CHAPTER 2

Review of Related Literature

Overview and Introduction to Parental Involvement in

America

The evidence is now beyond dispute. When schools work together

with families to support learning, children tend to succeed not just

in school, but throughout life. (Henderson & Berla, 1994, p. 1)

This chapter serving as a literature review on parental

involvement lays the foundation for this study. It provided insight

regarding the history of parental involvement, policy that has

affected parental involvement, barriers, and Joyce Epstein’s School-

Family-Community Partnership of Overlapping Spheres of Influence

serving as the theoretical framework.

Throughout the history of education in America, there has

been an ever-changing viewpoint on parental involvement and its

place in education. This section begins with a review of colonial

parental involvement, which took place in the home provided by

parents with a heavy influence on religion. Next, the review

highlights the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries to

incorporate outside influence on education and a decrease in

parental involvement. This is followed by discussion of the rise of

parental involvement in the mid twentieth century within federal

educational legislation. Specifically, the twenty-first century saw the

adoption of two reauthorizations of the Elementary and Secondary

Education Act in the No Child Left Behind Act (which added to

already in place parental involvement structures) and Every Student

Success Act, adding to parental involvement through a strong

family, school, and community partnership.

The final sections of the literature review develop the

theoretical framework for the study using the six types of parental

involvement outlined by Joyce Epstein (2009). At the helm of

parental involvement, Joyce Epstein of John Hopkins University,

developed the School Family-Community Partnership of Overlapping

Spheres of Influence. The spheres of influence incorporate six key

types of parental involvement: parenting, communication,

volunteering, learning at home, decision making, and collaborating

with the community. Each type of parental involvement outlines and

defines practices and strategies that the school and family can

enact to produce a strong healthy level of parental involvement.

“Parent engagement is about engaging families to become partners

with the school and listening to “what parents think, dream, and

worry about” (Ferlazzo, 2011 p. 12).

A History of Parental Involvement in United States

Education

Parental involvement in colonial America. Before religious

leaders or the local colonies established the first public schools in

America, education was handled by and through the family

structure at home (Pulliam, 1987). Families instilled their core

values, work ethic, discipline, and various other skills the family and

society deemed necessary and appropriate to fit the need of

society. The education that the school-aged students received was

handled privately within the family, rather than publicly in public

institutions (Berger, 1981). As students matured in their education,

they typically received additional education in a trade

apprenticeship sought out and established by their parents (Hiatt-

Michael, 1994).

As education evolved under the governance of the townships,

religion was at the apex and primary driving force in education.

Educational Boards were comprised of local parents within the

townships, which heavily influenced the educational decision

making. Due to the diverse religious sect, schools were heavily

individualized by the viewpoints of the parents with the curriculum

focuses on religion, reading, and writing. Along with religion, social

class was also a large factor in the organization of the school, due to
the colonists’ desire to maintain the British focus on class structure.

(Hiatt-Michael, 1994).

The shift to public education. The late sixteenth and early

seventeenth century saw a change to public education and level of

parental involvement, which was once securely in the homes of the

students and provided by the parents. Two different types of

jurisdiction were established in America, and hinged on whether

one’s colony was still under British rule or if the colony was

independent. Colonies still under British rule, relied on the

authorities within the colony to direct the education. Colonies

separated from the British rule, provide education based on the

needs of that colony and established law to enforce the direct needs

(Hiatt-Michael, 1994).

The introduction of taxes supporting education did not come

into focus until the Revolutionary War era (Pulliam, 1987). Key

participants in the birth and establishment of the American life such

as; Benjamin Rush, Georgia Washington, Thomas Jefferson, and

Benjamin Franklin were advocates for education calling for the

establishment of public education supported through taxes and

instruction of reading, writing, and rhetoric. Jefferson, a pioneer in

the colony of Virginia wanted to provide education for all, and

understood that not all parents were capable or fit to provide a

proper education at home. With this understanding, Jefferson

pushed for free public education for every child. The idea of a

universal public school was not to the liking of legislators in Virginia,

and therefore not supported. It was not until the nineteenth century

that this notion of providing an education for all, regardless of

financial backing, spring boarded in American society (Hiatt-

Michael, 1994).

Throughout the nineteenth and early twentieth century,

equality for all as well as education for all was highly prevalent. By

1860, almost every state housed a public-school system. Horace

Mann, a pioneer in the public education system, established a vision

of public education that was coming to life and would ultimately

decrease the level of parental involvement. As much as Mann’s

vision established the common school for all, historian Lawrence

Cremin in Transformation of the American School, gave credit to the

public-school administrators for building the public-school system of

the twentieth century (Cremin, 1961).

Public school in America was founded on the notion that it

would be a forum for diverse elements of focusing on the norms of

its inhabitants, America’s native and immigrant cultures. William

Torrey Harris, Superintendent of St. Louis Public Schools and later U.

S. Commissioner of Education, is credited with keeping this notion

of education alive with scientifically-managed, graded elementary

and secondary schools. Public education, “a melting pot of

education,” continued for all, and by all parents, not just the poor,

minority, or immigrant parents in the United States (Hiatt-Michael,

1994).

