
1.6 ×10-19 C ⋅1.6 ×10-19 C
f = k0 = 9 . 00 × 10 ⋅ 2
r2 C2 (5 ×10-11 m)
= 9.2 ×10-8 N.
The gravitational force between two bodies follows the same mathematical formulation
as Coulomb’s law for electrical forces. In the case of gravitational forces, the force is always
attractive. The gravitational force is given by
Gm1m2
F= . (2.27)
r2
G is a universal constant that is equal to 6.67 × 10−11 N·m2/kg2 and must be used because
the unit of force, the Newton, was originally defined using “inertial” mass, according to
Newton’s second law of motion, given by Eq. (2.2). The mass in Eq. (2.27) is commonly
called “gravitational” mass. Despite the two different designations, it should be emphasized
that inertial mass and gravitational mass are equivalent. It should also be pointed out that
F in Eq. (2.27) gives the weight of an object of mass m1 when m2 represents the mass of the
Earth and r is the distance from the object to the center of the Earth. Weight is merely a mea-
sure of the gravitational attractive force between an object and the Earth and therefore varies
from point to point on the surface of the Earth, according to the distance of the point from
the Earth’s center. On the surface of another planet, the weight of the same object would be
different from that on the Earth because of the different size and mass of that planet and its
consequent different attractive force. In outer space, if the object is not under the gravita-
tional influence of any heavenly body, it must be weightless. Mass, however, is a measure of
the amount of matter and its numerical value is therefore independent of the point in the
universe where it is measured.
CH02.indd 14 03-04-2017 07:46:18

The gravitational force between the electron and the proton is
N ⋅ m2
6.67 ×10-11 ⋅ 9.11×10-31 kg ⋅ 1.67 ×10-27 kg
kg 2
F= 2
(5 ×10 -11
m)
= 4.1×10-47 N.
It is immediately apparent that in the interaction between charged particles, gravitational

forces are extremely small in comparison with the electrical forces acting between the par-
ticles and may be completely neglected in most instances.
Electrical Potential: The Volt

If one charge is held rigidly and another charge is placed in the electric field of the first
charge, it will have a certain amount of potential energy relative to any other point within
the electric field. In the case of electric potential energy, the reference point is taken at an
infinite distance from the charge that sets up the electric field, that is, at a point far enough
from the charge so that its effect is negligible. As a consequence of the great separation,
these charges do not interact electrically. Therefore, a value of zero is arbitrarily assigned
to the potential energy in the system of charges; the charge at an infinite distance from
the one that sets up the electric field has no electric potential energy. If the two charges
are of the same sign, bringing them closer together requires work (or the expenditure of
energy) in order to overcome the repulsive force between the two charges. Since work was
done in bringing the two charges together, the potential energy in the system of charges
is now greater than it was initially. However, if the two charges are of opposite signs,
then a decrease in distance between them occurs spontaneously because of the attractive
forces, and work is done by the system. The potential energy of the system consequently
decreases, that is, the potential energy of the freely moving charge with respect to the
rigidly held charge decreases. This is exactly analogous to the case of a freely falling mass
whose potential energy decreases as it approaches the surface of the Earth. In the case
of the mass in the Earth’s gravitational field, however, the reference point for potential
energy of the mass is arbitrarily set on the surface of the Earth. This means that the mass
has no potential energy when it is lying right on the Earth’s surface. All numerical values
for potential energy of the mass, therefore, are positive numbers. In the case of electric
potential energy, however, as a consequence of the arbitrary convention that the point of
the zero numerical value is at an infinite distance from the charge that sets up the electric
field, the numerical values for the potential energy of a charge, owing to attractive electri-
cal forces, must be negative.
The quantitative aspects of electric potential energy may be investigated with the aid of
Figure 2-1, which shows a charge +Q that sets up an electric field extending uniformly in
all directions. Another charge, +q, is used to explore the electric field set up by Q. When
CH02.indd 15 03-04-2017 07:46:20

16 Chapter 2
b a
+Q +q
rb
ra
Figure 2-1. Diagram illustrating work done in moving a charge between two points of different
potential in an electric field.
the exploring charge is at point a, at a distance ra cm from Q, it has an amount of potential

energy that depends on the magnitudes of Q, q, and ra. If the charge q is now to be moved to
point b, which is closer to Q, then, because of the repulsive force between the two charges,
work is done in moving the charge from point a to point b. The amount of work that is
done in moving charge q from point a to point b may be calculated by multiplying the
force exerted on the charge q by the distance through which it was moved, in accordance
with Eq. (2.2). From Eq. (2.23), however, it is seen that the force is not constant but varies
inversely with the square of the distance between the charges. The magnitude of the force,
therefore, increases rapidly as the charge q approaches Q, and increasingly greater amounts
of work are done when the exploring charge q is moved a unit distance. The movement of
the exploring charge may be accomplished by a series of infinitesimally small movements,
during each of which an infinitesimally small amount of work is done. The total energy
expenditure, or increase in potential energy of the exploring charge, is then merely equal to
the sum of all the infinitesimal increments of work. This infinitesimal energy increment is
given by Eq. (2.3):
dW = − f dr
(the minus sign is used here because an increase in potential energy results from a decrease
in distance between the charges) and if the value for f from Eq. (2.23) is substituted into
Eq. (2.3), we have
Qq
dW = -k0 dr , (2.28)
r2
rb
dr
W = -k0 Qq ∫ . (2.29)
ra
r2
Integration of Eq. (2.29) gives
1 1
W = k0Qq  - . (2.30)
 rb ra 
If the distances a and b are measured in meters and if the charges are given in coulombs,
then the energy W is given in joules.
CH02.indd 16 03-04-2017 07:46:23

EXAMPLE 2-5
If, in Figure 2-1, Q is +44.4 μC, q is +5 μC, and ra and rb are 2 m and 1 m, respectively, then
calculate the work done in moving the 5 μC charge from point a to point b.
Solution
The work done is, from Eq. (2.30),
N ⋅ m2  1 1 
W = 9.00 ×109 ⋅(44.4 ×10-6 C) ⋅ 5 ×10-6 C  - 
C 2
1 m 2 m 
= 1 N ⋅ m = 1 J.
In this example, 1 J of energy was expended in moving the 5 μC of charge from a to b.

