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Low-Rank Coal Applications in Agriculture
Low-Rank Coal Applications in Agriculture

Humic Analyses, Products, and Performance

L. Edwin Liem
This edition first published 2021
© 2021 John Wiley & Sons Ltd

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted,
in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as
permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at
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The right of L. Edwin Liem to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance
with law.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Name: Liem, L. Edwin, author.
Title: Low-rank coal applications in agriculture: humic analyses,
products, and performance / L. Edwin Liem.
Description: First edition. | Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2021. | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2020030609 (print) | LCCN 2020030610 (ebook) | ISBN
9781119734758 (hardback) | ISBN 9781119734819 (adobe pdf) | ISBN
9781119734727 (epub)
Subjects: LCSH: Soils–Humic acid content. | Coal. | Soil biochemistry.
Classification: LCC S592.8 .L54 2021 (print) | LCC S592.8 (ebook) | DDC
631.4–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020030609
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020030610
Cover Design: Wiley
Cover Image: © Rustic/Shutterstock, © Christian85/Shutterstock

Set in 9.5/12.5pt STIXTwoText by SPi Global, Pondicherry, India

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
 v

Contents

List of Figures ix
List of Tables xi
Units xv

1 Introduction 1
Reference 7

2 Low-Rank Coal 9
2.1 ­Overview 9
2.2 ­Material Quality 13
2.3 ­Material Safety 17
2.4 ­Safety Documentation 27
2.5 ­Closure 29
Reference 31

3 Humic Analyses 37
3.1 ­Overview 37
3.2 ­Extraction and Analyses 41
3.2.1 Extraction 42
3.2.2 Physical Properties 45
3.2.3 Gravimetric 45
3.2.4 Colorimetric 48
3.2.5 Combined Colorimetric and Gravimetric 51
3.2.6 Organic Carbon 52
3.2.7 Reactive Functional Groups 53
3.2.8 Comparison Among Analytical Methods 55
3.2.9 Further Studies on Analytical Methods 57
vi Contents

3.2.9.1 Effects of pH on Colorimetric Method 57

3.2.9.2 Modified ISO 19822 60
3.2.9.2.1 Background 60
3.2.9.2.2 Materials and Methods 63
3.2.9.2.3 Laboratory Work 66
3.2.9.2.4 Results 69
3.2.9.2.5 Discussion 73
3.2.9.2.6 Conclusion and Recommendation 77
3.3 ­Organic Matter Product Comparison 78
3.4 ­Closure 93
Reference 94

4 Applications in Agriculture 103

4.1 ­Overview 103
4.2 ­Benefits of Humic Substances 105
4.3 ­Disadvantages of Humic Substances 115
4.4 ­Efficacy Results for Soil and Crops 116
4.5 ­Efficacy Results for Livestock 146
4.6 ­Product Registration 152
4.6.1 Regional Registration for Crops 154
4.6.2 Organic Registration for Crops 162
4.6.3 Registration for Livestock 165
4.7 ­Closure 169
Reference 170

5 Commercial Humic Products 191

5.1 ­Overview 191
5.2 ­Raw Material 191
5.3 ­Dry HS 194
5.4 ­Liquid HA 198
5.5 ­Liquid FA 201
5.6 ­Enhanced Liquid Products 203
5.7 ­Pelletized HS 205
5.8 ­Dry Soluble HS 207
5.9 ­Product Handling 209
5.10 ­Closure 212
Reference 213

6 Product Performance 217

6.1 ­Overview 217
6.2 ­Applicability of Dry and Pelletized HS 218
 Contents vii

6.3 ­ pplicability of Liquid HA 224

A
6.4 ­Applicability of Liquid FA 228
6.5 ­Applicability of Dry Soluble HS 230
6.6 ­Product Efficacy Projects 231
6.6.1 Rice 233
6.6.2 Wheat (1) 235
6.6.3 High Salinity Soil (1) 238
6.6.4 High Salinity Soil (2) 241
6.6.5 Lettuce 245
6.6.5.1 Materials and Methods 246
6.6.5.2 Results and Discussion 249
6.6.5.3 Conclusion 253
6.6.6 Canola 254
6.6.7 Lentil 257
6.6.8 Soil Compaction 260
6.6.9 Barley 264
6.6.10 Wheat (2) 267
6.6.11 Other Soil and Crop Product Efficacy Projects 269
6.6.12 ­Beef Cattle 277
6.7 ­Cost–Benefit Study 283
6.8 ­Closure 290
Reference 294

