HOW TO WRITE EFFECTIVE ESSAYS

PARAGRAPHS

Paragraphs can be described as a group of related sentences that develop one idea or point. It
has an opening sentence that is known as the topic sentence. The topic sentence is made up of
the topic and the controlling idea.

The controlling idea helps the writer to remain focused on the issue being written about in the
paragraph. In other words it "controls the paragraph" as the writer is restricted to what the
topic sentence is saying.

The topic sentence also has a series of sentences that develop the controlling idea. These
sentences are known as the supporting details. The sentences below help explain what a topic
sentence is.

1. Kwame is a good boy. Topic: Kwame

Controlling idea: he is a good boy.
2. A dog is a household pet which freely gives companionship to its owner.
Topic: A dog
Controlling idea: freely gives companionship to its owner.
Position of the topic sentence
Topic sentences can be found anywhere in the paragraph. However, as student writers the
topic sentences are most effective when used as the first sentence in the paragraph.
Example #1
A great amount of corn is used as feed for cattle, poultry, and hogs. Corn is also distilled
into ethanol- a fuel for cars and a component in bourbon. Corn is made into a sweetener
used in snacks and soft drink and a thickener for foods and industrial products. A small
amount of corn is consumed at dining tables in kernel or processed form.

Any one of the following sentences can act as the topic sentence in the paragraph above.
• Corn is used for extraordinarily diverse purposes.

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 • Humans, animals, and machines profit from products made from corn.
• Corn is a remarkably useful grain.

Example #2
Studying a second language is useful for four main reasons. The study of a second
language is now seen as important and necessary in our lives. People struggle to learn
new languages for many reasons. These foreign languages include French, Spanish,
Chinese, German and Arabic. Firstly, the study of these languages helps people to
communicate with others from other countries. Secondly, it helps in the area of trade
and commerce as people can easily trade with each other without hustle. Thirdly,
studying a second language increases the employment opportunities in other areas of
the world for people. Finally, with the world now becoming a global village, the
importance of learning how to speak a second language, especially a foreign one, cannot
be over emphasized. Learning a second language is a must.

The second example has a topic sentence that precedes the body of the paragraph. The
paragraph stays within the confines of the controlling idea of the topic sentence (. . . is useful
for four main reasons)

Supporting details

The supporting details develop the controlling idea. The supporting details are made up of
evidence and examples that help develop the topic sentence. In paragraphs #1 and #2 the
sentences that follow the topic sentences are supporting details.

EXAMPLE:

The diagnosis of mental sickness was for a long time a mystery. In ancient times ,irrational
behavior was considered the result of demons and evil spirits taking possession of a person.
Later, Greeks looked upon irrational behavior as a physical problem caused by an imbalance of
body fluids called “humors” or by displacement of an organ. In the highly superstitious Middle

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Ages, the theory of possession by demons was revived. It reached a high point again in the
witch-hunts of eighteenth century Europe and America. Only in the last one hundred years did
true medical explanations gain wide acceptance and categories of illnesses changed.

Summary/ concluding sentence

The summary sentence ties up what has been discussed or explained in a paragraph, or it
simply makes a judgment about the issue that has been presented in the paragraph. In short it
ties up the loose ends of the paragraph. In paragraph #1 and 2 The last sentences have been
written in bold letters.

Paragraph structure: Related elements

• Paragraph Unity

• Paragraph completeness

• Paragraph Coherence

Paragraph unity

The word ‘Unity’ refers to ‘oneness’. Paragraph Unity thus refers to all the sentences in the
paragraph working together as one whole. Each sentence is related to other sentences in the
paragraph by the fact that they have ‘one’ controlling idea.

The roads of Accra are always busy. The shops are full of people from the time
they open till the time they close. Most of Accra’s restaurants and nightclubs are
filled to capacity throughout the week. In fact there is an abundance of hustle
and bustle in every sphere of life in Accra.

In other words the sentences say nothing other than that Accra is a busy city.

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Paragraph completeness

It is the presence of sufficient evidence in the paragraph to prove the topic sentence
satisfactorily. Thus a paragraph devoid of the necessary information cannot be
described as complete.