The work per unit charge is
W 1J J
= = 200, 000 .
q -6
5 ×10 C C
We therefore say that the potential difference between points a and b is 200,000 V, since,
by definition:
One volt of potential difference exists between any two points in an electric field if
one joule of energy is expended in moving a charge of one coulomb between the
two points.
Expressed more concisely, the definition of a volt is

J
1 V =1 .
C
In Example 2.5, point b is the point of higher potential with respect to point a, because
work had to be done on the charge to move it to b from a.
The electrical potential at any point due to an electric field from a point charge Q is
defined as the potential energy that a unit positive exploring charge +q would have if it were
brought from a point at an infinite distance from Q to the point in question. The electrical
potential at point b in Figure 2-1 can be computed from Eq. (2.29) by setting distance ra
equal to infinity. The potential at point b, Vb, which is defined as the potential energy per
unit positive charge at b, is, therefore,
W Q
Vb = = k0 . (2.31)
q rb

CH02.indd 17 03-04-2017 07:46:25

18 Chapter 2
EXAMPLE 2-6
(a) What is the potential at a distance of 5 × 10−11 m from a proton?
Solution
-19
Q N ⋅ m 2 1.6 ×10 C N⋅m
V = k0 = 9.00 ×109 ⋅ = 28.8
r C2 5 ×10-11 m C
J
= 28.8 = 28. 8 V
C
(b) What is the potential energy of another proton at this point?
Solution
According to Eq. (2.31), the potential energy of the proton is equal to the product of its
charge and the potential of its location. Therefore,
Ep = qV = 1.6 ×10-19 C ⋅ 28.8 V = 4.6 ×10-18 J.
Electrical Current: The Ampere

A flow of electrically charged particles constitutes an electric current. The unit for the
amount of current is the ampere (A), which is a measure of the time rate of flow of charge.
The ampere is defined in the SI system by the interaction between a current flowing through
a conductor and a magnetic field. However, a useful working definition is that one ampere
represents a flow rate of charge of one coulomb per second. Ordinarily, the charge carrier in
an electric current is the electron. Since the charge on an electron is 1.6 × 10−19 C, a current
of 1 A represents an electron flow rate of
1 C /s 1 electrons/s
⋅ = 6.25 ×1018 .
A -19 C A
1.6 ×10
electron
A 100-μA electron beam in an X-ray tube represents an electron flow rate of
electrons/s
100 ×10-6 A ⋅ 6.25 ×1018 = 6.25 ×1014 electrons/s.
A
Current is determined only by the flow rate of charge. For example, in the case of a beam
of alpha particles, whose charge = 2(1.6 × 10−19 C) = 3.2 × 10−19 C, 1 A corresponds to
3.125 × 1018 alpha particles.
CH02.indd 18 03-04-2017 07:46:28

– +
Figure 2-2. Diagram showing the potential energy of an

electron in an electric field. V
The direction of current flow was arbitrarily determined, before the discovery of the elec-
tron, to be from the positive electrode to the negative electrode of a closed circuit. In fact, the
electrons flow in the opposite direction. However, conventional current flow still goes from
positive to negative. When we are interested in the actual direction of flow, we use the term
“electron current” to indicate current flow from negative to positive.
The Electron Volt: A Unit of Energy

If two electrodes are connected to the terminals of a source of voltage, as shown in
Figure 2-2, then a charged particle anywhere in the electric field between the two plates will
have an amount of potential energy given by Eq. (2.31)
W = qV,
where V is the electrical potential at the point occupied by the charged particle. If, for exam-
ple, the cathode in Figure 2-2 is 1-V negative with respect to the anode and the charged
particle is an electron on the surface of the cathode, then the potential energy of the electron
with respect to the anode is
W = qV = -1.6 ×10-19 C ⋅ (-1 V)

= 1.6 ×10-19 J.
This amount of energy, 1.6 × 10−19 J, is called an electron volt and is symbolized by eV. Since
the magnitude of the electron volt is convenient in dealing with the energetics of atomic and
nuclear mechanics, this quantity of energy is taken as a unit and is frequently used in health
physics. Multiples of the electron volt are the keV (103 eV), MeV (106 eV), and GeV (109 eV).
EXAMPLE 2-7
How many electron volts of energy correspond to the mass of a resting electron?
Solution
E = mc 2
2
 m
= 9.11×10-31 kg ⋅3.00 ×108 
 s
= 81.99 ×10-15 J.
CH02.indd 19 03-04-2017 07:46:30

20 Chapter 2
J
Since there are 1.6 × 10−19 ,
eV
81.99 ×10-15 J
E= = 0.51×106 eV.
-19 J
1.6 ×10
eV
It should be emphasized that, although the numerical value for the electron volt was cal-
culated by computing the potential energy of an electron at a potential of 1 V, the electron
volt is not a unit of electrons or volts; it is a unit of energy and may be interchanged (after
numerical correction) with any other unit of energy.
EXAMPLE 2-8
How many electron volts of heat must be added to change 1 L of water whose temperature
is 50°C to completely dry steam?
Solution
cal cal
The specific heat of water is 1 , and the heat of vaporization of water is 539 .
Therefore, g g
 cal cal 
heat energy added = 1000 g 1 ⋅(100 - 50)deg + 539 
 g ⋅ deg g 

= 589, 000 cal.
J J
Since there are 4.186 and 1.6 ×10-19 , we have
cal eV
J
5.89 ×105 cal ⋅ 4.186
heat energy added = cal = 1.54 ×1025 eV.
J
1.6 ×10-19
eV
The answer to Example 2.8 is an astronomically large number (but not very much energy
on the scale of ordinary physical and chemical reactions) and shows why the electron volt is
a useful energy unit only for reactions in the atomic world.
CH02.indd 20 03-04-2017 07:46:31

EXAMPLE 2-9
An alpha particle, whose charge is +[2(1.6 × 10−19)] C and whose mass is 6.645 × 10−27 kg,
is accelerated across a potential difference of 100,000 V. What is its kinetic energy, in joules
and in electron volts, and how fast is it moving?
Solution
The potential energy of the alpha particle at the moment it starts to accelerate is, from
Eq. (2.31),
W = qV = 2 ⋅ (1.6 ×10-19 C ) ⋅105 V

 
= 3.2 ×10-14 J.
In terms of electron volts,
3.2 ×10-14 J
W= = 2 ×105 eV.
-19 J
1.6 ×10
eV
Since all the alpha particle’s potential energy is converted into kinetic energy after it
falls through the 100,000-V (100 kV) potential difference, the kinetic energy must then be
200,000 eV (200 keV).
The velocity of the alpha particle may be computed by equating its potential and kinetic
energies,
1
qV = mv 2 , (2.32)
2
and solving for v:
1/ 2
 
 2 ⋅(3.2 ×10 C) ⋅(10 V )
1/ 2 -19 5
 2qV 
v =  
 =  
 m   -27
6.645 ×10 kg 
m
= 3.1×106 .
s
Electric Field
The term electric field was used in the preceding sections of this chapter without an explicit
definition. Implicit in the use of the term, however, was the connotation by the context that
an electric field is any region where electric forces act. “Electric field” is not merely a descrip-
tive term; defining an electric field requires a number in order to specify the magnitude of
CH02.indd 21 03-04-2017 07:46:34

22 Chapter 2
Q q
+ + f
Figure 2-3. The force on an exploring charge +q in the electric field of charge +Q.
the electric forces that act in the electric field and a direction in which these forces act, and,
thus, it is a vector quantity. The strength of an electric field is called the electric field inten-
sity and may be defined in terms of the force (magnitude and direction) that acts on a unit
exploring charge that is placed into the electric field. Consider an isolated charge +Q that
sets up an electric field and an exploring charge +q that is used to investigate the electric
field, as shown in Figure 2-3. The exploring charge will experience a force in the direction
shown and of a magnitude given by Eq. (2.23):
Qq
f = k0 .
r2
The force per unit charge at the point r meters from charge Q is the electric field intensity
at that point and is given by the equation
f N N ⋅ m2 Q C
ε= = k0 ⋅ . (2.33)
qC C 2 r 2 m2
According to Eq. (2.33), electric field intensity is expressed in units of force per unit
charge, that is, in newton per coulomb. It should be emphasized that ε is a vector quantity,
that is, it has direction as well as magnitude.
EXAMPLE 2-10
(a) What is the electric field intensity at point P due to the two charges +6 C and +3 C,
shown in Figure 2-4(A)?
Solution
The electric field intensity at point P due to the +6 C charge is
2
Q1 N ⋅m 6C N
ε1 = k0 2
= 9.00 ×109 2
⋅ = 1.35 ×1010 ,
r1 C (2 m)2 C
and acts in the direction shown in Figure 2-4(A). (The magnitude of the field intensity
is shown graphically by a vector whose length is proportional to the field intensity. In
Figure 2-4(A), the scale is 1 cm = 1 × 1010 N/C. ε1 is therefore drawn 1.35-cm long).
ε2, the electric field intensity at P due to the +3 C charge, is
2
Q2 N ⋅m 3C N
ε2 = k0 2
= 9.00 ×109 2
⋅ = 2.7 ×1010 ,
r2 C (1 m)2 C
CH02.indd 22 03-04-2017 07:46:37