7 Conclusion 299
Reference 307

Index 309
Biography 319
 ix

List of Figures

2.1 Modified Van Krevelen diagram 16

2.2 Warning label element 28
3.1 pH vs. temperature 44
3.2 Aldrich and HPTA dry humic samples 50
3.3 Effects of pH on colorimetric method 59
3.4 Run 17 (ChemAnalytical LLC. 2018a) 70
3.5 Run 21 (ChemAnalytical LLC. 2019) 71
3.6 Run 22 (ChemAnalytical LLC. 2019) 71
3.7 Run 26 (ChemAnalytical LLC. 2019) 72
3.8 Spectra for dry HS (ChemAnalytical LLC. 2018b) 82
3.9 Spectra for liquid HA (ChemAnalytical LLC. 2018b) 82
3.10 Spectra for liquid FA (ChemAnalytical LLC. 2018b) 83
3.11 Spectra for biochar (ChemAnalytical LLC. 2018b) 83
3.12 Spectra for calcium lignosulfonate (ChemAnalytical LLC. 2018b) 84
3.13 Spectra for soybean extract (ChemAnalytical LLC. 2018b) 84
3.14 Spectra for peat moss (ChemAnalytical LLC. 2018b) 85
3.15 Spectra for molasses (ChemAnalytical LLC. 2018b) 85
3.16 Normalized % absorbance (log scale) vs. wavelength 90
3.17 Scaled absorbance difference 92
5.1 Dry HS 197
5.2 Liquid HA and FA 201
5.3 Pelletized and dry soluble HS 206
6.1 Inline mixing apparatus 231
6.2 Treatment vs. yields 235
6.3 Treatment vs. yields 237
6.4 Test site 239
6.5 Treatment vs. yields 239
6.6 Early plant emergences 241
6.7 Treatment vs. soluble cations (after 2 months) 243
x List of Figures

6.8 Treatment vs. SAR 243

6.9 Treatment vs. EC 244
6.10 Root, leaf, and plant lengths 251
6.11 Plant fresh and dry weights 253
6.12 Treatment vs. yields 255
6.13 Treatment vs. yields 258
6.14 Treatment vs. compaction and moisture (October 2015) 262
6.15 Treatment vs. compaction and moisture (April 2016) 262
6.16 Treatment vs. compaction and moisture (October 2016) 263
6.17 Treatment vs. compaction 264
6.18 Treatment vs. yields 266
6.19 Treatment vs. yields 268
6.20 Treatment vs. yields 272
6.21 Treatment vs. yields 272
6.22 Treatment vs. yields 274
6.23 Feed disappearance (in-vitro) 281
6.24 Microbial-N (in-vitro) 281
6.25 CH4 production (in-vitro) 282
6.26 Ruminal pH (in-vivo) 282
6.27 CH4 production (in-vivo) 283
 xi

L
­­ ist of Tables

1.1 Book format 6

2.1 Coalification process 10
2.2 Coal ranks 11
2.3 Ro of low-rank coal 12
2.4 Coal deposition 12
2.5 Coal materials from Alberta 14
2.6 Lignite materials from the US 15
2.7 HGI of coal materials 16
2.8 Combustion parameters 18
2.9 Si in material 19
2.10 Si in air 20
2.11 Selected metals 21
2.12 Pathogens 22
2.13 Microorganisms and nematodes 23
2.14 Toxic organics 23
2.15 Microtox bioassay 24
2.16 General toxicity 25
2.17 Total extractable hydrocarbons 26
2.18 Alberta low-rank coal 26
2.19 Synonyms for low-rank coal 30
3.1 Selected humate materials 40
3.2 Extracting chemicals 43
3.3 KOH performance 44
3.4 Standard humic samples using ISO 19822 47
3.5 Alberta low-rank coal using ISO 19822 47
3.6 Humates using CDFA method 48
3.7 E4/E6 of HA, FA, and Alberta low-rank coal 49
3.8 Humates using colorimetric method 51
3.9 Humates using colorimetric – CDFA methods 52
xii ­­List o f Tabl

3.10 Alberta low-rank coal using ISO 5073 53

3.11 COOH, phenol-OH, and total acidity 55
3.12 Acetone properties 62
3.13 Lignite sample properties 63
3.14 Experimental protocol 64
3.15 FTIR results 72
3.16 HFA results 73
3.17 Ash results 74
3.18 Na and Cl results 74
3.19 Analytical times of dry samples 75
3.20 Analytical times of liquid samples 78
3.21 Commercial products (physical appearances) 80
3.22 Commercial products (elemental analysis) 81
3.23 Commercial products (HA, FA, and HS) 87
3.24 E4/E6 of humic products 90
3.25 Indices from UV-visible spectrophotometer 91
3.26 Maximum and minimum readings 92
3.27 Comparison among analytical methods 94
4.1 Soil and crops nutritional analysis for humalite 106
4.2 SI of selected materials 107
4.3 Livestock nutritional analysis for humalite 113
5.1 Chemical and biological parameters 192
5.2 Humalite physical parameters 193
5.3 Humalite safety parameters 193
5.4 Limits for agricultural applications 195
5.5 Dry HS 196
5.6 Selected metals 198
5.7 Liquid HA 199
5.8 Selected metals 200
5.9 Liquid FA 202
5.10 Selected metals 203
5.11 Enhanced liquid HA and FA 204
5.12 Pelletized HS 205
5.13 Selected metals 206
5.14 Characteristics of dry soluble HS 208
5.15 Selected metals 208
5.16 Commercial humic products 212
6.1 Characteristics of dry HS 220
6.2 Compatibility of dry HS of large particulate sizing 221
6.3 Compatibility of dry HS of medium particulate sizing 222
6.4 Compatibility of pelletized HS 223
 ­­List o f Tabl xiii