Compare the two paragraphs

I. Although he was an outlaw, Jesse James was considered a Robin Hood figure in
my hometown of Missouri. He used to be generous to the poor, and he did
many good deeds, not just robberies. In my hometown people still talk about
how lots of the things James did weren't all bad.

II. Although he was an outlaw, Jesse James was considered a Robin Hood figure in
my hometown of Missouri. Jesse and His gang chose my hometown as a hiding
place and they set out immediately to make friends with the local people. Every
Christmas for four years, the legend goes, he dumped bags of toys on the door-
steps o f poor children. The parents knew the toys had been bought with money
stolen from rich people, but they were grateful anyway. On three occasions,
Jesse gave grocery to the three neediest families - he seemed to know when
times were toughest - and once he supposedly held up a stage to pay for an old
man's operation.

The two paragraphs above are saying the same thing. However, the second paragraph
provides more detail and develops the topic sentence better. Thus we can say the
second paragraph is complete while the first one is not.

Paragraph Coherence

All the sentences and ideas in a paragraph should flow together to make a clear logical
point about the topic. In other words the sentences in the paragraph should flow in such
a manner that the reader is able to follow the train of thought of the writer.

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To achieve coherence, you should have a smooth connection or transition between the
sentences in the paragraph. There are five important ways of achieving coherence in
paragraphs.

The ways that coherence can be achieved in a paragraph are as follows:

• Transitional words and phrases

• Repetition of key words

• The use of pronouns

• Parallel structures

Transitional words/ phrases

Transitional words are also known as ‘connectors’ and there are several of them which
can also be categorized as follows:

ADDITION: and, furthermore, moreover, likewise, also

TIME: next, shortly, after that, after, before, during, later on, thereafter, finally
CONTRAST: however, conversely, on the other hand, but, in contrast, yet, however,
despite, nonetheless, despite, even so, even though, whereas.
COMPARE: Likewise, in like manner, similarly, in the same way
CAUSE AND EFFECT: so, therefore, thus, consequently, as a result, hence, because of
this.
EMPHASIS: indeed, in fact, especially, most importantly
EXAMPLE OR ILLUSTRATION: For example, for instance, to illustrate
SPATIAL RELATIONSHIP: Above, below, next, inside, outside, across, along, in front,
beside, behind, beyond, there, here, in the distance, alongside, adjacent, within.

The paragraph below uses transitional words to achieve coherence:

One day as I crossed the street, I heard something hit the ground near me. Then I felt
the sting of the cold hard earth hitting me at the back of my neck. I stopped and
looked at the direction of Ricky's house, but I could not see where he was hiding. I
brushed most of the dirt out of my her and kept walking, trying to ignore being hit
several times before I made it home.

The transitional terms "one day", "then", "but" and "before" help the reader to follow exactly
what the writer is saying.
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 Several months ago, my son who is only six years old, came home from school, with
an unusual drawing. What made this picture different from his others was its brilliant
array of colours. Ordinarily, Jason's drawings consist of a fast dash of pencil or marker
with the scribble of a single colour to fill in the outline. This time, Jason had been
careful with the lines and borders. Each was clear and distinct. Obviously, something
had intrigued him enough to make him sit longer than his normal thirty seconds. I
wanted to know what it was.

In the second paragraph the writer uses transitional terms like "several months ago",
"ordinarily" and "obviously" to achieve coherence.

Repetition

One other way of achieving coherence is the repetition of the key terms in the
paragraph.

For example:

One of the most common and puzzling, phobias is the fear of snakes. It's only natural, of
course , to be afraid of a poisonous snake, but many people are just as frightened of the
harmless varieties. For such people a tiny green grass snake is as terrifying as a cobra.
Some researchers say this unreasonable fear of any and all snakes is a legacy left to us
by our cave-dwelling ancestors, for whom these reptiles were a real and constant
danger. Others maintain that the fear is as a result of our associating the snake with the
notion of evil, as in the garden of Eden. Whatever the reason, the fact remains that for
many otherwise normal people, the mere sight of a snake slithering through the
countryside is enough to keep them city dwellers forever.