εR
ε2
a
b ε1
b
P
2m A
A ε
1
1m a
c c
2m P +
–
1m Q1 = +6 C Q2 = –3 C
εR
Q1 = +6 C + + Q2 = +3 C ε2
A B
Figure 2-4. Resultant electric field from (A) two positive charges and (B) two opposite charges.
and acts along the line Q2P, as shown in the illustration. The resultant electric intensity at
point P is the vector sum of ε1 and ε2. If these two vectors are accurately drawn in magnitude
and direction, the resultant may be obtained graphically by completing the parallelogram
of forces and drawing the diagonal εR. The length of the diagonal is proportional to the
magnitude of the resultant electric field intensity and its direction shows the direction of
the electric field at point P. In this case, since 1 × 1010 N/C is represented by 1 cm, the resultant
electric field intensity is found to be about 4 × 1010 N/C and it acts in a direction 30° clockwise
from the vertical. The value of εR may also be determined from the law of cosines
a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos A,(2.34)
where b and c are two adjacent sides of a triangle, A is the included angle, and a is the side
opposite angle A. In this case, b is 2.7 × 1010, c is 1.35 × 1010, angle A is 120°, and a is the resul-
tant εR, the electric field intensity whose magnitude is to be calculated. From Eq. (2.34), we find
2 2
εR2 = (2.7 ×1010 ) + (1.35 ×1010 ) - 2(2.7 ×1010 )(1.35 ×1010 ) cos 120°
N
εR = 3.57 ×1010 .
C
(b) What is the magnitude and direction of εR if the 3 C charge is negative and the 6 C
charge is positive?
Solution
In this case, the magnitudes of ε1 and ε2 would be exactly the same as in part (a) of this
example; the direction of ε1 would also remain unchanged, but the direction of ε2 would be
toward the −3 C charge, as shown in Figure 2-4(B). From the geometric arrangement, it
is seen that the resultant intensity acts in a direction 120° clockwise from the vertical. The
magnitude of εR, from Eq. (2.34), is
2 2
εR2 = (2.7 ×1010 ) + (1.35 ×1010 ) - 2(2.7 ×1010 )(1.35 ×1010 ) cos 60°
N
εR = 2.34 ×1010 .
C
CH02.indd 23 03-04-2017 07:46:39

24 Chapter 2
d
V
Figure 2-5. Conditions for producing a relatively uniform electric field. The field will be quite uniform
throughout the region between the plates, but will be distorted at the edges of the plates.
Point charges result in nonuniform electric fields. A uniform electric field may be pro-
duced by applying a potential difference across two large parallel plates made of electrical
conductors separated by an insulator, as shown in Figure 2-5.
The electric intensity throughout the region between the two plates is ε newton per cou-
lomb. The force acting on any charge within this field therefore is
f = eq N. (2.35)
If the charge q happens to be positive, then to move it across the distance d, from the
negative to the positive plates, against the electric force in the uniform field requires the
expenditure of energy given by the equation
W = fd = eqd.(2.36)
However, since potential difference (V) is defined as work per unit charge, Eq. (2.36) may
be expressed as
W
V= = εd (2.37)
q
or
V V
ε= . (2.38)
dm
Equation (2.38) expresses electric field intensity in the units most commonly used for this
purpose—volts per meter.
A nonuniform electric field that is of interest to the health physicist (in instrument
design) is that due to a potential difference applied across two coaxial conductors, as
shown in Figure 2-6. If the radius of the inner conductor is a meters and that of the outer
conductor is b meters, then the electric intensity at any point between the two conductors,
r meters from the center, is given by
1 V V
ε= ⋅ , (2.39)
r b  m
ln 
a 
where V is the potential difference between the two conductors.
CH02.indd 24 03-04-2017 07:46:41

Figure 2-6. Conditions for the nonuniform electric field between two coaxial conductors given by
Eq. (2.39).
EXAMPLE 2-11
A Geiger–Müller counter is constructed of a wire anode whose diameter is 0.1 mm and a

cathode, coaxial with the anode, whose diameter is 2 cm. If the voltage across the tube is
1000 V, what is the electric field intensity
(a) at a distance of 0.03 mm from the surface of the anode and
(b) at a point midway between the center of the tube and the cathode?
Solution
(a) We know
1 V
ε= ⋅ .
r  b 

ln  
 a 
1
Letting r = 2 (0.01) + 0.003 = 0.008 cm = 8 × 10−5 m, we have
1 1000 V V
ε= ⋅ = 2.36 ×106 .
8 ×10-5 m ln 1  m
 0.005 
(b) At r = 0.005 m,
1 1000 V V
ε= ⋅ = 3.78 ×104 .
0.005 m ln 1  m
 0.005 
CH02.indd 25 03-04-2017 07:46:44

26 Chapter 2
It should be noted that in the case of coaxial geometry, extremely intense electric fields
may be obtained with relatively small potential differences. Such large fields require mainly
a small ratio of outer to inner electrode radii.
ENERGY TRANSFER
In a quantitative sense, the biological effects of radiation depend on the amount of energy
absorbed by living matter from a radiation field and by the spatial distribution in tissue of
the absorbed energy. In order to comprehend the physics of tissue irradiation, some perti-
nent mechanisms of energy transfer must be understood.
Elastic Collision
An elastic collision is defined as a collision between two bodies in which kinetic energy and
momentum are conserved; that is, the sum of the kinetic energy of the two bodies before the
collision is equal to their sum after the collision, and the sums of their momenta before and
after the collision are the same. In an elastic collision, the total kinetic energy is redistributed
between the colliding bodies; one body gains energy at the expense of the other. A simple
case is illustrated in the example below.
EXAMPLE 2-12
A block of mass 10 kg, made of a perfectly elastic material, slides on a frictionless surface
with a velocity of 2 m/s and strikes a stationary elastic block whose mass is 2 kg (Fig. 2-7).
How much energy was transferred from the large block (M) to the small block (m) during
the collision?
Solution
If V1 and v1, and V2 and v2 are the respective velocities of the large and small blocks before
and after the collision, then, according to the laws of conservation of energy and momen-
tum, we have
1 1 1 1
MV12 + mv12 = MV22 + mv22 (2.40)
2 2 2 2
and
MV1 + mv1 = MV2 + mv2 . (2.41)