6.5 Liquid HA and liquid fertilizers 226

6.6 Liquid HA and dry fertilizers 227
6.7 Liquid FA and liquid fertilizers 229
6.8 Liquid FA and dry fertilizers 229
6.9 Liquid HA from dry soluble HS and liquid fertilizers 231
6.10 Liquid HA from dry soluble HS and dry fertilizers 231
6.11 Soil and crop product efficacy projects 232
6.12 Design of experiment 234
6.13 Design of experiment 236
6.14 Characteristics of control solution and liquid FA 248
6.15 Plant survival rates and study design 249
6.16 Length measurements 250
6.17 Estimated addition of nutrients in control solution 252
6.18 Leaf counts and plant weight measurements 253
6.19 Experimental protocol 255
6.20 Experimental protocol 258
6.21 Soil parameters before application (October 2015) 261
6.22 Experimental protocol 265
6.23 Experimental protocol 268
6.24 Other soil and crop product efficacy projects 270
6.25 Plant cover analyses 275
6.26 Colony growth 277
6.27 Dry HS technical data 279
6.28 Production costs and gross revenue without humic 285
6.29 Production costs and gross revenue for barley 286
6.30 Production costs and gross revenue for wheat 287
6.31 Production costs and gross revenue for canola 288
6.32 Production costs and gross revenue for corn 289
 xv

U
­­ nits

# number
$ dollar
% percent
° degree
cfu colony forming unit
cm centimeter
cmol centimole
dm decimeter
g gram
ha hectare
kcal kilocalorie
kg kilogram
kJ kilojoule
kPa kilopascal
l liter
lm lumen
m meter
meq milliequivalent
mg milligram
ml milliliter
mm millimeter
xvi ­­Uni

mM millimole/l
mmol millimole
mole 6.02 × 1023 atoms
mpn most probable number
mS millisiemens
nm nanometer
ppb part per billion
ppm part per million
ppt part per trillion
t tonne (= 1000 kg)
μg microgram
μm micrometer
 1

Introduction

Coal is the most abundant type of fossil fuel, accounting for 64% of globally recov-
erable resources in the world, compared to oil (19%) and natural gas (17%). Coal is
traditionally used in the energy sector, generating about 40% of the world’s elec-
tricity. The demand for coal is expected to increase by over 60% from 2006 to 2030,
of which developing countries will account for over 90%. Coal-fired electricity
generation is still a major energy source in North America and Australia. In addi-
tion, coal is also used in the metallurgical sector, where 70% of the world’s steel
industry depends on it. The challenge here has been in how to maximize produc-
tivity, reduce energy consumption, and drastically reduce carbon dioxide (CO2)
emissions (Osborne and Gupta 2013). Efforts have been made to offer a more effi-
cient and cleaner use of coal, including its use in the production of electricity,
steel and its associated products, and energy-related chemicals, as well as increas-
ing the use of coal byproducts (Osborne et al. 2013). While significant progress
has been made, it is still worth seeking new environmentally friendly and efficient
usages of coal beyond these well-known applications. Such usages are not set to
immediately replace the existing applications of coal, however, but instead pro-
vide alternatives so that whenever the opportunity arises, new market sectors can
be generated and expanded as quickly and efficiently as possible.
Among different coal materials, low-rank coal has been one of the most dis-
cussed and has seen its popularity grow in recent years. This is in part because of
its unique yet challenging nature, and because of its versatile applications. Low-
rank coal contains lower calorific values than those of anthracite, bituminous,
and subbituminous. However, it is rich in organic matter (OM) and humic sub-
stances (HS, or “humic”) that have been proven to be beneficial for several differ-
ent purposes. Unfortunately, these purposes have so far been largely unrecognized
or misunderstood. This is chiefly because they fall outside of the scope of the
usages that people are more familiar with when it comes to coal materials. In the

Low-Rank Coal Applications in Agriculture: Humic Analyses, Products, and

Performance, First Edition. L. Edwin Liem.
© 2021 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2021 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
2 Introduction