In the example above the words "snake” and "fear" which are the key terms in the
paragraph have been repeated.

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Pronouns

The use of pronouns is one way to achieve coherence in a paragraph. A key noun in one
sentence may be replaced with a suitable pronoun in subsequent sentences.

Example #1

The great white shark is perhaps the best equipped of the oceans predators. It can grow
to twenty-one feet and weigh three tons, with two inch teeth which can replace
themselves within twenty-four hours when damaged. The shark's sense of smell is so
acute that it can detect one ounce of fish blood in a million ounces of water. In addition,
it can sense vibrations from six hundred feet away.

In the first example the pronoun "it" has been used to help establish coherence in the
paragraph.

Example #2

His thundering rages are most vivid, his tears, subtle. Watching and feeling for them, but
unable to bridge the gap, I learned to love, hate him all in the same breath. No one ever
knew this. They saw a kid in love with her father. He was a boxer when I was small.
People say he was good and would have made it had he started younger, but he had a
wife and growing family to care for. Amateur boxing paid nothing but he loved it. I think
he must have been about twenty-two then. He claims that we were too young to have
seen him fight , but I remember.

The second example relies on the pronoun "he" to achieve coherence in the paragraph.

Parallel structures

Parallelism in a paragraph means using the same grammatical structure in several places
to establish coherence. The repeated use of similar phrasing helps tie the ideas and

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sentences together. The paragraph below is predominantly unified by its use of
grammatically parallel sentences:

Even though large tracts of Europe and many old and famous states have fallen or may fall into
the grip of the Gestapo and all the odious apparatus of Nazi rule, we shall not flag or fail. We
shall go on to the end, we shall fight in France, we shall fight on the seas and oceans, we shall
fight with growing confidence and strength in the air, we shall defend our island, whatever the
cost may be, we shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight in the landing grounds, we shall fight
in the fields and in the streets. we shall fight in the hills; we shall never surrender, and even if,
which I do not for a moment believe, this island or a larger part of it were subjugated and
starving, then our empire beyond the seas, armed and guarded by the British fleet, would carry
on the struggle until in God's good time, the New World with all its power and might comes to
the rescue and liberation of the old.

The weather of Texas offers something for everyone. If you are the kind who likes to see snow
drifting onto mountain peaks

Strategies for developing a paragraph

ILLUSTRATION

Illustration is a means of using specific situations and examples to reveal the essential points
about your topic or to reinforce your topic sentence. If you want to point out in an essay that
student-workers face financial challenges for instance you will have to talk about low salaries,
handouts and lecture notes that have to be bought, high tuition fees that have to be paid,
utility bills that have to be paid and not to mention the hefty sums of money that have to be
doled out to pay transport. Illustration has been used to develop the paragraph on Accra is a
busy city. This is because the sentences present o examples such as “The roads are always busy;
the shops are full of people” etc which show that Accra is a busy city.

Process Analysis

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Process analysis explains I step by step the manner in which something works or how
something is done. It provides readers with practical information. For example directions for
assembling equipments or instructions for registering the courses at the university all come
under the heading process analysis.

Guidelines for developing a process analysis paragraph

• The information should be presented in chronological order.

• Technical terms should be defined.
• Equipment used in the process should be described adequately for the reader to gain
an understanding of the process. pose
• Areas that may confuse the reader should be anticipated for solutions to be offered.

Comparison and Contrast

Comparison and contrast involve looking at both similarities and differences. They are two
thought processes that we go through in our everyday lives. For example when you compare
and contrast two objects you look at the similarities and the differences between them. The
paragraph below is an example a compare and contrast paragraph.

Ordinary studying during the term is another area where I’ve made changes. In
secondary school, I let reading assignments go. I told myself that I would have no
trouble catching up on two hundred pages in fifteen minutes. University courses have
taught me to keep pace with the work. Otherwise I feel as though I’m sinking into a sea
of unread materials. When I finally read the secondary school reading assignment, my
eyes would run over the words but my mind would be plotting how to manage to run
away to jam on Saturday night. Now I use several techniques that force me to really
concentrate on my reading.