Since v1 = 0, Eqs. (2.40) and (2.41) may be solved simultaneously to give
m m
V2 = 1 13 and v2 = 3 13 .
s s
CH02.indd 26 03-04-2017 07:46:46

M = 10 kg
Frictionless m = 2 kg
surface V1 = 2 m/s v1 = 0
Figure 2-7. Elastic collision between blocks M and m, in which the sum of both kinetic energy and
momenta of the two blocks before and after the collision are the same.
The kinetic energy transferred during the collision is
1 1 1  16  1
MV12 - MV22 = ⋅104 -  = 11 J,
2 2 2   9 9
and this, of course, is the energy gained by the smaller block:
1 2 1 100 1
mv = ⋅ 2 ⋅ = 11 J.
2 2 9 9
Note that the magnitude of the force exerted by the larger block on the smaller block
during the collision was not considered in the solution of Example 2.12. The reason for not
explicitly calculating the force in the solution is because the time the force is acting on the
block is not known, since

F ×∆t = m ×∆v.
The force necessary to change the momentum of a block is dependent on the time during
which it acts. The parameter of importance in this case is the product of the force and the
time. This parameter is called the impulse which may be written in words as
Impulse = change of momentum.
The length of time during which the force acts depends on the relative velocity of the
system of moving masses and on the nature of the mass. Generally, the more the colliding
blocks “give in,” the greater will be the time of application of the force and the smaller, con-
sequently, will be the magnitude of the force. For this reason, for example, a baseball player
who catches a ball moves his hand back at the moment of impact, thereby increasing the
time during which the stopping force acts and decreasing the shock to his hand. For this
same reason, a jumper flexes his knees as his feet strike the ground, thereby increasing the
time that his body comes to rest and decreasing the force on his body. For example, a man
who jumps down a distance of 1 m is moving with a velocity of 4.43 m/s at the instant that
he strikes the floor. If he weighs 70 kg and if he lands rigidly flat-footed and is brought to
a complete stop in 0.01 s, then the stopping force is 3.1 × 104 N, or 6980 lb. If, however, he
CH02.indd 27 03-04-2017 07:46:49