province of Alberta, for example, low-rank coal has been recommended as a

source of calories for electricity generation (Alberta Energy 2017).
The main purpose of this book is to show that low-rank coal can be commercial-
ized and marketed in sectors beyond those in which it is currently employed, such
as electricity generation. Consequently, the new usages of this type of coal should
be championed as a more efficient and cleaner way forward. As summarized
below, at least four alternative usages have been identified, while others are pos-
sibly to follow in the near future.
The first alternative usage of low-rank coal is in oil/gas drilling. In this sector,
drilling fluid is required to protect the stability of the wellbore from fractures,
pores, and other openings. It is needed to transport cuttings for their separation at
the surface, suspend solids within the fluid, and maintain stability of uncased sec-
tions of the borehole. In the water-based drilling fluid system, colloidal materials
(i.e. clay) are added to the fluid to reduce water loss through the porous media of
the formation. However, this may result in an increase in the drilling fluid viscos-
ity, reducing its rate of penetration. This can be compensated for by adding low-
rank coal to deflocculate the fluid, reducing both its viscosity and also reducing
water loss. In the oil-based drilling fluid system, low-rank coal is added as an
emulsifier, resulting in smaller droplets of a high film strength. A reduction of
water loss is achieved with a minimal increase in viscosity (Dearing et al. 2004 and
Caenn et al. 2017). Low-rank coal has been used more commonly in the water-
based system as a thinning/dispersant and secondary filtration control agent. At
high temperatures, this material performs better than that of lignosulfonates
(Canamara-United Supply Ltd. 2001).
The second alternative usage of low-rank coal is in mining remediation. This
sector deals with the presence of inorganic and organic contaminants that lead to
a decline in soil quality. There are two in-situ treatment methods available for the
contaminated soil: bioremediation and phytoremediation. Bioremediation relies
on microbial metabolism of contaminants, while phytoremediation relies on
uptake and processing by plants (Fangueiro et al. 2018). Low-rank coal has been
found to be effective when added as a soil amendment, enhancing the growth of
soil organisms and accelerating the breakdown of organic contaminants (Liem
et al. 2003a). It has been found to be effective in increasing plant cover grown in
mining tailings ponds after several years of treatment (Szczerski et al. 2013). In
the laboratory, low-rank coal has been reported to improve the chemical and phys-
ical properties of soil (Bekele et al. 2013; Liem et al. 2003a and 2003b).
The third alternative usage of low-rank coal is in foundry. This sector concerns
metal casting, which includes melting, molding, casting, solidification control,
and other post-casting processing operations. Greensand (clay and water) is a
molding material commonly used in the industry, in which impressions of the
molten material can be formed (Campbell 2015). Between uses, water is added to
Another random document with
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 [Evades him.] The fact is, you do far too much for my sake.
Solness.
[With a certain vehemence.] No, no, you really mustn’t say that,
Aline! I cannot bear to hear you say such things!
Mrs. Solness.
Very well, then I won’t say it, Halvard.
Solness.
But I stick to what I said. You’ll see that things will be easier for
you in the new place.
Mrs. Solness.
Oh heavens—easier for me——
Solness.
[Eagerly.] Yes, indeed they will! You may be quite sure of that! For
you see—there will be so very, very much there that will remind you
of your own home——
Mrs. Solness.
The home that used to be father’s and mother’s—and that was
burnt to the ground——
Solness.
[In a low voice.] Yes, yes, my poor Aline. That was a terrible blow
for you.
Mrs. Solness.
[Breaking out in lamentation.] You may build as much as ever you
like, Halvard—you can never build up again a real home for me!
Solness.
[Crosses the room.] Well, in Heaven’s name, let us talk no more
about it then.
Mrs. Solness.
 We are not in the habit of talking about it. For you always put the
thought away from you——
Solness.
[Stops suddenly and looks at her.] Do I? And why should I do
that? Put the thought away from me?
Mrs. Solness.
Oh yes, Halvard, I understand you very well. You are so anxious to
spare me—and to find excuses for me too—as much as ever you
can.
Solness.
[With astonishment in his eyes.] You! Is it you—yourself, that you
are talking about Aline?
Mrs. Solness.
Yes, who else should it be but myself?
Solness.
[Involuntarily to himself.] That too!
Mrs. Solness.
As for the old house, I wouldn’t mind so much about that. When
once misfortune was in the air—why——
Solness.
Ah, you are right there. Misfortune will have its way—as the saying
goes.
Mrs. Solness.
But it’s what came of the fire—the dreadful thing that followed
——! That is the thing! That, that, that!
Solness.
[Vehemently.] Don’t think about that, Aline!
Mrs. Solness.
 Ah, that is exactly what I cannot help thinking about. And now, at
last, I must speak about it, too; for I don’t seem able to bear it any
longer. And then never to be able to forgive myself——
Solness.
[Exclaiming.] Yourself——!
Mrs. Solness.
Yes, for I had duties on both sides—both towards you and towards
the little ones. I ought to have hardened myself—not to have let the
horror take such hold upon me—nor the grief for the burning of my
home. [Wrings her hands.] Oh, Halvard, if I had only had the