Industrialization and compulsory education. During the

nineteenth century, the United States saw a surprising number of

children enter the workforce, and therefore the establishment of

child labor laws. To help supplement the family’s income, immigrant

children we’re working in mines, mills, and factories instead of

going to school (Rippa, 1988). The same was true for families with

farms. Families needed their children to stay home and increase the

family’s ability to survive by helping on the farm and around the

house. The labor market based on cheap labor also bred a number

of human injustices, which brought about child labor laws from labor

unions of working men. As unions went on strike and local

politicians developed and enforced child labor laws, compulsory

school attendance, and truancy laws that were enacted to keep kids

in school and not in the workforce (Hiatt-Michael,1994). By 1918, all

states had passed compulsory school attendance and truancy

legislation (Rippa, 1988). No longer could parents keep their

children out of school without the permission of school authorities.

The popularity of compulsory and truancy accountability was

heavily supported by many to keep children in school, off the

streets, and out of the factories. These laws created a paradigm

wherein parents had little control over the schooling environment

and, ultimately, made it almost impossible for strong parental

relationship with schools (Hiatt-Michael, 1994).

Professionalization of education and the of loss

parental involvement. As illustrated above, parental involvement

was central to early American education, but as the system became

more bureaucratized, parents were forced out of the education of

their children more often. This loss of parental connection and

control was due, in large, to the growing American population, the

growth of the industrial centers, the urbanization of the nation, and

the utilization of scientific management techniques in business and

industry (Hiatt-Michael, 1994). Educational leaders sought to

establish a sense of hierarchy within education to developed

procedures, roles, and functions of personnel. This type of schooling

was a clear departure from previously established schools that were

large single room schools accommodating numerous grades and

taught by a locally hired teacher. Graded schools, children classified

by grade and grade specific curriculum, were first established in

1848 in the state of Massachusetts and quickly spread across the

United States (Hiatt-Michael, 1994).

Graded schools were not run by a single educator and needed

additional personnel to aid in the daily functioning of the school.

Additional teachers, a principal, and a superintendent were needed

to ensure the success and growth of the schools in each town.

During the mid-1800s, Mann and Henry Barnard lead the

bureaucratization of public schools and the professional growth of

the education faculty. Their focus was to provide education to the

children that hinged on the scientific management of the industrial

age. For schools to operate effectively in an industrialized society,

the schools need to maintain a process of standardization and

systemization (Hiatt-Michael, 1994).

During this era in education, society members believed the

notion that education should be provided by professional teachers

and administrators, not parents. Educators possess the knowledge

and time to adequately educate a child and meet the challenges of

emerging technology. With the layers of bureaucracy being

established in education, parents soon no longer had a place in

education. The role that was once held by a board of parents, was

now replaced by a superintendent. Davies (1992) believes,

professionalism of administrators and teachers led to keeping

parents out of power influence. Due to the high level of education

and the professional growth of teachers, teachers pursued

additional education and separated themselves from the parents in

the community in which their school was located. The bureaucracy

surrounding the education system and the professional growth of

the “expert” teacher drastically reduced the level of parental

involvement in schools due to the now numerous grade levels in

which encompass a school (Hiatt-Michael, 1994).

The reassertion of parental involvement and the PTA.

Through bureaucracy and the industrial movement, the parents’

perspective was parental involvement within education was

nonexistent. Due to this perceived decrease in their role, mothers of

students wanting to change the level of parental involvement

formed the National Congress of Mothers (NCM) in 1897. Concerned

with the growth and development of the student, these mothers

who consisted of middle- and upper-class women, met on Saturdays

to discuss education with teachers. The work of these women

formed the basis of the Parent Teacher Association (PTA) (Hiatt-

Michael, 1994). The PTA helped to “Americanize new comers to the

country and to teach middle class parenting” (Davies, 1992). During

the early part of the twentieth century, the PTA helped to foster the

connection between home and school.

Parental involvement was also aided by the influence of

educational researchers whose studies pointed out the benefits

parent involvement and the education of parents had on student

success. This research was also written into educational legislation,

mandating parent involvement in schools. Project Head Start in

1964 (the first federally funded legislation) and the Elementary and

Secondary Education Act of 1965, required advisory boards to be

occupied by parents and participation by parents during classroom

activities. Education for All Handicapped Act in 1974, established a

required individualized education plan for all handicapped students

and that parents must be active in developing their student’s

educational plan. Head Start (an early childhood program) and other

federally-funded programs are responsible for generating

information, promoting research studies, and developing parent

involvement. Forms of parent involvement included volunteering in

the classroom, attending meetings, working at schools, and

participating in school-wide activities (Hiatt-Michael, 1994).

Parental Involvement and Policy in an Age of Accountability

The No Child Left Behind Act (2001). In 2001, Parental involvement

caught the attention of many when the No Child Left Behind (NCLB)

Act was passed by the federal government. With the addition of

NCLB’s parental involvement support requirements to existing Title I

efforts, it became mandatory for schools to actively establish ties

with the community. The NCLB Act (Public Law 107–110) is an

amendment of the Administration’s Elementary and Secondary

Education Act (20 U.S.C. 6301 et seq.) that was passed in 2001 and

signed into law in 2002. The intention of the act was to close the

achievement gap through the work of flexibility, accountability, and

choice, so all students have the potential to succeed (New York

Times, 2012). This framework is designed to mandate certain efforts

so families, educators, and communities can work together to

further the impact of teaching and learning. The important aspect of

these provisions is highlighted by the shared responsibility between

schools and parents to promote greater student achievement.

