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SPRINGER BRIEFS IN EARTH SCIENCES
Graciela Metternicht
123
Graciela Metternicht
School of Biological, Earth and
Environmental Sciences, PANGEA
Research Centre
University of New South Wales
Sydney, NSW
Australia
Competition for land is increasing as demand for multiple land uses and ecosystem
services rises. Pressures for the conversion of agricultural land to other uses such as
reforestation and biofuels are raising underpinned by issues related to food security,
renewable energy, and emerging carbon markets. This is happening in tandem with
greater demands from land systems for the supply of ecosystem services (provi-
sioning, regulating, supporting, and cultural). Managing increasing competition for
the supply of these services while accounting for different stakeholders’ interests
requires efficient allocation of land resources. Land use planning can aid in finding
a balance among competing and sometimes contradictory uses, while promoting
sustainable land use options.
This Brief identifies and discusses evidence of land use planning, spatial plan-
ning, territorial (or regional) planning, and ecosystem-based or environmental land
use planning as tools that can strengthen land governance, improve economic
opportunities based on sustainable management of land resources, and develop land
use options that reconcile conservation and development objectives.
Case studies analyzed show that as process and/or instrument, spatial and land
use planning can contribute to sustainable land management (SLM) through, inter
alia, protecting natural capital, including lands of agricultural significance from
urban and peri-urban encroachment; ensuring land use reflects land capability or
land suitability; preventing or limiting vegetation clearing; avoiding the occurrence,
and/or planning for the rehabilitation, of degraded land and contaminated sites;
promoting conservation and enhancement of ecological corridors; and accounting
for sea-level rise and increased storm surge, arising from coastal development
(Australia 2008, 2011, 2013).
Land use planning can also contribute to protecting the quality and quantity of
freshwater resources, to enhancing management of areas prone to natural disasters
(e.g., floodplains), and to protecting natural habitats from destruction and frag-
mentation. In areas of communal land tenure, land use planning assists in the
sustainable management of rangelands, inter alia, resolving issues related to com-
peting land uses and land tenure conflicts, and strengthening land governance.
v
vi Preface
This report benefited from the inputs of Sasha Alexander (UNCCD) and two
anonymous reviewers. The author is thankful to Natalia Ipatow from Munich
University of Applied Sciences (Germany) for the cartography of this brief. This
report was commissioned by the UNCCD.
vii
Key Definitions
Best practice: a procedure that has been shown by research and experience to
produce optimal results and that is established or proposed as a standard suitable for
widespread adoption (Merriam-Webster, n.d.).
Ecosystem restoration: the process of assisting the recovery of an ecosystem that
has been degraded, damaged, or destroyed (SER 2004).
Land use planning: the systematic assessment of land and water potential, alter-
natives for land use and economic and social conditions in order to select and adopt
the best land use options. Its purpose is to select and put into practice those land
uses that will best meet the needs of the people while safeguarding resources for the
future FAO 1993.
See Table 2.1 for:
• Ecological land use planning;
• Integrated land use planning;
• Participatory land use planning;
• Regional land use planning;
• Rural territorial land use planning; and
• Spatial land use planning.
Multi-functional landscapes: landscapes which serve different functions and
combine a variety of qualities (i.e., different material, mental, and social processes
in nature and society occur simultaneously in any given landscape and interact
accordingly); ecological, economic, cultural, historical, and aesthetic functions
coexist in a multi-functional landscape (ESPON 2012).
Peri-urban zone: area between an urban settlement and its rural hinterland. Larger
peri-urban zones can include towns and villages within an urban agglomeration.
Such areas are often fast changing, with complex patterns of land use and land-
scape, fragmented between local and regional boundaries (Zivanovic-Miljkovic
et al. 2012).