strength!
Solness.
[Softly, much moved, comes closer.] Aline—you must promise me
never to think these thoughts any more.—Promise me that, dear!
Mrs. Solness.
Oh, promise, promise! One can promise anything.
Solness.
[Clenches his hands and crosses the room.] Oh, but this is
hopeless, hopeless! Never a ray of sunlight! Not so much as a gleam
of brightness to light up our home!
Mrs. Solness.
This is no home, Halvard.
Solness.
Oh no, you may well say that. [Gloomily.] And God knows whether
you are not right in saying that it will be no better for us in the new
house, either.
Mrs. Solness.
It will never be any better. Just as empty—just as desolate—there
as here.
 Solness.
[Vehemently.] Why in all the world have we built it then! Can you
tell me that?
Mrs. Solness.
No; you must answer that question for yourself.
Solness.
[Glances suspiciously at her.] What do you mean by that, Aline?
Mrs. Solness.
What do I mean?
Solness.
Yes, in the devil’s name! You said it so strangely—as if you had
some hidden meaning in it.
Mrs. Solness.
No, indeed, I assure you——
Solness.
[Comes closer.] Oh, come now—I know what I know. I have both
my eyes and my ears about me, Aline—you may depend upon that!
Mrs. Solness.
Why, what are you talking about? What is it?
Solness.
[Places himself in front of her.] Do you mean to say you don’t find
a kind of lurking, hidden meaning in the most innocent word I
happen to say?
Mrs. Solness.
I, do you say? I do that?
Solness.
 [Laughs.] Ho-ho-ho! It’s natural enough, Aline! When you have a
sick man on your hands——
Mrs. Solness.
[Anxiously.] Sick? Are you ill, Halvard?
Solness.
[Violently.] A half-mad man then! A crazy man! Call me what you
will.
Mrs. Solness.
[Feels blindly for a chair and sits down.] Halvard—for God’s sake
——
Solness.
But you are wrong, both you and the doctor. I am not in the state
you imagine.
[He walks up and down the room. Mrs. Solness follows him
anxiously with her eyes. Finally he goes up to her.
Solness.
[Calmly.] In reality there is nothing whatever the matter with me.
Mrs. Solness.
No, there isn’t, is there? But then what is it that troubles you so?
Solness.
Why this, that I often feel ready to sink under this terrible burden
of debt——
Mrs. Solness.
Debt, do you say? But you owe no one anything, Halvard!
Solness.
[Softly, with emotion.] I owe a boundless debt to you—to you—to
you, Aline.
 Mrs. Solness.
[Rises slowly.] What is behind all this? You may just as well tell me
at once.
Solness.
But there is nothing behind it! I have never done you any wrong—
not wittingly and wilfully, at any rate. And yet—and yet it seems as
though a crushing debt rested upon me and weighed me down.
Mrs. Solness.
A debt to me?
Solness.
Chiefly to you.
Mrs. Solness.
Then you are—ill after all, Halvard.
Solness.
[Gloomily.] I suppose I must be—or not far from it. [Looks
towards the door to the right, which is opened at this moment.] Ah!
now it grows lighter.
Hilda Wangel comes in. She has made some alteration in
her dress, and let down her skirt.
Hilda.
Good morning, Mr. Solness!
Solness.
[Nods.] Slept well?
Hilda.
Quite deliciously! Like a child in a cradle. Oh—I lay and stretched
myself like—like a princess!
Solness.
 [Smiles a little.] You were thoroughly comfortable then?
Hilda.
I should think so.
Solness.
And no doubt you dreamed, too.
Hilda.
Yes, I did. But that was horrid.
Solness.
Was it?
Hilda.
Yes, for I dreamed I was falling over a frightfully high, sheer
precipice. Do you never have that kind of dream?
Solness.
Oh yes—now and then——
Hilda.
It’s tremendously thrilling—when you fall and fall——
Solness.
It seems to make one’s blood run cold.
Hilda.
Do you draw your legs up under you while you are falling?
Solness.
Yes, as high as ever I can.
Hilda.
So do I.
Mrs. Solness.
 [Takes her parasol.] I must go into town now, Halvard. [To Hilda.]
And I’ll try to get one or two things that you may require.
Hilda.
[Making a motion to throw her arms round her neck.] Oh, you
dear, sweet Mrs. Solness! You are really much too kind to me!
Frightfully kind——
Mrs. Solness.
[Deprecatingly, freeing herself.] Oh, not at all. It’s only my duty, so
I am very glad to do it.
Hilda.
[Offended, pouts.] But really, I think I am quite fit to be seen in
the streets—now that I’ve put my dress to rights. Or do you think I
am not?
Mrs. Solness.
To tell you the truth, I think people would stare at you a little.
Hilda.
[Contemptuously.] Pooh! Is that all? That only amuses me.
Solness.
[With suppressed ill-humour.] Yes, but people might take it into
their heads that you were mad too, you see.
Hilda.
Mad? Are there so many mad people here in town, then?
Solness.
[Points to his own forehead.] Here you see one at all events.
Hilda.
You—Mr. Solness!
Mrs. Solness.
 Oh, don’t talk like that, my dear Halvard!
Solness.
Have you not noticed that yet?
Hilda.
No, I certainly have not. [Reflects and laughs a little.] And yet—
perhaps in one single thing.
Solness.
Ah, do you hear that, Aline?
Mrs. Solness.
What is that one single thing, Miss Wangel?
Hilda.
No, I won’t say.
Solness.
Oh yes, do!
Hilda.
No thank you—I am not so mad as that.
Mrs. Solness.
When you and Miss Wangel are alone, I daresay she will tell you,
Halvard.
Solness.
Ah—you think she will?
Mrs. Solness.
Oh yes, certainly. For you have known her so well in the past. Ever
since she was a child—you tell me.
[She goes out by the door on the left.
Hilda.
 [After a little while.] Does your wife dislike me very much?
Solness.
Did you think you noticed anything of the kind?
Hilda.
Did you not notice it yourself?
Solness.
[Evasively.] Aline has become exceedingly shy with strangers of
late years.
Hilda.
Has she really?
Solness.