Additional factors include, expanded public school choice and

supplemental educational services for eligible children in low-

performing schools, local development of parental involvement

plans with sufficient flexibility to address local needs, and building

parents’ capacity for using effective practices to improve their own

children’s academic achievement (NCLB 2004).

Through time, a common theme that the education world has

seen to be consistently effective is that children benefit

academically when parents and educators work together

(HiattMichael, 1994). As a result, parents' involvement in their

children's education is a primary focus of No Child Left Behind Act of

2001 (U.S. Dept. of Ed., 2007). Parental involvement can take many

different forms and be interpreted in several ways. Within NCLB,

there is understanding that there is no singular definition of

parental involvement, but the policy operationalizes parental

involvement as, “a parent actively engaging in communication with

their student’s school to support academic success” (Patterson &

Manning, 2008). This language supports a strong connection with

the preexisting policy initiatives found in Title I.

 Title I. The United States Department of Education (2012)

describes the rationale for The Title I Act as, “the purpose of this

title is to ensure that all children have a fair, equal, and significant

opportunity to obtain a high-quality education and reach, at a

minimum, proficiency on challenging State academic achievement

standards and state academic assessments” (Improving Basic

Programs Operated by Local Educational Agencies (Title I, Part A).

As written, the policy was designed to help the student in

many ways, such as requiring schools provide parents with

academic support. The support the adults received included

additional education, parenting advice, and finding ways to include

the parent in their student’s education (Patrikakou, 2005). Title I

align with NCLB in that it provided numerous ways for parents to be

active within the school. These options helped schools meet the

NCLB requirement that parents be included as part of the governing

body at school. Additionally, parental involvement through Title I

included a parent-school liaison that worked to incorporate

strategies that bridge the gap between home and school life. It was

imperative that NCLB work in conjunction with Title I requirements

(as Title I was already in place) and still be an inclusive program

that leads to the overall improvement of parental involvement, and

in return, student success. Through the work of NCLB, mandates

which supported parental involvement, educational and emotional

benefits to the child become evident when families and teachers

work together to support the student (Hammack, Foote, Garretson,

& Thompson, 2012). These benefits are due to increased academic

performance when parents are involved in their children’s education

(Reece et al., 2013). The importance of parental involvement

programs and activities link parents and teachers in an effort to

provide vital support to students for their academic success.

Every Student Succeeds Act (2015). With family and parents as the

central focus, Every Student Succeeds Acts focuses on the

engagement of the family and parents as important pieces to the

success of students. Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) embodies

the most recent reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary

Education Act of 1965 (ESEA), which was last reauthorized in 2002

as the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB). Underneath ESSA, “It

requires – for the first time in law – that every student in America be

taught to high learning standards that will prepare them for college

and a career” (Every Student Succeeds Act Versus No Child Left

Behind, 2016). The purpose of the Act is to provide all children,

regardless of demographics, socioeconomics, or ability level, an

impartial and high-quality education, with the focus on closing

achievement gaps (Henderson, 2015). Parents, families, and the

community served as the driving force and decision makers under

ESSA. Under ESSA, the purpose of the school district and school is
to educate the parents, families, and community about education,

and what is needed in education to provide, rigorous and successful

instruction to each child. Parents, families, and the community are

offered a wide variety of assistance, ranging from state standards to

materials, to enable them to provide support for the child. The ESSA

understands by providing support in a diverse manor, it will

ultimately equip the parent, family, and community with the

necessary skills and tools to have an impact on the student

(Henderson, 2015).

Contemporary Conceptual Frameworks for Parental

Involvement

In today’s educational society, when parental involvement

strategies and practices are implemented among the teacher and

the parent and a working relationship is formed, it enables the

student to practice and acquire the necessary skills for both the

classroom and home life (Aldridge, 2015). The National Education

Association (NEA) states, “When parents are involved in their

children's education at home, they do better in school. And when

parents are involved in school, children go farther in school — and

the schools they go to are better" (National Education Association).

Jeynes (2011) advises parents to set the groundwork for this

relationship by developing a well-rounded household that is loving

and supportive, and communicating expectations with their student

will all lead to the greater understanding and conformability of their

role as a parent in their student’s education. Through hard work and

dedication to one another, parents and schools benefit from each

other and positively impact the value of the student’s education

(Warren, Noftle, Ganley, & Quintanar, 2011).

Children spend more time with their families during the first

ten years of life than in any other social context and that is why the

relationship between the home life and school life is strong

(Patrikakou et al., 2005). The time the child spends with the family

is most important to instill education and society norms that will

provide the groundwork for future success in the child’s endeavors

inside and outside of school. The National Education Association

states, “(w)hen schools, parents, families, and communities work

together to support learning, students tend to earn higher grades,

attend school more regularly, stay in school longer, and enroll in

higher level programs.” The time parents spend getting to know

their student and keeping that relationship in good standing will

enable the parent to be an active member of the student’s success,

“(t)he experiences that parents afford students at home will be an

extension of the efforts from school, which promotes the

development of knowledge” (Folk, 2015). Throughout the student’s

educational career, it is important that families are involved

because there will come a time when the family and school will lean
on each other for insight, guidance, and support. The team that is

formed between the school and family will support and aid in

forming a path for each child to the greatest, well-rounded

education available to them (Keller 2011).