Cause and Effect

The cause of effect pattern of development analyses the Causes and Effects of an action.
Throughout your life you have been made aware of the consequences of your behavior: getting

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a C on an exam because you skipped lectures; earning a friend’s trust because you kept a
confidence etc. In both of the examples stated a particular behavior seems to Cause or result in
an effect. Causes are however not always easy to identify as there may be a number of indirect
causes of an action or inaction. For example you may have won an election because of a
number of reasons such as the fact that you are a you were vigorous in your campaign, you
have a good reputation as a leader, your opponent was lackluster in his campaign or probably
you there was a cause you may have no idea about or control over. Effects are however
obvious.

Tips for cause and effect development:

• Choose a clear purpose which must be stated in the topic sentence.

• Come up for every possible cause and effect for your chosen topic.
• Review your list to determine that each point is reasonable and supportable. Eliminate
any that seem illogical or for which you lack data.
• Group ideas that belong together and other your evidence to conclude with your most
emphatic and developed essay.
• Develop your explanations fully so your reader doesn’t need to guess you’re your
assumptions.
• Information should also be arranged in a logical order.

Example of a Cause and effect paragraph.

There are three reasons why John is not going to the university. In the first place, his
family is poor and since he has four young siblings still at school, he feels that he should
help his family financially as soon as possible. Secondly, if he went to the university, his
mother would be left alone to look after the young children. Finally, he has been offered
a good job with excellent chances of promotion. Consequently, although he wants to go
to university very much, John is going to take the job instead.

The paragraph above provides the reasons for which John is not going to the university. By
introducing the last sentence with the transitional word “consequently”, the writer ensures
that the reader sees the point there as the effect of the reasons.
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Types of Cause and Effect paragraphs

There are two types of cause and effect paragraphs. These are multiple causes leading to a
single effect and one cause leading to multiple causes.

Problem and Solution

We find problems in all aspects of our lives. It is everybody’s desire to be free from the
encumbrances that come along with problems. This, however, cannot be as we live in a fallible
world. Imagine a situation where you are in your office late at night trying to meet a deadline
when all of a sudden the screen of your personal computer goes blank and you lose all the work
you have done. What would you do? What would you do? Would you call a friend to help you
fix it although it is late and you are racing to meet a deadline, force your way into the next
office to use the computer of your colleague who may not approve it or simply abandon
everything and go home. It is worth knowing however that most of these problems have
solutions.

In a way the problem and solution paragraph is linked to the cause and effect type of
paragraph. This is because every problem has a cause and the solution to every problem has an
effect.

Example of a Problem and Solution paragraph

We were sitting in a bar at Abossey-Okai when I told Nii, my fiance’ that I was pregnant.
I had a great shock: he looked at me blankly for one long minute and then walked out,
leaving me alone in the bar. I knew right away that I was carrying an unwanted
pregnancy. I made my decision there and then: abortion. It took me two days to raise
the money. Just as I was about to go to the clinic, Nii returned to me to apologize for
walking out on me the other day. He proposed that we got married quickly, before the
baby was born. This is how he saved Mona’s life.

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The example above presents a problem and how it was solved.

Comparison and Contrast

When you compare two or more subjects, you point out how they are similar; when you
contrast, you note how they are different. But in comparing and contrasting you do more than
list similarities and differences. You investigate relationships and draw conclusions.

Tips for Comparison and Contrast development

• Consider subjects with thing in common. For example we cannot compare a house and a
cow. We can however, compare a ship and a boat.
• The focus of the paragraph must be identified. The writer of such an essay would need
to examine the differences, similarities or both fairly. When the focus of the paragraph
points to contrast or differences, the writer must mention aone or two similarities to
make readers aware that he is very much aware of them. In the same manner when the
focus of the essay is on similarities the writer must mention a few differences.

Example of a comparison and contrast paragraph

Life in America has exposed Naohiko to the radical difference between Japanese and
U.S. schools. [in the United States] students rarely study more than two hours a night. In
part, that’s because so many have part-time jobs. “In my high school in Japan, they said
we couldn’t get part-time jobs. ‘ If you get a job, you can’t study,’ they said.” But also he
says, some students [in the United States] take advantage of the free environment. “ I
don’t understand why it is so easy to skip class,” says Naohiko . . . on the positive side is
the open curriculum. “ Here can choose our classes and choose our teachers. In Japan, I
didn’t like teachers and they didn’t like students. In America a teacher is like a friend.”