But if only you could get to know her thoroughly——! Ah, she is so
good—so kind—so excellent a creature——
Hilda.
[Impatiently.] But if she is all that—what made her say that about
her duty?
Solness.
Her duty?
Hilda.
She said that she would go out and buy something for me,
because it was her duty. Oh I can’t bear that ugly, horrid word!
Solness.
Why not?
Hilda.
It sounds so cold, and sharp, and stinging. Duty—duty—duty.
Don’t you think so, too? Doesn’t it seem to sting you?
Solness.
 H’m—haven’t thought much about it.
Hilda.
Yes, it does. And if she is so good—as you say she is—why should
she talk in that way?
Solness.
But, good Lord, what would you have had her say, then?
Hilda.
She might have said she would do it because she had taken a
tremendous fancy to me. She might have said something like that—
something really warm and cordial, you understand.
Solness.
[Looks at her.] Is that how you would like to have it?
Hilda.
Yes, precisely. [She wanders about the room, stops at the
bookcase and looks at the books.] What a lot of books you have.
Solness.
Yes, I have got together a good many.
Hilda.
Do you read them all, too?
Solness.
I used to try to. Do you read much?
Hilda.
No, never! I have given it up. For it all seems so irrelevant.
Solness.
That is just my feeling.
[Hilda wanders about a little, stops at the small table,
opens the portfolio and turns over the contents.
 Hilda.
Are all these drawings yours?
Solness.
No, they are drawn by a young man whom I employ to help me.
Hilda.
Some one you have taught?
Solness.
Oh yes, no doubt he has learnt something from me, too.
Hilda.
[Sits down.] Then I suppose he is very clever. [Looks at a
drawing.] Isn’t he?
Solness.
Oh, he might be worse. For my purpose——
Hilda.
Oh yes—I’m sure he is frightfully clever.
Solness.
Do you think you can see that in the drawings?
Hilda.
Pooh—these scrawlings! But if he has been learning from you——
Solness.
Oh, so far as that goes——there are plenty of people here that
have learnt from me, and have come to little enough for all that.
Hilda.
[Looks at him and shakes her head.] No, I can’t for the life of me
understand how you can be so stupid.
Solness.
 Stupid? Do you think I am so very stupid?
Hilda.
Yes, I do indeed. If you are content to go about here teaching all
these people——
Solness.
[With a slight start.] Well, and why not?
Hilda.
[Rises, half serious, half laughing.] No indeed, Mr. Solness! What
can be the good of that? No one but you should be allowed to build.
You should stand quite alone—do it all yourself. Now you know it.
Solness.
[Involuntarily.] Hilda——!
Hilda.
Well!
Solness.
How in the world did that come into your head?
Hilda.
Do you think I am so very far wrong then?
Solness.
No, that’s not what I mean. But now I’ll tell you something.
Hilda.
Well?
Solness.
I keep on—incessantly—in silence and alone—brooding on that
very thought.
Hilda.
 Yes, that seems to me perfectly natural.
Solness.
[Looks somewhat searchingly at her.] Perhaps you have noticed it
already?
Hilda.
No, indeed I haven’t.
Solness.
But just now—when you said you thought I was—off my balance?
In one thing, you said——
Hilda.
Oh, I was thinking of something quite different.
Solness.
What was it?
Hilda.
I am not going to tell you.
Solness.
[Crosses the room.] Well, well—as you please. [Stops at the bow-
window.] Come here, and I will show you something.
Hilda.
[Approaching.] What is it?
Solness.
Do you see—over there in the garden——?
Hilda.
Yes?
Solness.
[Points.] Right above the great quarry——?
 Hilda.
That new house, you mean?
Solness.
The one that is being built, yes. Almost finished.
Hilda.
It seems to have a very high tower.
Solness.
The scaffolding is still up.
Hilda.
Is that your new house?
Solness.
Yes.
Hilda.
The house you are soon going to move into?
Solness.
Yes.
Hilda.
[Looks at him.] Are there nurseries in that house, too?
Solness.
Three, as there are here.
Hilda.
And no child.
Solness.
And there never will be one.
Hilda.
 [With a half-smile.] Well, isn’t it just as I said——?
Solness.
That——?
Hilda.
That you are a little—a little mad after all.
Solness.
Was that what you were thinking of?
Hilda.
Yes, of all the empty nurseries I slept in.
Solness.
[Lowers his voice.] We have had children—Aline and I.
Hilda.
[Looks eagerly at him.] Have you——?
Solness.
Two little boys. They were of the same age.
Hilda.
Twins, then.
Solness.
Yes, twins. It’s eleven or twelve years ago now.
Hilda.
[Cautiously.] And so both of them——? You have lost both the
twins, then?
Solness.
[With quiet emotion.] We kept them only about three weeks. Or
scarcely so much. [Bursts forth.] Oh, Hilda, I can’t tell you what a
good thing it is for me that you have come! For now at last I have
some one I can talk to!
Hilda.
Can you not talk to—her, too?
Solness.
Not about this. Not as I want to talk and must talk. [Gloomily.]
And not about so many other things, either.
Hilda.
[In a subdued voice.] Was that all you meant when you said you
needed me?
Solness.
That was mainly what I meant—at all events, yesterday. For to-
day I am not so sure—[Breaking off.] Come here and let us sit down,
Hilda. Sit there on the sofa—so that you can look into the garden.
[Hilda seats herself in the corner of the sofa. Solness brings a chair
closer.] Should you like to hear about it?
Hilda.
Yes, I shall love to sit and listen to you.
Solness.
[Sits down.] Then I will tell you all about it.
Hilda.
Now I can see both the garden and you, Mr. Solness. So now, tell
away! Begin!
Solness.
[Points towards the bow-window.] Out there on the rising ground
—where you see the new house——
Hilda.
Yes?
 Solness.
Aline and I lived there in the first years of our married life. There
was an old house up there that had belonged to her mother; and we