Teachers and the school community are capable of strongly

influencing student development much like the family structure,

hence the focus placed on the policies established by Title I, NCLB,

and ESSA. There is a strong push for schools and families to work

seamlessly together to maximize the overall potential of the student

and educational growth. McFarland Piazza, Lord, Smith, and Downey

(2012) suggested the main element of a parental involvement

initiative must have a central focus on the parent-teacher

relationship which is vital to the learning environment and

continuum of the student. To build an even stronger and successful

parent-teacher relationship, both parties must look at incorporating

mutual traits such as respect, cooperation, and a strong and

unbiased understanding between the teacher and parent. The

impact families and parents have on the level of educational

achievement of the student is achieved through various practices.

Patrikakou suggests several factors that promote how parental

involvement shapes student outcomes (2005):

Interventions with a family support component positively

affect children’s outcomes. Parental involvement is a mechanism

through which the long-term effect of intervention is achieved.

Indicators of parent involvement are associated with significantly

higher levels of school performance and success.

A supportive family that is actively involved and engaged in their

student’s education may positively affect that student’s education.

Research at The University of New Hampshire provides empirical

data to support that parental involvement is positively correlated to

student performance. The sample of students was sufficient to

confirm the positive relationship exists between parental

involvement and student performance (Houtenville & Conway,

2008).

Barriers to Parental Involvement

Although parental involvement is recognized as significantly

important in the education of children, there remains great diversity

of thought and opinion concerning parental involvement. Parents

come from diverse backgrounds and just as diverse are their own

personal experiences in education. The relationship parents have

with education greatly contributes to their attitudes and level of

interaction with their student’s education, relationship with

teachers, and how they view education overall (Hornby & Lafaele,

2011).
 Barriers in parental involvement comes in many different

shapes and sizes, educators must strive to understand what causes

these said barriers in parental involvement. The literature base

includes discussion on several possible barriers which deter parents

from partnering with schools including: communication barriers,

culture and identity, and organizational barriers. To move forward

and address school-home relationships more completely, educators

must better understand barriers hindering parents from

participating in their student’s academic well-being.

Communication. Communication is, seemingly, one of the

most straight forward ways to improve understanding and

relationships; however, in practice, communicating effectively often

proves difficult (Wright (2009). Communication comes in many

different spoken, written, and non-verbal forms (e.g. emails, phone

calls, text, face to face communication); but, matching

communication style to the diverse needs of individual families is

challenging. Communication is key to parental involvement and a

lack thereof can be detrimental; mistrust between the parent and

teacher might be one of the most prevalent dynamics in today’s

educational atmosphere (Griffin & Galassi, 2010).

Parents may be intimidated by the language, jargon,

curriculum, and even the school personnel; consequently, they

avoid communication with the school (Flynn, 2007). Teachers must

allow parents and students the unbiased space to express

themselves and by keeping an open line of communication, the

teacher is achieving this end. A study on effective ways to

communicate was conducted by Denessen et al. (2007), and results

indicate that formal written communication between parents and

teachers were not found to be effective, especially for ethnic

minority parents. Most of the focus of communication falls on the

teacher’s shoulders, but communication happens between two

parties. When teachers do not feel parental support, they often

believe it is a waste of their time to contact parents (Flynn, 2007).

Culture and Identity. It is important for the reader to

understand that there is no one way to define what is success or

what it means to provide an appropriate level of parental support,

but this study will provide narratives to be used in an effort to

promote parental involvement at the school and family level. If one

can be celebratory and inclusive of differences among the school

community and families, parental involvement can benefit students.

Overall, high parental involvement, regardless of ethnicity,

socioeconomic status, a child’s sex, and a child’s motivational level,

have been found to produce a positive correlation with a student’s

academic achievement (Patrikakou, 2005).

Parental involvement comes in many different forms and does

not reflect just one set of activities. Such diverse activities as

volunteering in the classroom, communicating with the teacher,

participating in academic-related activities at home, communicating

the positive value of education, and participating in the parent-

teacher relationship are all included in parental school involvement,

and each is related to school performance (Epstein & Sanders,

2009; Hill & Craft, 2003). This study will take on parental school

involvement by taking these diverse factors into account and what

it means to a diverse group of families. For the school and family

partnership to be successful, regardless of identity, the

interpersonal relationship must be at the forefront and provide a

solid foundation between the school and the family. Goodman

states, “the way to establish this is first and foremost (to) make no

assumptions about the family” (2002). Additionally, both parties,

especially the school must show an interest and be open to learning

about each family’s diverse culture (Gartrell, 2012).

When teachers are working with diverse families, the teacher

should always remain interested in each family’s culture and seek

unique characteristics about all individual cultures. This practice will

promote a positive relationship and participation in the classroom

(Rapp et al., 2011). If teachers are unable to make such a

connection, the school-home relationship is in peril.

A study conducted by McCoach et al. (2010) found that a lack

of knowledge around the diverse cultural backgrounds in the

classroom on the teacher’s part resulted in the lack of parental

involvement. Understanding another’s cultural background can be a

challenge for anyone, including teachers, but it is something that is

necessary, parents become more reserved when becoming involved

at their child’s school if the teacher does not understand their

cultural background (McCoach et al., 2010).