ix
x Key Definitions
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1
1.1 Land Use Planning—A Contribution to Sustainable Land
Management (SLM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2
1.2 The Nexus Between Land Use Planning and Changes
in the Land System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3
1.3 Land Use, Land Governance and Land Tenure: Interdependent
Factors Influencing Land Use Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4
2 Planning: Definitions and Evolution in the Context of SLM . . . . . . . 7
2.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2 Types of Land Use Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.3 Land Use Planning Approaches: Basic Requirements . . . . . . . . . . 12
3 Principles of Best Practice in Land Use Planning for SLM . . . . . . . 15
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.2 Socio-political and Legal Contexts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.3 Multi-stakeholder Engagement: Integration and Participation . . . . . 18
3.4 Multi-scale Relevance and Vertical Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.5 Multi-sectoral Coordination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.6 Multi-functionality of the Land . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.7 Best Planning Policies and Practices: Representative Case
Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 23
3.8 Key Directions for Supporting SLM Through Land Use
Planning Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 23
4 Contributions of Land Use Planning to Sustainable Land Use
and Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 35
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 35
4.2 Land Use Planning: An Instrument for SLM . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 39
4.3 Land Use Planning: An Instrument for Promoting Sustainable
Land Use and Ecosystem Restoration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 41
xi
xii Contents
Fig. 1.1 Drivers and pressures of land use change; their underpinning
of the need for planning, and planning as a response. Adapted
from (Walsh 2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3
Fig. 2.1 The land use planning universe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 12
Fig. 2.2 Steps of the land use planning process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 13
Fig. 3.1 Role of function-analysis and valuation in environmental
planning, management and decision making (de Groot 2006) . .. 22
Fig. 4.1 Suitability of irrigated annual crops in Northern Australia. Most
land is marginal or unsuitable for that specific use
(Classes C1 and C2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 46
Fig. 5.1 Key elements of the scientific conceptual framework for LDN
and their interrelations. From: Orr et al. (2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 56
Fig. 5.2 Integrated LUP for sustainable development and LDN. From:
Orr et al. (2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 57
Fig. 5.3 Sustainable development goal target 15.3 on achieving land
degradation neutrality as a catalyst for advancing other SDG
targets. From: Akhtar-Schuster et al. (2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 58
Fig. 5.4 SDG targets that explicitly (inside green circle) or implicitly
(inside grey circle) recognize LUP as process or instrument to
their achievement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Fig. B.1 Overview of Western Australia's centralized planning system . . . 70
Fig. B.2 Western Australia State Planning Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Fig. B.3 Western Australia approach to State planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Fig. B.4 Approach to spatial planning in Denmark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Fig. B.5 Approach of territorial LUP in Mexico (Wong-González 2009).
Programas de Ordenamiento Ecológico del Territorio (POET)
mandate of SEMARNAT; Ordenamiento Territorial (OT);
Programas Estatales de Ordenamiento del Territorio (PEOTs),
mandate of SEDESOL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 99
xiii
xiv List of Figures
Table 2.1 Land use planning and its variants, including spatial
land use planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 9
Table 3.1 Best land use policy case studies and criteria of best
practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 24
Table 3.2 Summary table of case studies. Underlined are exemplary
best practice criteria identified . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 26
Table 4.1 Examples of LUP which identifies and promotes sustainable
land use options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 36
Table B.1 Summarizes the planning and land use policy instruments
adopted at different administrative levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 86
Table C.1 SDG targets that explicitly (green cells) or implicitly (grey
cells) recognize the relevance of LUP as process or instrument
to their achievement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
xv
List of Boxes
xvii
Chapter 1
Introduction
Competition for land is increasing as demand for multiple land uses and ecosystem
services rises. Issues related to food security, renewable energy targets and
emerging carbon markets are creating price signals for the conversion of agricul-
tural land to other uses, such as reforestation and biofuels. This is occurring in
parallel with other growing demands from an ever increasing population (Box 1) for
the supply of ecosystem services (e.g. provisioning, regulating, supporting and
cultural) from land systems. Land use change may increase the supply of some
ecosystem services, though trade-offs with other services are unavoidable. The 2017
Global Land Outlook (UNCCD 2017b) argues that though land is a finite resource,
evidence suggests that with the adoption of more efficient planning and sustainable
practices and changes in consumer and corporate behavior, we will have sufficient
land available in the long-term to meet both the demand for essentials and the need
for a wider array of goods and services. The latter requires managing increasing
competition for the supply of goods and services, while attending to the interests
and values of different stakeholders; and as a process, land use planning enables
efficient land allocation that promotes sustainable land use options (Bryan et al.
2015) and aids in finding a balance among competing and sometimes contradictory
uses (GIZ 2012).
This brief analyzes the role of land use and spatial planning tools, processes and
approaches to improve socio-economic opportunities through sustainable man-
agement of land resources (i.e., soil, water, and biodiversity). Chapter 1 explores
the nexus between land use planning and changes in the land system, as well as
interdependent factors which influence land use planning. Chapter 2 briefly
describes the evolution of different land use types over time, and the basic
requirements of land use planning. Principles of best practice in land use planning
for sustainable land use and management are identified, and case studies of land use
policy, built upon these principles, are presented in Chap. 3. Evidence of contri-
butions of land use and spatial planning to sustainable land use and management, as
well as to the improvement of economic opportunities and the strengthening of land
governance are discussed in Chap. 4. The brief concludes by highlighting the
© The Author(s) 2018 1
G. Metternicht, Land Use and Spatial Planning, SpringerBriefs in Earth Sciences,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-71861-3_1
2 1 Introduction
Land development deals with land use change. The assessment of the driving forces
behind land use and land use change is necessary when analyzing and explaining
past patterns, as well as when aiming to forecast future patterns. Figure 1.1 sum-
marizes the drivers and pressures of land use change, and their underpinning of the
need for planning. Urbanization, agricultural intensification, and land use special-
ization are processes resulting from the interaction of driving forces related to
geographical characteristics, population dynamics, economic growth, the political
environment, and strategies and polices at different levels.