inherited it, and the whole of the great garden with it.
Hilda.
Was there a tower on that house, too?
Solness.
No, nothing of the kind. From the outside it looked like a great,
dark, ugly wooden box; but all the same, it was snug and
comfortable enough inside.
Hilda.
Then did you pull down the ramshackle old place?
Solness.
No, it was burnt down.
Hilda.
The whole of it?
Solness.
Yes.
Hilda.
Was that a great misfortune for you?
Solness.
That depends on how you look at it. As a builder, the fire was the
making of me——
Hilda.
Well, but——?
Solness.
It was just after the birth of the two little boys——
 Hilda.
The poor little twins, yes.
Solness.
They came healthy and bonny into the world. And they were
growing too—you could see the difference from day to day.
Hilda.
Little children do grow quickly at first.
Solness.
It was the prettiest sight in the world to see Aline lying with the
two of them in her arms.—But then came the night of the fire——
Hilda.
[Excitedly.] What happened? Do tell me! Was any one burnt?
Solness.
No, not that. Every one got safe and sound out of the house——
Hilda.
Well, and what then——?
Solness.
The fright had shaken Aline terribly. The alarm—the escape—the
break-neck hurry—and then the ice-cold night air—for they had to be
carried out just as they lay—both she and the little ones.
Hilda.
Was it too much for them?
Solness.
Oh no, they stood it well enough. But Aline fell into a fever, and it
affected her milk. She would insist on nursing them herself; because
it was her duty, she said. And both our little boys, they—[Clenching
his hands.]—they—oh!
 Hilda.
They did not get over that?
Solness.
No, that they did not get over. That was how we lost them.
Hilda.
It must have been terribly hard for you.
Solness.
Hard enough for me; but ten times harder for Aline. [Clenching his
hands in suppressed fury.] Oh, that such things should be allowed to
happen here in the world! [Shortly and firmly.] From the day I lost
them, I had no heart for building churches.
Hilda.
Did you not like building the church-tower in our town?
Solness.
I didn’t like it. I know how free and happy I felt when that tower
was finished.
Hilda.
I know that, too.
Solness.
And now I shall never—never build anything of that sort again!
Neither churches nor church-towers.
Hilda.
[Nods slowly.] Nothing but houses for people to live in.
Solness.
Homes for human beings, Hilda.
Hilda.
But homes with high towers and pinnacles upon them.
 Solness.
If possible. [Adopts a lighter tone.] But, as I said before, that fire
was the making of me—as a builder, I mean.
Hilda.
Why don’t you call yourself an architect, like the others?
Solness.
I have not been systematically enough taught for that. Most of
what I know I have found out for myself.
Hilda.
But you succeeded all the same.
Solness.
Yes, thanks to the fire. I laid out almost the whole of the garden in
villa lots; and there I was able to build after my own heart. So I
came to the front with a rush.
Hilda.
[Looks keenly at him.] You must surely be a very happy man, as
matters stand with you.
Solness.
[Gloomily.] Happy? Do you say that, too—like all the rest of them?
Hilda.
Yes, I should say you must be. If you could only cease thinking
about the two little children——
Solness.
[Slowly.] The two little children—they are not so easy to forget,
Hilda.
Hilda.
[Somewhat uncertainly.] Do you still feel their loss so much—after
all these years?
 Solness.
[Looks fixedly at her, without replying.] A happy man you said——
Hilda.
Well, now, are you not happy—in other respects?
Solness.
[Continues to look at her.] When I told you all this about the fire—
h’m——
Hilda.
Well?
Solness.
Was there not one special thought that you—that you seized
upon?
Hilda.
[Reflects in vain.] No. What thought should that be?
Solness.
[With subdued emphasis.] It was simply and solely by that fire
that I was enabled to build homes for human beings. Cosy,
comfortable, bright homes, where father and mother and the whole
troop of children can live in safety and gladness, feeling what a
happy thing it is to be alive in the world—and most of all to belong
to each other—in great things and in small.
Hilda.
[Ardently.] Well, and is it not a great happiness for you to be able
to build such beautiful homes?
Solness.
The price, Hilda! The terrible price I had to pay for the
opportunity!
Hilda.
 But can you never get over that?
Solness.
No. That I might build homes for others, I had to forego—to
forego for all time—the home that might have been my own. I mean
a home for a troop of children—and for father and mother, too.
Hilda.
[Cautiously.] But need you have done that? For all time, you say?
Solness.
[Nods slowly.] That was the price of this happiness that people
talk about. [Breathes heavily.] This happiness—h’m—this happiness
was not to be bought any cheaper, Hilda.
Hilda.
[As before.] But may it not come right even yet?
Solness.
Never in this world—never. That is another consequence of the fire
—and of Aline’s illness afterwards.
Hilda.
[Looks at him with an indefinable expression.] And yet you build
all these nurseries?
Solness.
[Seriously.] Have you never noticed, Hilda, how the impossible—
how it seems to beckon and cry aloud to one?
Hilda.
[Reflecting.] The impossible? [With animation.] Yes, indeed! Is
that how you feel too?
Solness.
Yes, I do.
Hilda.
 Then there must be—a little of the troll in you too.
Solness.
Why of the troll?
Hilda.
What would you call it, then?
Solness.
[Rises.] Well, well, perhaps you are right. [Vehemently.] But how
can I help turning into a troll, when this is how it always goes with
me in everything—in everything!
Hilda.
How do you mean?
Solness.