Organizational Barriers. Much of the literature above has

explored the importance of parental involvement in the education of

children to achieve academic excellence (Epstein, 1995; Fan &

Chen, 2001). It is necessary, however, to acknowledge the

challenges that parents face getting in their child’s school and

programs (Byrd, 2011; Moore, 1990; Okeke, 2014; Yoder & Lopez,

2013). In some instances, parents may not be involved in school

activities due to barriers experienced in being engaged with and

understanding processes of the educational institutions within which

their children are learning (Okeke, 2014; Yoder & Lopez, 2013). In a

descriptive case study research conducted by Okeke (2014), a

group of thirty parents of children that attended one of the primary

schools located in the London area of England was interviewed and

asked how to improve parental involvement. The focus of the study

was to examine the level of parental involvement in the schooling of

their children. Okeke’s conclusions indicated that “most parents do

not always know how to get involved.” Additional results revealed

many parents want to get involved, but some can be overwhelmed

by the operational structures within the school. Okeke’s study

settles that to effectively involve parents in the businesses of the

school, as well as in their children’s education, certain approaches

must be popularized within the school. Okeke recommends that

parents be made aware of the approaches for their involvement in

children’s education if such approaches are to be effective. It is

helpful to explore some specific barriers to parental involvement

that have been identified in the literature. Okeke (2014) found that

parental involvement was significantly impeded by a lack of time,

lack of childcare, no school-parent welcoming policy, little parental

understanding of how to get involved, and intimidating school

operational structures. Furthermore, Yoder and Lopez (2013)

discover that language barriers, family resource limitations, the

immaturity of the parent due to their age, and feelings of

marginalization, create an intimidating obstruction between the

school and parents. Lastly, Byrd (2011) adds educational jargon to

the list of observed barriers to parental involvement.

Moore (1990) gives attention to models and methods to

conceptualize meaningful parent participation in the education of

their children and themselves, the need for innovation in family

school partnerships, and barriers to parent participation. Moore

reports that such models include “Those derived from early

childhood education and school partnerships with parents as

policymakers, as volunteers in the program, and as facilitators of

children's development.” Moore noted five barriers that include:

physical or psychological distance between teachers and parents,

lack of educators’ professional development, ethnicity and socio-

economic status biases, limited views of parental participation, and

perceptions of the school as limited to the provision of instruction.

The model stresses the formation of partnership and collaboration

between schools and parents is dramatically different from the way

in which our nation views its schools.

Moore concludes that if students are to meet new academic

challenges and obtain success, the nation's schools must develop to

the point where parents and schools maximize each other's

knowledge and abilities. A partnership between parents and schools

could greatly contribute to a system in which a greater number of

children arrive at school each day ready to receive an education.

Given the barrier described above, there is no shortage of work to

be done improving the readiness of schools to increase parental

involvement. To overcome the barriers preventing parental

involvement, Wherry (2009) suggests schools need to provide a

welcoming climate where the school staff is respectful and

responsive to parents. It is critical that administrators and teachers

encourage respectful two-way communication between the school

and home (Wherry, 2009). Bouie, an educational consultant stated,

“The answer is to stop treating parents like ‘clients’ and start

treating them like ‘partners’ in helping children learn” (Wherry,

2009, p. 7). Understanding families more as people may better open

the lines of communication and engender the type of community

relationships and parental involvement that increase student

learning.

Theoretical Framework: Epstein’s Model of School Family

and Community Partnerships Joyce Epstein's School-Family-

Community Partnership Model is an influential model used to

examine and define the relationship between schools, families, and

communities. This serves as one of overlapping spheres of influence

relating to success of the child. Epstein’s framework will serve as

the theoretical model for this study, providing a base of previous

research, support, a benchmark to measure the qualitative findings

against, and to aid in the data analysis process. As a framework for

increasing participation in education, the model recognizes six

types of educational involvement and provides rationales and

strategies for schools, families, and communities to actively engage

in and participate in the success of the student. This study too,

qualitative in design, will analyze student and teacher perspectives

providing insight into understanding parental and school

involvement relating to student success.

 To examine school, family, and community involvement,

Epstein’s theory of overlapping spheres of influence and six types of

involvement is used to investigate the multitude of ways school

personnel are involved in promoting school, family, and community

engagement (Epstein, 1987). Epstein’s theory states students have

a better rate of succeeding at higher levels when the internal and

external models of influence overlap to promote student

engagement, development, and learning. The internal and external

models have different characteristics when it comes to student

achievement. The internal model relates to the interpersonal

relations that occur while at school, home, or outside in the

community influencing student success. The external model hinges

on the working relationships between the student’s home life,

school life, and life outside in the community all working together

for the common good of the student (Epstein et al., 2002).

Under Epstein’s theory of overlapping spheres, interaction can

occur in multiple ways, either at the institutional or individual level.

At the institutional level, interactions can be classified as inviting

families into the school for an event, such as a PTA sponsored

event, curriculum night, or parent night. At the individual level, a

parent teacher conference serves at the involvement between the

two participants or at an individual level (Epstein et al.). The two

types of interactions are categorized under what is known as the six

types of involvement, or activities developed to promote

involvement between the school, family, and community that is tied

to the school’s mission and vision (Epstein, 1995; Epstein &

Sanders, 2006). The six types of involvement interactions that

operate within the theory of overlapping spheres act as a

framework for organizing behaviors, roles, and actions performed

by school personnel, family, and community members working

together to increase involvement and student achievement

(Epstein, 1995; Epstein et al., 2002). The following paragraphs

define the six types of involvement.