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Da hörte ganz plötzlich der Regen auf. Der Donner verstummte,
und einen Augenblick herrschte unheimliche Stille. Nur einen
Augenblick! Die nun folgenden zwanzig Minuten aber werde ich
niemals vergessen. Sie brachten das fürchterlichste, wildeste
Naturschauspiel, das ich jemals erlebt habe, und ich habe doch
ziemlich viel dergleichen mitgemacht. Erst fielen vereinzelte,
schwere Tropfen, dann schmetterte ein Platzregen herunter, wie ihn
nur die Tropen kennen. Gleichzeitig brauste ein betäubender Orkan
über den Strom. Die Fähre stutzte wie vor Schreck, stand einen
Augenblick still, dann drehte sie sich so, daß die Backbordhälfte mit
der Hütte leewärts lag und somit als Windfang und Segel wirkte. Und
sofort trieben wir in reißender Schnelligkeit quer durch die Strömung
zum linken Ufer hin. Der Euphrat mochte hier etwa vierhundert Meter
breit sein, und diese weite Fläche hatte sich in wenigen Minuten mit
gewaltigen, schaumgekrönten Wogen bedeckt, deren Kämme immer
höher emporspritzten und über die Reling der leeren Luvfähre
stürzten. In dieser Hälfte unsres Fahrzeuges stieg das Wasser
beunruhigend an, und ich berechnete schon mit Entsetzen den
Augenblick, da sie untersinken und die andere Hälfte nebst Hütte
und allem mit sich in die Tiefe reißen mußte.
Der furchtbare Druck des Sturms auf die Hütte trieb außerdem
die Backbordfähre so hart leewärts, daß die Reling ganz auf die
Wasseroberfläche zu liegen kam. Nur noch ein paar Finger breit
tiefer, und wir waren verloren! Es knackte und knallte in dem dünnen
Holzwerk der Hütte, als wollte sie jeden Augenblick bersten und in
die Luft fliegen, und zwischen den Planken der Luvwand spritzte der
sturmgepeitschte Regen in wagerechten Strahlen herein. Ich raffte
Karten, Bücher usw. zusammen aufs Bett und barg sie unter Decke
und Regenmantel. Dann stemmte ich mich mit aller Kraft gegen die
Luvwand, um ihren Widerstand gegen den Wind zu verstärken. Ein
heftiger Knall — das Zelttuch draußen ist losgerissen! Eben flattert
ein Zipfel am Fenster vorüber; ich greife zu und habe ihn fest. Naß
bis auf die Haut halte ich nun das wie ein Notsignal hin und her
klatschende Zelt, stemme dabei die Schultern immerfort gegen die
Wand, obgleich ich unter dem Luftdruck kaum atmen kann, und jage
so mit der Fähre in rasendem Tempo — ja, wohin? Keine Möglichkeit
einer Orientierung! Durchs Fenster sah ich nur in ein graues Chaos
von Wogen und Schaumkämmen, die mit erbitterter Wut gegen die
Hütte hämmerten und die Luvfähre mit Wasser zu füllen drohten. Ob
wir wohl noch ein Ufer erreichten, ehe die Fähre bis zum Rande voll
war und sank oder von den Wogen zerschmettert wurde? Trieben
wir parallel mit der Hauptrichtung des Stromes, dann mußte sie
untergehen, ehe wir an Land waren. Der Sturm war aus Südwest
gekommen, und in derselben Richtung strömte dieser Teil des
Flusses. Später zeigte sich glücklicherweise, daß die Gleitkraft der
Wassermasse eine Ablenkung hervorrief, wodurch unsere Richtung
genau östlich wurde.
Betäubendes Donnern und Tosen ringsum; der Regen geht in
Hagel über, Eisklumpen knallen gegen die dünne Wand der Hütte,
als würden wir von einer Menschenmenge mit Steinwürfen
bombardiert. Die Hagelkörner zischen ins Wasser wie Flintenkugeln
und ballen sich auf der Fähre zu kleinen weißen Inseln zusammen;
einige, die ich später maß, hatten einen Durchmesser von achtzehn
bis zwanzig Millimeter. Der Aufenthalt im Freien mußte
lebensgefährlich sein. Meine Leute waren schon bei den ersten
Vorboten des Sturms unter Deck gekrochen; ging die Fähre unter, so
mußten alle vier Mann wie in einer Mausefalle ertrinken.
Araber mit seiner jungen Frau.
Endlich trat etwas Dunkles aus dem Nebel hervor:
Tamariskenbüsche am linken Ufer. Wir waren also quer über den
Euphrat gejagt, nicht aufwärts gegen den Strom. Eben kroch mein
Kapitän Mohammed aus seinem Versteck hervor und brachte durch
sein Schreien auch die anderen auf die Beine. Es war auch die
höchste Zeit! In wenigen Sekunden mußten wir an Land
geschleudert werden — das Vorderteil der Fähre zerriß schon die
Wurzeln der Tamarisken, die wie Vorhänge von der zwei Meter
hohen, senkrechten Erosionsterrasse herabhingen und das Dach
der Hütte fegten. Mahmud schwang sich an einer Tamariske aufs
Ufer hinauf, Kerit folgte ihm, rutschte aber aus und bis an die
Schultern ins Wasser hinein. Im selben Moment prallte die Fähre
heftig auf, der Stoß wurde aber von dem Wurzelwerk aufgefangen.
Schon war auch Hussein an Land und schlang ein Seil um einen
festen Ast. Die Fähre schaukelte und schlingerte, riß sich aber nicht
mehr los. Schnell war das Zelt gerettet und zusammengepackt.
Nun ließ die Heftigkeit des Sturmes bald nach. Regen und Hagel
hörten ebenso plötzlich auf, wie sie gekommen waren. Das Zentrum
des Unwetters zog in nordwestlicher Richtung weiter. Es war
dreizehn Minuten vor 6; die ganze Geschichte hatte nur zwanzig
Minuten gedauert. Das Thermometer zeigte 22 Grad. Die Erde war
noch weiß von Hagelkörnern, die jedoch bald wegschmolzen.
Es dauerte eine Weile, bis wir uns von dem Schreck erholt
hatten. Nach und nach wurde die Luft ganz ruhig, glättete sich die
eben noch so aufgeregte Wasserfläche, und man hörte nur das stille
Brausen der ersterbenden Wogen. Mahmud begab sich nach dem
nächsten Nomadenzelt, um Holz, Brot und Joghurt zu holen. Die
anderen sammelten Tamariskenzweige und machten mit vieler Mühe
ein Feuer an; dann entkleideten sie sich und trockneten ihre Sachen.
Auch in meiner Hütte war alles so durchnäßt, daß Bettzeug und
Decken an Stangen ums Feuer zum Trocknen aufgehängt werden
mußten. Schließlich schöpften meine Leute das Wasser aus der
Steuerbordfähre. Welch ein Glück, daß ich zwei
zusammengebundene Schahtur hatte! Einer allein mit freier Hütte
wäre ohne Zweifel gekentert. Die leere Steuerbordfähre hatte
meinem Fahrzeug die nötige Festigkeit gegeben, um einen solchen
Sturm auszuhalten.
Es dunkelte. Am nordöstlichen Himmel flammten unter einer
pechschwarzen, am Hinterrand scharf begrenzten Wolkenbank
blaue Blitze und erhellten den Strom und die Tamarisken am Ufer,
daß sie wie friedlose Geister mit bittend ausgestreckten Armen
erschienen. Nach dem Lärm, der eben noch unsere Ohren erfüllt
hatte, lag mir die friedvolle Stille der Nacht geradezu beklemmend
auf der Brust. Ich atmete auf, als endlich die Schakale ihr übliches
Abendlied anstimmten, das auf dem einen Ufer mit langgezogenem
Geheul begann, gleichsam im Bogen auf das andere übersprang
und bald wie Hohngelächter, bald wie der Hilferuf bangender Kinder
klang, und dazwischen der traurige Schrei eines Esels vom anderen
Ufer herübertönte.
Diese zyklonartigen Stürme, die von Zeit zu Zeit über
Mesopotamien hinziehen, sind der Schiffahrt auf dem Euphrat
äußerst gefährlich, und wenn ich weiterhin an wracken Booten
vorüberkam, begriff ich nur zu gut, wie solche Schiffbrüche vor sich
gegangen waren. Noch vor einigen Wochen wurde Kapitän Pfeffer,
einer meiner Bekannten aus Dscherablus, als er mit seiner Flottille
von großen, mit Munition und Gewehren beladenen Fähren bei
Rakka vor Anker lag, von einem Zyklon überrascht. Der Sturm kam
ohne jedes warnende Vorzeichen wie ein Dieb in der Nacht,
meterhohe Wellen füllten die Fahrzeuge mit Wasser, und drei davon
sanken; ein Deutscher, ein Photograph aus Metz, ertrank dabei. Ein
ähnliches Schicksal konnte auch der Fliegerabteilung, die zwei Tage
vor mir Rakka verlassen hatte, oder der bayrischen Batterie des
Majors von Schrenk, die ungefähr am 15. April von Dscherablus
hatte aufbrechen sollen, beschieden sein. Wie ich aber später hörte,
erreichte sie der Sturm, der meine Fähre fast zum Kentern gebracht
hatte, nicht; sein Zentrum war also ganz scharf begrenzt gewesen.
Chesney’s Fähre auf dem Euphrat.
(Aus: „Narrative of the Euphrates Expedition“.)
Auch aus älterer Zeit finde ich solch ein Ereignis beschrieben,
das mit meinem Erlebnis die größte Ähnlichkeit hat. In den Jahren
1835/37 untersuchte Oberst Francis Rawdon Chesney im Auftrag
der englischen Regierung die Schiffahrtsverhältnisse auf dem
Euphrat und Tigris. Am 21. Mai 1836, mittags ½2 Uhr, wurde seine
Expedition von einem Zyklon überfallen, der ebenso plötzlich
daherbrauste, wie der von mir erlebte, ebenso mit plötzlicher
Finsternis einsetzte, nur fünfundzwanzig Minuten dauerte und einen
der beiden Dampfer Chesneys, den „Tigris“, versenkte, wobei vier
Offiziere, elf Artilleristen und Matrosen und fünf Eingeborene ums
Leben kamen. Der Sturm preßte den Dampfer so stark nieder, daß
die offenen Kajütenfenster unter Wasser gerieten. Schon war der
Befehl gegeben: Rette sich wer kann! als sich für einen Augenblick
die Dunkelheit erhellte und das Ufer ganz nahe schien. Sofort hieß
es wieder: Jeder auf seinen Posten! Aber im nächsten Augenblick
herrschte wieder schwarze Nacht, und eine Minute später war das
Schiff gesunken. Ebenso schnell wie er kam, war der Zyklon wieder
vorüber, und seine Spur war ebenso schmal gewesen, wie ich es
beobachtet hatte. Chesney, der sich mit zwanzig Mann von dem
sinkenden Schiffe hatte retten können, will Hagelkörner von
anderthalb Zoll Dicke gemessen haben; das erscheint mir etwas
übertrieben, und seine Meinung, solche Zyklone über dem Euphrat
seien „äußerst selten“, widerlegt sich wohl durch meine Erfahrungen.
Chesneys Schilderungen liest man noch heute mit größtem
Interesse. Daß damals an den Ufern des Euphrat noch Löwen
vorkamen, hört man mit einigem Erstaunen; im übrigen ist noch alles
so, wie er es beschrieb; man erkennt die Orte Der-es-Sor, Ana und
Hit deutlich wieder, sogar den Hügel von Babel, wo damals noch
keinerlei Ausgrabungen begonnen waren, und die Karte des
Euphrat, die sich in seinem Werk „Expedition for the survey of the
rivers Euphrates and Tigris in the years 1835–1837“ (London, 1850–
68) findet, ist so gewissenhaft ausgeführt, daß sie noch während
dieses Weltkrieges benutzbar war; man brauchte nur in die
vergrößerte Kopie die Änderungen des Stromlaufs während der
letzten achtzig Jahre einzuzeichnen. Die von ihm angegebenen
Namen der Berge, Hügel, Ruinen, Landzungen usw. stimmten alle,
nur die Ortsnamen waren andere; denn man nennt die Orte am Ufer
nach dem Scheich des Stammes, der dort zeltet. Die Namen
wechseln daher alle Menschenalter.
Chesneys Expedition hatte die Aufgabe, die Möglichkeit einer
schnelleren Überlandverbindung mit Indien zu untersuchen. Der
Euphrat wurde bis Meskene schiffbar gefunden, für nicht zu tief
gehende Dampfer sogar bis Biredschik; bis zum Golf von
Alexandrette wäre dann nur noch eine kurze Strecke zu überwinden
gewesen. Chesney versichert, die Araber an den Ufern des Euphrat
und ebenso die türkische Regierung hätten die geplante Eröffnung
eines neuen Handelsweges zwischen Indien und Europa freudig
begrüßt. Aber ein Menschenalter blieb das Projekt unausgeführt,
und dann machte der Bau des Suezkanals die Euphratstraße für
England überflüssig.
Beduinenzelt am Euphratufer.
Sechstes Kapitel.
Unter Nomaden und armenischen
Flüchtlingen.
W enn Sturm oder Gegenwind mich zwangen, auch am Tage den