[Speaking low, with inward emotion.] Mark what I say to you,
Hilda. All that I have succeeded in doing, building, creating—all the
beauty, security, cheerful comfort—ay, and magnificence too—
[Clenches his hands.] Oh, is it not terrible even to think of——!
Hilda.
What is so terrible?
Solness.
That all this I have to make up for, to pay for—not in money, but
in human happiness. And not with my own happiness only, but with
other people’s too. Yes, yes, do you see that, Hilda? That is the price
which my position as an artist has cost me—and others. And every
single day I have to look on while the price is paid for me anew.
Over again, and over again—and over again for ever!
Hilda.
[Rises and looks steadily at him.] Now I can see that you are
thinking of—of her.
 Solness.
Yes, mainly of Aline. For Aline—she, too, had her vocation in life,
just as much as I had mine. [His voice quivers.] But her vocation has
had to be stunted, and crushed, and shattered—in order that mine
might force its way to—to a sort of great victory. For you must know
that Aline—she, too, had a talent for building.
Hilda.
She! For building?
Solness.
[Shakes his head.] Not houses and towers, and spires—not such
things as I work away at——
Hilda.
Well, but what then?
Solness.
[Softly, with emotion.] For building up the souls of little children,
Hilda. For building up children’s souls in perfect balance, and in
noble and beautiful forms. For enabling them to soar up into erect
and full-grown human souls. That was Aline’s talent. And there it all
lies now—unused and unusable for ever—of no earthly service to
any one—just like the ruins left by a fire.
Hilda.
Yes, but even if this were so——?
Solness.
It is so! It is so! I know it!
Hilda.
Well, but in any case it is not your fault.
Solness.
 [Fixes his eyes on her, and nods slowly.] Ah, that is the great, the
terrible question. That is the doubt that is gnawing me—night and
day.
Hilda.
That?
Solness.
Yes. Suppose the fault was mine—in a certain sense.
Hilda.
Your fault! The fire!
Solness.
All of it; the whole thing. And yet, perhaps—I may not have had
anything to do with it.
Hilda.
[Looks at him with a troubled expression.] Oh, Mr. Solness—if you
can talk like that, I am afraid you must be—ill, after all.
Solness.
H’m—I don’t think I shall ever be of quite sound mind on that
point.
Ragnar Brovik cautiously opens the little door in the left-hand corner.
Hilda comes forward.
Ragnar.
[When he sees Hilda.] Oh. I beg pardon, Mr. Solness——
[He makes a movement to withdraw.
Solness.
No, no, don’t go. Let us get it over.
Ragnar.
Oh, yes—if only we could.
 Solness.
I hear your father is no better?
Ragnar.
Father is fast growing weaker—and therefore I beg and implore
you to write a few kind words for me on one of the plans!
Something for father to read before he——
Solness.
[Vehemently.] I won’t hear anything more about those drawings of
yours!
Ragnar.
Have you looked at them?
Solness.
Yes—I have.
Ragnar.
And they are good for nothing? And I am good for nothing, too?
Solness.
[Evasively.] Stay here with me, Ragnar. You shall have everything
your own way. And then you can marry Kaia, and live at your ease—
and happily too, who knows? Only don’t think of building on your
own account.
Ragnar.
Well, well, then I must go home and tell father what you say—I
promised I would.—Is this what I am to tell father—before he dies?
Solness.
[With a groan.] Oh tell him—tell him what you will, for me. Best to
say nothing at all to him! [With a sudden outburst.] I cannot do
anything else, Ragnar!
Ragnar.
 May I have the drawings to take with me?
Solness.
Yes, take them—take them by all means! They are lying there on
the table.
Ragnar.
[Goes to the table.] Thanks.
Hilda.
[Puts her hand on the portfolio.] No, no; leave them here.
Solness.
Why?
Hilda.
Because I want to look at them, too.
Solness.
But you have been——[To Ragnar.] Well, leave them here, then.
Ragnar.
Very well.
Solness.
And go home at once to your father.
Ragnar.
Yes, I suppose I must.
Solness.
[As if in desperation.] Ragnar—you must not ask me to do what is
beyond my power! Do you hear, Ragnar? You must not!
Ragnar.
No, no. I beg your pardon——
 [He bows, and goes out by the corner door. Hilda goes
over and sits down on a chair near the mirror.
Hilda.
[Looks angrily at Solness.] That was a very ugly thing to do.
Solness.
Do you think so, too?
Hilda.
Yes, it was horribly ugly—and hard and bad and cruel as well.
Solness.
Oh, you don’t understand my position.
Hilda.
No matter——. I say you ought not to be like that.
Solness.
You said yourself, only just now, that no one but I ought to be
allowed to build.
Hilda.
I may say such things—but you must not.
Solness.
I most of all, surely, who have paid so dear for my position.
Hilda.
Oh yes—with what you call domestic comfort—and that sort of
thing.
Solness.
And with my peace of soul into the bargain.
Hilda.
 [Rising.] Peace of soul! [With feeling.] Yes, yes, you are right in
that! Poor Mr. Solness—you fancy that——
Solness.
[With a quiet, chuckling laugh.] Just sit down again, Hilda, and I’ll
tell you something funny.
Hilda.
[Sits down; with intent interest.] Well?
Solness.
It sounds such a ludicrous little thing; for, you see, the whole story
turns upon nothing but a crack in a chimney.
Hilda.
No more than that?
Solness.
No, not to begin with.
[He moves a chair nearer to Hilda and sits down.
Hilda.
[Impatiently, taps on her knee.] Well, now for the crack in the
chimney!
Solness.
I had noticed the split in the flue long, long before the fire. Every
time I went up into the attic, I looked to see if it was still there.
Hilda.
And it was?
Solness.
Yes; for no one else knew about it.
Hilda.
And you said nothing?