Parenting. The first type of involvement is parenting and includes

helping families with basic parenting skills, encouraging home

conditions to support children in the educational process, and

assisting schools to understand families. Schools can assist families

in meeting their responsibilities as parents of children at every age

level by providing activities that increase their knowledge and

strengthen their skills to influence their child’s growth and

development (Epstein et al., 2009). Activities that may strengthen

parents’ understanding of development, assist with parenting skills,

and improve home conditions that may support learning may

include but are not limited to family support programs, parent

education workshops, and home visits (Epstein, 2009). Activities

should include information for parents and from parents about their
families (Epstein et al., 2009). It is critical to provide information to

all families, not just the families who attend the workshops or

meetings at school. Often families who do not attend or cannot

attend are the families who have the greatest need for the

information (Epstein, 2009).

It is important for schools to gather information from families

to help educators understand students and their families, including

their backgrounds, goals, strengths, and needs (Epstein, 2009).

When parents share this type of information with the school, it

creates an awareness of challenges in parenting and builds a strong

and trustworthy relationship between the family and the educators

(Epstein, 2009). A challenge associated with parenting is ensuring

that all information sent to families is clear, useful, and relevant

regarding the success of each child in the school. This can be a

difficult task as the abilities and needs within the school may be

greatly diverse and varied (Epstein, 2001). Students, parents, and

schools can benefit with successful parenting practices in place.

Student attendance can improve when families are informed

of policies and are involved (Epstein, 2009). Students can have an

increased awareness of the importance of school and respect for

education (Epstein et al., 2009). Parents can benefit from successful

parenting practices by increasing their knowledge of each

development stage in their child’s life, which can increase self-

confidence about parenting (Epstein, 2009). With successful

parenting practices in place, parents may have a greater feeling of

support from the school and other parents (Epstein, 2009).

Educators and schools can also benefit from successful parenting

practices by increasing their understanding of families and the goals

and concerns families have for their children. Educators can gain

respect for students’ and their families’ strengths, needs, and

background (Epstein, 2009).

Communication. Communicating refers to parent-initiated

and school-initiated contact regarding school programs and student

progress. Communication is defined by Epstein (2009) as the ability

to design effective forms of school-to-home and home-to-school

communications about school programs and student progress.

Useful and clear two-way communication encourages cooperation

between the home and school and reveals to students that contact

is being made between the home and school monitor student

success (Epstein et al., 2009).

There are multiple ways to produce effective communication

between the home and the school including conferences, PTA

meetings, weekly or monthly folders of student work, handbooks,

parent pick up of report cards, notes, emails, newsletters, phone

calls, and websites (Epstein, 2009). Any time communication is

involved there will likely be challenges. Communication must be

clear and useful and schools need to be considerate of factors such

as language barriers and literacy of families that could affect the

understanding of the information being shared (Epstein, 2009). An

increasing number of schools are using technological resources as a

means of communication; however, it is important to remember

that all families may not have access to these technological

resources (Epstein et al., 2009). Effective communication between

the home and school yields numerous positive results.

Students benefit from an awareness of their progress in

specific subjects and skills. When students are involved in the

communication process, they are more knowledgeable of the

actions required to maintain or improve their grades (Epstein et al.,

2009). Involvement in the communication process can also make

students more aware of their role in the education process and give

students more responsibility over their educational success

(Epstein, 2009).

Parents benefit from effective communication with the school

by having increased knowledge of policies, procedures, and

programs within the school, allowing the parents to provide

additional support in the educational experience (Epstein, 2009). As

parents communicate with the school they typically become more

comfortable and satisfied with the school and the teachers (Epstein

et al., 2009). Through effective and positive communication among

staff, teachers, and administrators, parents encourage\ a successful

educational experience for their children and may become more

actively involved in their success (Epstein, 2009).

Schools benefit from clear and effective communication with

families. Communication, whether written or oral, gives parents a

better understanding of policies, procedures, and programs within

the school, which allows for additional support of the school

(Epstein, 2009). Clear communication between families and schools

encourages the use of parents’ networks to communicate with all

families within the community (Epstein et al., 2009).

Volunteering. The third type of involvement, volunteering,

is defined as recruiting and organizing people to assist and support

the school and the students (Epstein, 2009). Volunteering is more

than being present at the school and helping during the day, but

consists of supporting the goals of the school and the learning

process in any way, in any place, and at any time (Epstein et al.,

2009). As the demands of families have increased with work hours,

overwhelming schedules, and other responsibilities, some families

have difficulty scheduling time to volunteer at the school during

normal school hours (Epstein et al., 2009) Volunteers serve in many

areas to support the school program and the student’s work and

activities, allowing educators and families to work together in the

child’s education. Volunteer activities include recruiting and training

volunteers, arranging schedules, locations, and activities for

volunteers, and recognizing parents who serve as an audience for

student events and performances (Epstein et al., 2009). Volunteers

serve in schools or classrooms by assisting students, teachers, or

administrators as aides, tutors, coaches, lecturers, chaperones,

boosters, mentors, and in many other ways (Epstein, 2009).