Schutz steiler Uferwände aufzusuchen oder am Lande
festzumachen, gaben mir diese meist unfreiwilligen Aufenthalte, die
meine Geduld auf harte Proben stellten, gleichwohl willkommene
Gelegenheit, meinen Proviant zu vervollständigen und dabei das
Leben der Nomaden an den Ufern des Euphrat aus nächster Nähe
kennen zu lernen.
Gleich am zweiten Tage der Stromfahrt mußten wir bei dem
Zeltdorf Hammam längere Zeit liegen bleiben, und in Begleitung
Kerits, der als arabischer Dolmetsch diente, und des Gendarmen
Mahmud begab ich mich zu den zwanzig schwarzen Zelten am Fuß
der Uferhöhe, die das Dorf bildeten. Drei halbwilde Hunde
empfingen uns, die Einwohner selbst aber verschwanden wie Ratten
in ihren Zelten. Fürchteten sie sich vor uns? Ja, erklärte Mahmud,
„sie halten uns für Werber, die Rekruten sammeln“. Und mit dieser
Vermutung schien er recht zu haben. Denn als ich auf das
vornehmste Zelt, das des Häuptlings, zuging, traten mir zwei Araber
in offenbarer Bestürzung entgegen, und diese wich erst, als sie
hörten, daß wir nichts anderes im Schilde führten, als Eßwaren zu
kaufen. Sie waren vom Stamm der Beni-Said-Araber, die in dieser
Gegend sechzehn Dörfer hatten. Die Männer trugen weiße, weite
Beinkleider, über den Schultern bunte Mäntel und auf den Köpfen
schwarze Lappen, die von zwei weichen Ringen auf dem Scheitel
festgeklemmt wurden. Auf Kissen und zerlumpten Matten saßen fünf
würdige Weißbärte inmitten des großen länglichen Zeltes und
rauchten Nargileh und Zigaretten, die sie selber drehten. Mit
vornehmer Lässigkeit erhoben sie sich und luden mich ein, unter
ihnen Platz zu nehmen. Nachdem wir uns eine Weile unterhalten
und uns gegenseitig mit gleichem Interesse angestaunt hatten,
brachte ich mein Anliegen vor: ob sie uns Eier und saure Milch
verkaufen wollten? Erst machten sie Schwierigkeiten und
versicherten, sie brauchten ihren kärglichen Vorrat selber; die
verführerischen Töne einiger türkischer Silbermünzen lockten aber
bald die Frauen aus ihrem Versteck hervor. Ich tat natürlich so, als
sähe ich sie gar nicht, sondern widmete meine ganze
Aufmerksamkeit dem, was sie herbeischafften. Hier kam eine mit
zwei, dort eine mit fünf, eine dritte mit einem ganzen Haufen Eier; ich
kaufte fünfzig und bezahlte für je drei den verlangten Preis von zwei
Metalliks. Andere brachten Milch und Joghurt in Büchsen, und es
zeigte sich bald, daß die Leute viel mehr entbehren konnten, als wir
brauchten.
Nomadenfrauen bei Hammam.
Beni-Said-Araber.
Der Frauen anfängliche Scheu war nach Abschluß des Handels
spurlos verschwunden, und ich konnte nun sie und ihre grellfarbige,
malerische Kleidung mit Muße betrachten. Ihre dunkelblauen Mäntel,
die gewöhnlich ein bauschiger Stoffgürtel um den Leib hielt, waren
nach vorn zu offen und ließen ein rotes oder weißes westenartiges
Unterkleid vorschimmern. Füße und Arme waren frei. Die
Armgelenke zierten hübsche Silber- oder Messingringe, den Hals
wertlose Perlenschnüre. Ihr Haar war in starke Zöpfe geflochten, und
um den Scheitel schlangen sich schwarze Turbanschleier. Alle
Frauen hatten die Unterlippe blaugrün bemalt, ebenso das Kinn.
Diese Bemalung entstellte sie keineswegs, im Gegenteil vermittelte
das kräftige Blaugrün vortrefflich das Dunkelblau der Mäntel mit dem
bronzenen Braun der Gesichter. Woher diese Sitte? Auf diese Frage
antworteten sie nur: „Das ist bei uns von altersher so Brauch.“ Einige
Frauen trugen kleine braungebrannte Kinder auf dem Rücken oder
an der Brust. Unter den jüngeren fielen mehrere durch echte,
ungepflegte Wüstenschönheit auf.
An den weiten Ufern des Euphrat genießen diese Nomaden eine
unbegrenzte Freiheit. Wenn die Steppe rings um das Dorf abgegrast
ist, ziehen sie mit Zelten und Herden zu neuen Weidegründen. Sie
starren von Schmutz und Ungeziefer, Frauen wie Männer, und ihre
buntscheckige Kleidung ist verschlissen und zerlumpt, voller Flecken
von Fett und Schafblut und vom Ruß des Lagerfeuers geschwärzt.
Das kümmert sie nicht. Abgehärtet von Wind und Wetter fühlen sie
sich stark und gesund; ihre Bedürfnislosigkeit macht sie leichten und
frohen Sinnes; doch der Neugier huldigten sie mit naiver
Unbefangenheit, und selbst die Kinder waren uns wildfremden
Gästen gegenüber gar nicht blöde; Knaben und Mädchen sprangen
übermütig aus und ein und trieben ihren Scherz mit uns. Fähren wie
die meinige sahen sie ja alle Tage vorbeitreiben; höchstens daß
ihnen solch eine Hütte darauf neu war. Mehrfach schon hatte sie
spielenden Knaben als Zielscheibe für ihre Schleuder gedient, und
die kleinen barfüßigen Mädchen am Strande pflegten ohne
Schüchternheit nach dem Woher und Wohin unserer Fahrt zu
fragen. Nur einmal, bei dem Dorf Sedschere, am 15. April, machten
wir Aufsehen und störten sogar ein Leichenbegängnis: das ganze
Gefolge überließ den Toten sich selbst und eilte ans Ufer, um uns
vorüberfahren zu sehen.
Die Zelttücher der Nomaden sind aus grober, schwarzer
Ziegenwolle; sie ruhen auf mehreren in einer Reihe aufgestellten,
senkrechten Stangen, fallen nach beiden Seiten ab und sind mit
Stricken festgemacht. Ringsum ist das Zelt mit Reisigbündeln
umgeben, die als Brennmaterial benutzt und immer erneuert werden.
Das Innere ist durch Wände von Schilfmatten in verschiedene
Räume eingeteilt. Der vornehmste, das Empfangs- und
Konversationszimmer, liegt in der Mitte, links der Stall für Schafe und
Kälber, rechts Vorratsraum und Küche. Dort bereitete eine alte Frau
in einem Topf über dem Feuer das erfrischende Getränk „Airan“ aus
Wasser und gegorener Milch. Die Milch wird in Ziegenfellen
aufbewahrt, die an den Zeltstangen hingen. Milch und Brot ist die
Hauptnahrung dieser Nomaden; seltener wird ein Schaf aus der
Herde geopfert. Mit diesem ihrem Reichtum sind sie sehr sparsam,
wie ich am nächsten Tage erfahren sollte.
Sale, ein Lamm an der Brust haltend.
Die Abenddämmerung hatte meiner Arbeit ein Ziel gesetzt, und
ich ließ meine Fähre bei drei schwarzen Zelten am linken Ufer
halten. Ihre Bewohner kamen uns entgegen und begrüßten uns auf
europäische Art durch Handschlag. Wir folgten ihrer Einladung und
ließen uns in einem der Zelte im Kreise um das Feuer nieder, das
mit stachligen Rasenstücken genährt wurde, die draußen aufgehäuft
waren. So oft ein neuer Arm voll in die Glut geworfen wurde, flammte
die Lohe hoch empor und beleuchtete prächtig diese Kinder der
Wüste, die wettergebräunten Hirten, die dunkelblauen Trachten der
Weiber und das zerlumpte Durcheinander der lärmenden Kinder. Sie
waren vom Stamme al-Murat; ihre Nachbarn auf dem anderen Ufer
gehörten zum Stamm der Bobani. Der Winter 1915/16, erzählten sie,
sei sehr hart gewesen, und es sei reichlich Schnee gefallen; vor fünf
Jahren habe das Flußeis sogar Menschen und Tiere getragen.
Unsere neugierigen Wirte wurden nicht müde, sich über unseren
Besuch zu wundern, uns anzustarren und auszufragen, und als ich
am Abend in meiner Hütte Tee trank, leisteten sie mir vom Ufer aus
Gesellschaft. Ich kaufte von ihnen weiches Brot und Joghurt, aber
ein Fettschwanzschaf wollten sie nicht herausrücken, d. h. sie
verlangten dafür 150 Grütsch oder anderthalb türkische Pfund (fast
30 Mark), einen drei- oder viermal zu hohen Preis, der jeden Handel
unmöglich machte.
Araberinnen vor einem Zelt.