Introductions and Conclusions

The introduction and the conclusion are paragraphs which make the essay complete.

Supply background information

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Mostly used for subjects not considered general knowledge or common interest – professional
courses assignments and future career writing tasks cover subject matter unfamiliar to readers,
thus need to provide background information. Thus, use this method. Examples, explain an
accounting method, analyze some technical process, evaluate a software’s operation, etc.
Ensure that as writer, you have to give enough information to make your thesis and support
clear and understandable to readers.

Example 1

The term HIPC is translated to mean a Highly Indebted Poor Country. This term is applied term is
applied to countries which have a huge foreign debt. Most countries with huge foreign debts are
found in Africa, some parts of Asia and South America. Most often poor countries are also
referred to as ‘Third World Countries’. It is the prerogative of a poor country to declare itself
HIPC. Ghana is a third world country with a huge foreign debt, and of late, there has been this
debate as to whether Ghana should declare itself HIPC or not.

Example 2

MP3 is a three-character code seen everywhere today—even phones have MP3 players. But
what is an MP3? It is simply a compressed file containing audio data: music, speech, or sound
effects. Sounds are compressed from earlier, larger wav files for quick downloading. MP3
compression matches twelve bytes of a wav with only a single byte in MP3 format; it removes
sounds people's ears cannot usually hear. MP3s are an important part of the downsizing of
media: they offer superior audio quality, they are divisible into cuts or sections, and they are
very portable—just like cell phones.

Use an incident or a brief story

Stories are interesting and appeal to the reader’s curiosity. They help to grab the attention of
the reader right away. The story should be brief, and should be related to the main idea. The
story can be something that happened to you, or have heard or read about.

Example 1
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Little Abena comes from the river with her pot on her head. She puts it in the corner where it is
normally put. She notices that there are visitors with her grandmother and they are talking
heartily. Soon, she sees some money exchange hands. Next, little Abena is called and she is
asked to pack her things. She is on the way to the city. So a little girl is uprooted from her village
and very soon the new family will determine whether she is a witch or a blessing! The role of
house- helps have been in focus lately and this essay discusses their role to find out whether
they constitute a curse or a blessing to the families they serve.

Example 2

On a Friday morning in a large Canadian mall, a woman buys two sweatshirts, jeans, a doormat,
baby sleepers, and a leather backpack. Her bill comes to $650.00. She pays cheerfully with a
platinum credit card, smiling at the clerk who sports several piercings and a headset. Not a
single customer or clerk notices her. Why should they? Well, she is sixty-seven years of age, and
except for the baby pajamas, she's shopping for herself at an apparently youth-oriented store.
Consumer groups used to be fairly predictable. And in stores like The Gap, Old Navy, or Roots,
where this woman just shopped, demographics should be even more predictable. But in the new
millennium, consumer patterns are changing rapidly, and retailers must understand and
respond to new age groups, new buying habits, and new merchandise mixes.

6) Ask one or more questions

Use of this means that you simply want the reader to think about possible answers, or you may
plan to answer the questions later in the paper.

Example

What is love? How do we know that we are really in love? When we meet that special person,
how can we tell that our feelings are genuine and not merely infatuation? And, if they are

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genuine, will these feelings last? Love, as we all know, is difficult to define. But most people
agree that true and lasting love involves far more than mere physical attraction. Love involves
mutual respect, the desire to give rather than take, and the feeling of being wholly at ease.

Use a quotation

A quotation can be something you have read in a book or article. It can also be something you
have heard: a popular saying or a proverb, a current or recent advertising slogan, or a favorite
expression used by friends or family e.g “my father always says ……..”. This lets you add
someone else’s voice to your own.

Example

"None but a mule deserves his family," says a Moroccan proverb. Last summer, when my sister
and her family came to spend their two-week vacation with us, I became convinced that the
proverb was right. After only three days of my family's visit, I was thoroughly sick of my brother-
in-law's corny jokes, my sister's endless complaints about her boss, and their children's constant
invasions of our privacy.