Volunteers serve as an audience by attending assemblies,

performances, sporting events, recognition events, award

ceremonies, celebrations, and other student activities (Epstein,

2009). Volunteers serve the schools or classrooms by assisting

school programs and student activities in any location and at any

time (Epstein et al., 2009).

Many schools have volunteers, but often there are a small

number of people who continue to offer their time (Epstein, 2009).

One of the many challenges to volunteer programs is to recruit a

wide variety of people so that all families know they are valued as

volunteers (Epstein et al., 2009). Schools need to provide volunteers

with appropriate training, enabling the volunteers to successfully

and effectively serve the school and the students (Epstein, 2009).

With time being an issue in many families, schools need to create

flexible schedules to provide training and allow volunteers to assist

the school programs and the educational experience (Epstein et al.,

2009).
 There is much to be gained from effective volunteer

programs. With volunteer programs in schools, students may be

tutored or taught by volunteers, emphasizing the importance of

educational success (Epstein, 2009). Due to additional adult

interaction, students may learn more effective communication skills

with adults (Epstein, 2009). By having volunteers in classrooms and

in schools, the role of the teacher becomes evident and appreciated

by parents and other volunteers (Epstein et al., 2009). Volunteer

opportunities give parents and community members increased self-

confidence in their ability to work with children and the school

setting. Enrollment in programs to improve their own education and

to prepare for jobs in the field of education may be prompted

through volunteer experiences with the school (Epstein et al.,

2009).

The adult to child ratio increases when volunteers assist

educators and allows educators to provide more individual attention

to students. As parents become more involved, educators and

parents may become more confident and comfortable with each

other, which may encourage educators to involve families in many

new ways, not just as volunteers (Epstein et al., 2009).

Learning at home. Learning at home is the fourth type of

involvement described by Epstein and refers to providing ideas to

families on ways to assist their children in learning activities at

home including homework and other curriculum related activities,

decision-making, and planning (Epstein et al., 2009). Learning at

home activities that encourage children to share and discuss

assignments and ideas with family members support two-way

connections between the home and the school regarding the

curriculum and other school related activities (Epstein, 2009). When

families provide encouragement to their children, children are more

likely to be actively involved in setting goals for educational success

and in planning post-secondary educational experiences (Epstein,

209). Learning at home activities include information about how to

help children with homework and improve skills in various subjects

(Epstein, 2009). Students should be encouraged to discuss with

their parents, the activities they are involved in and demonstrate

what they are learning in class. When learning at home activities

are effectively designed and implemented, students are more likely

to complete their homework assignments, improve their skills, and

parents may be more aware and involved in school curriculum,

(Epstein, 2009).

Learning at home activities can be extremely beneficial to the

learning experience of students, but can be difficult to design and

implement (Epstein et al., 2009). Implementing interactive

homework on a regular basis to allow students to discuss ideas and

demonstrate skills with the family can be challenging and time

consuming. Many parents are not involved and are unaware of

activities and skills being taught in the classroom (Epstein, 2009).

Many parents are uninformed of homework assignments and ways

to assist their children with homework and other curriculum related

activities (Epstein, 2009). Parents can be a significant tool in

encouraging students to complete homework assignments and

other activities, in setting personal goals for success in school and

in preparing for post-secondary education or work (Epstein, 2009).

When learning at home activities are effectively designed and

implemented, results can be expected among students, parents,

and educators. With the encouragement of families at home,

students’ skills, abilities, and test scores can be expected to rise

(Epstein et al., 2009). Parent awareness of homework policies and

procedures can increase the completion of homework assignments

by students. As parents support the educational experience,

children may view the parent as an advocate, resulting in increased

self-confidence in personal ability and attitude towards school

(Epstein, 2009).

When parents are involved in academic activities, there may

be an increased appreciation for the teaching profession and the

role of the teacher (Epstein et al., 2009). Parents may benefit from

involvement in learning at home activities by having a better

understanding of the curriculum and skills the children are learning,

making it easier to assist children with curriculum related activities

throughout the year (Epstein et al., 2009). Learning at home

activities may escalate discussions within the home regarding

school, classwork, homework, and future educational plans (Epstein,

2009).

Educators and schools may also profit from these types of

activities by experiencing a boost in family involvement and support

of the educational process (Epstein, 2009). Educators and schools

may also recognize a rise in motivation of students from all racial

and ethnic backgrounds with reinforcement in the home (Epstein et

al., 2009).

Decision making. Epstein has identified decision making as

including families in school decision making and developing parent

leaders and representatives within the school (Epstein et al., 2009).

By allowing parents to represent the school in leadership roles,

parent leaders can assist families and the community in

understanding and contributing ideas to support school programs

(Epstein, 2009). Parents and educators have a shared interest in the

educational experience of students, and collaboration between

parents and educators regarding school issues can enhance the

experiences of the children (Epstein et al., 2009).