Zwei Tage später hatte ich damit mehr Glück. Wir waren beim
Dorfe Dibse vorübergefahren, dessen Ruine auch unter dem Namen
El-Burdschi, d. h. die Burg, bekannt ist. Hier lag in alter Zeit die
berühmte Stadt Thapsacus, die ehemals die Ostgrenze des
Salomonischen Reiches bezeichnete (1. Buch der Könige, 4, 24).
Gleich oberhalb des Ortes ist noch heute eine Kamelfurt, durch die
seinerzeit der jüngere Cyrus und Alexander der Große den Euphrat
überschritten. Hinter Dibse waren wir an einer Stelle gelandet, die
den Namen Oasta führte. Hier wohnten die Araber des
Oäldästammes. Ihnen gegenüber sollen die Hamidije-Araber ihre
Weideplätze haben, und weiter abwärts am rechten Ufer folgt der
Stamm Hamed-el-Feratsch. Hochgewachsene Männer in braun- und
weißgeränderten, sackähnlichen Mänteln empfingen uns mit dem
Gruße „Salam“. Sie erwarteten das diesjährige Hochwasser erst in
vierzehn Tagen; nach zwei Monaten schrumpfe dann der Fluß zur
Bedeutungslosigkeit zusammen. Ihre Schafherden scheren sie Mitte
Mai; dann kommen die Händler von Aleppo hierher, um die Wolle
aufzukaufen. Für klingendes türkisches Silber erstand ich hier ein
prächtiges Fettschwanzschaf; einer der Araber zog sofort blank und
schnitt mit einem Hieb die Weichteile bis zu den Halswirbeln durch,
daß das Blut über das Gras spritzte. Kerit tauchte die Hand in das
rauchende Blut und malte ein paar breite, rote Streifen über das
Vorderteil der Fähre — jedenfalls ein uralter Opferbrauch, der die
unheimlichen Mächte des Wassers besänftigen und den Schiffern
eine glückliche Fahrt schenken soll. Mit sicherer Hand zog der
Araber das Schaf ab, entfernte die Eingeweide und zerschnitt
kunstvoll das Fleisch; Fett, Niere, Herz und Leber wurden für sich
gelegt. Die Fleischstücke ließ ich an der Hinterwand meiner Hütte
aufhängen, mit Ausnahme derer, die zum abendlichen Gastmahl
meiner Besatzung bestimmt waren.
Araber am Euphrat.
Nachdem die uns begleitenden Araber zu ihren Zelten

zurückgekehrt waren, machten meine Leute am Ufer Feuer, und nun
begann ein emsiges Kochen und Schmoren. Für mich wurden die
Schafsnieren am Spieß über der Glut gebraten. Jede
Schafschlachtung ist in Asien ein festliches Ereignis. Die Männer
bleiben länger als gewöhnlich sitzen, verzehren unglaubliche
Mengen Fleisch, plaudern und singen und schweigen bloß, so lange
sie essen. —
Neben den schwarzen Zelten der Araber zeigten sich an den
Ufern des Euphrat oft Hunderte weißer Zelte. Das waren die Lager
der armenischen Flüchtlinge. Mehrfach war ich diesen Unglücklichen
schon begegnet, wenn ich tagsüber oder am Abend an Land ging.
Einmal, in der Nähe der Festung Dschabar, hatte ich eine Schar von
ihnen, meist Frauen und Kinder, die auf dem Wege nach Der-es-Sor
und Mosul waren, mit allem bewirtet, was sich an Brot, Eiern und
Fleisch an Bord meiner Fähre fand. Genauer lernte ich ihr Elend erst
kennen, als ich am 18. April das Städtchen Rakka erreichte, das am
Fuß einer isolierten, fünfgipfligen Gebirgspartie liegt.
Zwischen Inseln hindurch, die bald aus Schlamm bestanden,
bald mit Gras bewachsen oder mit Flugsanddünen bedeckt waren,
näherten wir uns dem größten Ort, den ich bisher am Euphrat
angetroffen hatte. Bei Rakka erreicht eine Karawanenstraße von
Urfa her den Strom, der hier sehr breit ist und so gerade läuft, daß
die Ufer keine Erosionsterrassen haben. Diese entstehen nur bei
Windungen, wo der beständige seitliche Druck des Wassers sie
bildet. Auf dem rechten Ufer weidete eine Herde von etwa hundert
Kamelen; wahrscheinlich war sie für die Transportkolonnen
bestimmt, die die Verbindung mit der mesopotamischen Front
aufrechterhielten.
Am linken Ufer waren zahlreiche Frauen bei der Wäsche
beschäftigt, während Kinder im Wasser planschten, und Sakkas,
Wasserträger, ihre Ledersäcke füllten und auf Eseln nach der Stadt
beförderten, die einzige Wasserleitung, die Rakka besitzt.
Armenische Flüchtlinge bei meiner Fähre.