Land use planning influences the state of the environment (Fig. 1.1); its
implementation may have positive as well as negative environmental and
socio-economic effects. For example, Jia et al. (2003) argue that much of the
environmental degradation occurring in China is closely connected to the ways in
which land is used and/or managed (Tao et al. 2007).
Planning systems and the practice of zoning are both driving forces of change, as
well as responses to it (Fig. 1.1). Such practices can promote environmentally
sound land use and management options, resulting in a number of positive con-
sequences like: tackling land degradation, effecting ecosystem rehabilitation and/or
restoration, resolving conflicting land use demands, and ensuring territorial
Fig. 1.1 Drivers and pressures of land use change; their underpinning of the need for planning,
and planning as a response. Adapted from (Walsh 2006)
4 1 Introduction
Title: Lumihiutaleita
Novelleja
Language: Finnish
Novelleja
Kirj.
ANNI KASTE
SISÄLLYS:
Laulajatar
Anna anteeksi
Ennustus
Vanha laulu
Leipäpalkalla
Yövahti
Remuveikot
Luojan mainetta parantamassa
Pappi
LAULAJATAR
Ja niin on kesä!
Ohjelma loppuu.
— Kiitos —!
— Kaarina on tullut kotiin! kajahti läpi koko talon salista keittiöön asti
kertautuen jokaisen sydämessä voimakkain, joskin erilaisin tuntein.
— Eikä neiti voi uskoa, kuinka viluinen ja väsynyt nuori rouva on…
Mutta arvaahan sen nyt, kun toistakymmentä kilometriä asemalta
tällaisella säällä… kärrikelillä jouluna.
Maiju näki hänet elävänä edessään, sellaisena kuin hän oli ollut
lähtiessään kotoa kolme vuotta sitten, säteilevänä, vastavihittynä
rouvana miehensä, kuvanveistäjän käsivarteen nojaten. Häämatka oli
vienyt suoraan etelään. Heidän hyvästinsä oli ollut jäykkä, ja
onnittelut, joita hänen kai olisi pitänyt lausua lähtevälle sisarelleen,
tyrehtyivät huulille.
Hän oli vienyt Martin — juuri sen, joka oli ollut Maijun koko elämä.
Mitä hyödytti, että hän jälleen oli jättänyt hänet, aivan kuin kuluneen
rukkasen loukkoon, tavattuaan toisen, kolmannen, lääkärin,
asianajajan, kuvanveistäjän. Onnet oli murtuneet ainiaaksi. Martti
saattoi käydä silloin tällöin talossa mutta hänen asianaan oli kysyä
mitä kuului Kaarinasta — yhä vain Kaarinasta. Ja hänestä kuului aina
hyvät sanomat. Poikkeuksetta.
Oliko Kaarina nyt tullut kotiin… edeltäpäin ilmoittamatta, yllättäen!
Ja kaiken lopuksi kurjalla kievarikyydillä…
No, äiti saa helliä häntä siellä, isä pian yhtyy palvontaan. Ja Martti
rientää, kunhan saa tietää — tai ei, tuskin tulee: on hiljaisesti
kiitollinen tietäessään Kaarinan hengittävän samaa ilmaa.
Parin päivän kuluttua hän oli matkalla jälleen, sillä viimeisellä, joka
vie suureen kirkkauteen.
ENNUSTUS
Oli jouluaamu.
— Kyllä — luulen.
— Niin, jos kaikki olisi ennallaan. Mutta entäs jos jotain muutosta
ajattelisi tapahtuneeksi…
— Mikä sitten?
Elvi ei voinut käsittää sitä. Hän istui miettien pitkän hetken, istui
hievahtamatta. Oliko tämä Anna Leenan herkän mielen johteita —
jonkun mahdollisen unennäön vuoksi — vai oliko se jotain
vakavampaa, johdatusta odottamattomaan? Kaikkea vielä! Särkyisikö
Marin elämä ja hänen onnensa vaiko hänen elämänsä ja Marin onni?
Ja mihin? Ei ainakaan tänä kauniina jouluaamuna! Hyvä Jumala,
joulu on ilon ja rauhan juhla, jouluna, kaikkina jouluina, mitkä hän
oli elänyt, ei hänellä koskaan ollut murhetta ollut. Voisiko herätä
sellainen rauhantunne sydämessä onnettomuuden vaaniessa ovella…
Tuskin — tuskin vaan! Ei, kyllä asia oli niin, että Annukka Leenukkaa
oli toruttava mokomasta jaarittelusta pikkusen, hiukkasen vain —
kun on joulu — ja jouduttava kirkkoon.
— Kyl-lä.
— Kuollutkin, neiti.
— Kirje?
Elvi tahtoi avata sen heti, mutta Anna Leena teki hätäisesti
estävän liikkeen.
— No, sitten?
Mari Kytönen.»