Statistics or startling remarks

It is baffling that the government of Ghana does not pay much attention to the agriculture
sector. Studies have shown that 70% of the citizens live in rural communities, 80%of the dwellers
practice some form of Agriculture. It has also been revealed that agriculture contributed about
60% of the GDP in 2006. It is therefore obvious that Agriculture is the backbone of the
Ghanaian economy and deserves more than it is currently receiving.

Example 2
It is estimated that every day 200 people get infected people get infected by the HIV virus in
Ghana. Ghana is one of the countries in Africa with a low prevalence rate so one can imagine

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the case in countries with a high prevalence rate! The HIV/ AIDS pandemic has affected many
African countries negatively by weakening their labour force, by rendering many children
parentless, and by creating abject poverty.

Position of the thesis statement

The position of the thesis statement comes toward the end of the introduction in all the
examples given. This structure is especially effective because it sets sets the frame of reference
within which the thesis statement is understood. This makes both the writer and the reader
focused on the issues to be discussed in the essay. However, the thesis statement can be placed
anywhere in the essay depending on the skillfulness of the writer.

Writing conclusions
The conclusion creates a sense of closure in the essay. There are different ways of writing
conclusions of essays just as there are in writing introductions.

i. Summarizing or resaying your points

In this type of conclusion the writer restates all the main points in the essay. This is often a
restatement of the theme and topic sentences in the essay. The writer would however have to
use different words other than what was used in the in the work.

Example
In sum this essay has argued on four main fronts as to why Ghana should go HIPC. On the
economic front the country will have all her huge external debts cancelled when she goes HIPC.
Politically, Ghana will strengthen its political ties with powerful countries. Also socially and
culturally the people empowered economically are likely to be at peace with themselves and go
about their normal life. Obviously, it is important for Ghana to declare itself HIPC so as to
belong to the international community.

ii. The Offer advice or recommendation

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 In an essay the writer can proffer solutions to issues discussed especially if the method
used in writing the essay is problem and solutions. The example below comes from the
concluding paragraph of an essay by Buscemi et al (1996) entitled “Everybody’s Problem”:

If you have alcoholic friends, the worst thing you can do is to look the other way. This disease is
not theirs to deal with alone. Try persuading them to seek counseling. Explain how their
alcoholism is hurting their family, co-workers and neighbours. Above all do not pretend to
notice. Alcoholism is everybody’s problem!

iii. You can also answer a question that you may have posed in the introduction and
discussed in the body of the essay. This is done so the writer can reiterate the
answers already discussed in the essay for emphasis.
In the example below, notice that the writer in the introduction posed some
questions at the beginning. The writer then re-echoes these questions and provides
answers to them in the conclusion.

Example

Introduction

Why would a poor country like Ghana want to use a lot of money in a
redenomination of her currency? If the West African sub-region is going to have its
currency very soon then why would Ghana want a new currency in a redenomination
exercise? These and many questions have been asked in the debate on the necessity
or otherwise of redenominating the national currency. All such questions are valid,
but as to whether they really should be considered in such an exercise is another
matter altogether. This essay takes a look at some issues related to the debate and
in the end will come to a conclusion as to the necessity or otherwise of the
redenomination exercise.

Conclusion
In conclusion we have noted several reasons why the redenomination exercise is
important. While it is true that a lot of money is to be used to re-denominate the
Cedi, this will be worth it since this exercise will take care of excess liquidity. The Eco,
which the West African Sub-Region will use as currency will come to fruition, but we
would have to take care of security issues internally before all parameters are set for

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 the introduction of the Eco. All said and done Ghana desperately needs a
redenomination of her currency, the Cedi.

Quotation
A quotation can be an effective way to end an essay. The writer must however be relevant to
the topic being discussed. The quote on its own cannot constitute a conclusion of the essay.
Thus the writer has to first use any of the methods already discussed before bringing in the
quotation to close the paragraph. A quote like “when the time changes, man has to change with
the times” can be added to the conclusion above to close it.

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