Mohammed und Hussein blieben bei der Fähre als Wache,
während Mahmud, das Gewehr am Riemen über der Schulter, und
Kerit mich nach der Stadt begleiteten. Sie liegt zwölf Minuten vom
Ufer entfernt, damit das Hochwasser, dem das flache Land
ausgesetzt ist, nicht bis zu den Häusern dringt.
Mein Ziel war das Amtszimmer des Kaimakam. Gendarmen
empfingen uns am Tor und führten uns über den inneren,
viereckigen Hof die Treppe hinauf zu einer Galerie oder Veranda und
von dort in das Empfangszimmer des Gouverneurs. Es war mit
einfachen Matten belegt und mit Sofas und Stühlen möbliert. Viele
Besucher warteten, Militärs und Zivilisten. Der Kaimakam, ein alter
Mann mit weißem Vollbart, klobiger Nase, freundlich träumerischen
Augen und rotem Fes, saß vor einem mit Bergen von Briefen und
Akten beladenen Schreibtisch. Sein Dolmetsch stand daneben wie
ein angezündetes Licht.
Nachdem der Kaimakam meinen türkischen Paß durchgesehen,
sich über meine Reisepläne unterrichtet und mir die neuesten
Nachrichten vom Kriegsschauplatz mitgeteilt hatte, bat ich um die
Erlaubnis, Antiquitäten von Rakka kaufen zu dürfen. Die kleine Stadt,
die jetzt zum großen Teil von ihrem Handel mit den in der Umgegend
wohnenden Anese-Arabern lebt, liegt auf dem Platz, wo ehemals die
alte Festung Nicephorium stand. Als Avidius Cassius im Jahre 164
n. Chr. gegen das Partherreich vorrückte, fand er an der Euphratlinie
hartnäckigen Widerstand, doch konnten Europus, Nesibin, selbst die
Hauptstadt der Parther, Ktesiphon, und viele andere Städte, darunter
die Feste Nicephorium, der überlegenen Kriegskunst der Römer
nicht widerstehen. Rakka ist auch dadurch berühmt, daß der Kalif
Harun-er-Raschid hier den Sommer zu verbringen pflegte. Meinem
Wunsch nach Altertümern durfte übrigens der Gouverneur nicht
stattgeben, da die Ausfuhr verboten ist.
Hauptstraße in Rakka.
Während ein alter Offizier mit dem Kaimakam eilige Geschäfte
erledigte, unterhielt ich mich mit dem französischen Dolmetscher. Er
war ein Armenier aus Konstantinopel und mit einer großen Schar
von Landsleuten über Aleppo und Meskene nach Rakka gekommen,
wo sie seit sechsunddreißig Tagen festgehalten wurden. Wir sahen
ihre Zelte am rechten Stromufer, das von Frauen und Kindern
wimmelte. Man schätzte ihre Zahl auf 5000; sie waren aus
Gegenden an der kaukasischen Front ausgewiesen worden. Der
Dolmetsch, der ein treffliches Französisch sprach, hatte dem
Kaimakam seine Dienste angeboten und war sofort angestellt
worden.
Vor zwanzig Tagen, erzählte er mir, sei ein deutscher Offizier auf
einem Schahtur angekommen und habe um die Erlaubnis gebeten,
an die ärmsten Armenier 30 Pfund in Silber austeilen zu dürfen; der
Kaimakam sei selber bei der Verteilung zugegen gewesen. Auf
meine Bitte, dem Beispiel des Deutschen folgen zu dürfen, erwiderte
aber der Kaimakam, er sei für das Angebot herzlich dankbar und
habe an sich nichts dagegen. Aber er habe vom Wali in Urfa gerade
ein Telegramm erhalten, das verbiete, ohne dessen Erlaubnis Gaben
an die Ausgewiesenen zu verteilen.
Ich suchte nun den Basar auf, um meinen Proviant mit Brot,
Käse, Apfelsinen und Salz zu bereichern. Ein armenischer Arzt aus
Eriwan, der seit vielen Jahren in Rakka ansässig war, begleitete
mich durch die staubigen Straßen der langweiligen Kleinstadt. Nach
seiner Versicherung zählte die armenische Kolonie von Rakka gegen
anderthalb Tausend Personen.
Auf unserem Wege folgte uns ein Heer armer Kinder und Frauen
auf den Fersen, lauter Armenier, und als ich an einem Bäckerladen
vorüberkam, auf dessen Tischen große Haufen frischer, runder Brote
aufgestapelt lagen, konnte ich mir das Vergnügen nicht versagen,
den ganzen Ladeninhalt aufzukaufen und an die Hungernden zu
verteilen. Sie stürmten von allen Seiten auf mich ein, stießen sich,
schrieen, fielen zu Boden, traten aufeinander und zerrten an meinen
Kleidern, um nur ihres Anteils nicht verlustig zu gehen, dann
zerstreuten sie sich, jeder mit seinem Fang zufrieden. Es war eine
Herzensfreude sie essen zu sehen, und mit schmerzlicher Teilnahme
dachte ich an die Fünftausend, die auf dem anderen Ufer
verschmachteten. Aber wenn ich auch alles, was ich hatte, an die
Ärmsten verteilte — für so viele hätte es doch nicht entfernt gereicht.
* *
*

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The physics of everyday phenomena : a conceptual

Explorations: Introduction to Astronomy (10th Edition)

We the people : an introduction to American government

The Physics of Everyday Phenomena _ a Conceptual

Introduction to Public Health

Introduction to Plasma Physics 1st Edition Gerard

An Introduction to Thermal Physics 1st Edition Daniel

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Thomas E. Johnson, PhD

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eBook conversion by codeMantra

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5. INTERACTION OF RADIATION WITH MATTER/141

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CH01.indd 1 30-03-2017 12:26:00

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CH02.indd 3 03-04-2017 07:45:50

Deceleration will produce negative values for acceleration.

Expressed mathematically, the result is Newton’s Second Law:

Force = mass × acceleration,

CH02.indd 4 03-04-2017 07:45:52

Work and Energy

1 joule = 107 ergs.

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The electron volt is a unit of energy and is defined as follows:

l eV = 1.6 × 10−19 J = 1.6 × 10−12 erg.

Assuming that the mass, m, is constant,

W = ΔEk = Ek,f − Ek,i(2.6)

W = ΔEp + ΔEk + ΔEthermal + ΔEinternal  (2.10)

For an isolated system,

ΔE = ΔEp + ΔEk + ΔEthermal + ΔEinternal = 0. (2.11)

CH02.indd 6 03-04-2017 07:45:58

RELATIVISTIC EFFECTS REVIEW

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Δt′ = 20.42 × (2.2 × 10-6 s) = 4.49 × 10-5 s.

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(a) How much energy can be obtained from 1 g of nuclear fuel?

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Therefore, the amount of coal required is

C = 3280 tons (2981 metric tons).

The loss in mass accompanying ordinary energy transformations is not detectable

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W = ΔEk = Ek,f − Ek,i(2.6)

W = ΔEp + ΔEk + ΔEthermal + ΔEinternal (2.10)

ΔE = ΔEp + ΔEk + ΔEthermal + ΔEinternal = 0. (2.11)