 Decision-making activities allow parents to contribute ideas

regarding school plans and policies. Parents can serve as

representatives on the school council, school improvement teams,

PTA, PTO, advisory groups, and other committees. Many families

want their opinions and ideas to be represented in the schools; but,

most families do not want to serve on committees or in leadership

roles (Epstein, 2009). As schools involve parents in decision making

activities, it is important to include parents from all racial, ethnic,

socioeconomic, and other sectors from within the school population

(Epstein et al., 2009). Parent leaders should be active participants

and represent other families from the school, and it is imperative

that parent leaders obtain ideas from families to share with the

school and distribute information to the families they represent

regarding school decisions, programs, and activities (Epstein, 2009).

Schools need to offer appropriate training for the parent leaders to

assist in developing their leadership skills and properly represent

other families (Epstein et al., 2009). An important component in

upper grades would be to include student representatives on

committees and within organizations (Epstein et al., 2009).

With the involvement of families in the school decision making

process, students become aware that families’ views are valued and

represented in the school. Students can benefit in multiple ways

from the direct family influence of parents serving on committees

and in organizations (Epstein et al., 2009). Families become more

aware of policies, programs, and activities and gain a sense of

respect within the school when involved in the decision-making

process which can increase a parent’s self-confidence, encouraging

their ability to support their child’s education (Epstein, 2009). When

involving parents in decision making, educators may gain insight to

families’ perspectives regarding policies and school decisions

(Epstein et al., 2009). When educators and families collaborate in

decision making, educators can gain respect for families and their

ability to represent the school in leadership roles (Epstein et al.,

2009).

Collaborating with the community. Collaborating with the

community refers to coordinating resources and services from the

community for families, students, and the school to support learning

(Epstein et al., 2009). Effectively collaborating with the community

supports the school and reinforces relations with businesses in the

local community (Epstein, 2001).

Community is defined by Epstein (2009) as those interested

in, or influenced by, the quality of education; not just those families

with children in the school. The community is comprised of

everyone influencing the educational experiences of students, not

just those living in neighborhoods near or around the school

(Epstein et al., 2009). Community activities integrate additional

resources, programs, and services with school programs to support

learning (Epstein, 2009). The community can contribute to students,

schools, and families by offering services through business

partnerships, cultural organizations, health services, recreational

centers, senior citizen programs, faith-based programs,

governmental agencies, and other groups (Epstein et al., 2009).

These community organizations can provide mentoring, tutoring,

after school care, and volunteer services to support schools and the

development of children. Schools, students, and families can

contribute to the community through service learning projects and

other special projects while sharing their talents and working

together on local issues (Epstein, 2009). A challenge for schools

may be ensuring equal opportunities for everyone and informing all

families of services offered within the community (Epstein et al.,

2009).

When schools collaborate with the community, students can

enrich their knowledge, skills, and talents from curricular and

extracurricular experiences or explorations (Epstein et al., 2009).

Often, students gain self-confidence and ownership of the

community in which they live by collaborating in activities within

the community (Epstein et al., 2009). Families may benefit from

schools collaborating with the community by experiencing increased

knowledge and gaining the use of resources within the community

to develop skills and obtain services for their family (Epstein, 2009).

Community collaboration also allows families to work together to

strengthen their relationships and build a sense of ownership within

the community (Epstein et al., 2009).

Administrators and other educators may not live in or near the

community where they work. Collaboration may increase their

knowledge of the community and introduce resources in the

community that may enhance the curriculum and enrich student

experiences (Epstein et al., 2009). Collaborating with the

community may be especially beneficial for educators in identifying

local resources and services when assisting families having children

with special needs (Epstein et al., 2009).

Summary

This review of literature focused on the changes in education over

the last 300 plus years and the shifts the education community has

seen in parental involvement. Parental involvement served as the

primary focus of this chapter and begun with the history of parental

involvement in education in America. As the United States

stablished its own identity and freedom from British rule, education

was provided by the parents in the home and was heavily

influenced by religion and family values. As the country matured,

leaders thought best that the education of children be delivered in a

public setting and provided by professional teachers, not their

parents. This shift in education did not happen automatically, but

took time to evolve and eventually became common practice. With

the transformation of education in America, schools transformed

from locally controlled one room schoolhouses serving multiple

grades into grade schools with professional teachers with grade

specific curriculums. During these stages in American education,

parental involvement was highly supported in the earlier years and

saw a decline during the Industrial Era (Hiatt-Michael, 1994).

In today’s educational system, the education field has seen

legislation passed that influences the education of children and has

a direct impact on the level of parental involvement. No Child Left

Behind was passed in 2001 and added to the existing Title 1 laws

around parental involvement. It became mandatory for schools to

actively establish ties with the community. As a higher level of focus

was placed on parental involvement, schools, parents, teachers,

and communities looked for ways to interact and build relationships

that would directly impact the success of the students. No Child left

behind was replaced with Every Student Succeeds Act, which has

provided additional information and requirements around parental

involvement. Many have seen the success of parental involvement.

However, parental involvement has not been without obstacles

impeding the establishments of relationships. Numerous barriers

have limited the growth of parental involvement in schools.

Serving as the guiding research and theoretical framework for

this study, Joyce Epstein’s, School-Family-Community Partnerships

defined six types of involvement that shape school, family, and

community involvement to benefit students and lead to success.

Joyce Epstein outlined strategies for student success by elaborating

on key factors such as parenting, communicating, volunteering,

learning at home, decision making, and collaborating with the

community. Joyce Epstein’s School-Family-Community Partnership

set the structure for this qualitative study as well as supported the

findings in this study.