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i

Researching Creativity in Second

Language Acquisition

Researching Creativity in Second Language Acquisition explains the

links between creativity and second language learning and how to propel
the research of creativity as an individual difference in second language
acquisition (SLA) forward at multiple levels.
It features an array of sample research questions and methods for stu-
dent and professional researchers, ranging from simple projects that can
be executed from start to finish in 15 weeks all the way to multi-​year
project guidelines for more advanced scholars with additional time and
resources. It also features in-​class and out-​of-​class activity suggestions
that will reinforce concepts in fun and creative ways. Using this book as
a guide will save researchers time and effort in designing and executing
their next projects as well as save instructors time in class planning.
This book will be an invaluable resource to students and researchers of
SLA, applied linguistics, TESOL, and psychology.

Ashleigh Pipes teaches at the University of Tennessee at Chattanooga.

She has taught linguistics in the United States and Turkey and has studied
Japanese, French, Turkish, and Korean. She is also certified by the
Torrance Center for Creativity and Talent Development at the University
of Georgia as a scorer for the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking.
ii

Second Language Acquisition Research Series

Susan M. Gass and Alison Mackey, Series Editors
Kimberly L. Geeslin, Associate Editor

The Second Language Acquisition Research Series presents and explores

issues bearing directly on theory construction and/​or research methods
in the study of second language acquisition. Its titles (both authored and
edited volumes) provide thorough and timely overviews of high-​interest
topics, and include key discussions of existing research findings and their
implications. A special emphasis of the series is reflected in the volumes
dealing with specific data collection methods or instruments. Each of
these volumes addresses the kinds of research questions for which the
method/​instrument is best suited, offers extended description of its use,
and outlines the problems associated with its use. The volumes in this
series will be invaluable to students and scholars alike, and perfect for use
in courses on research methodology and in individual research.

Questionnaires in Second Language Research

Construction, Administration, and Processing, Third Edition
Zoltán Dörnyei and Jean-​Marc Dewaele

Longitudinal Studies of Second Language Learning

Quantitative Methods and Outcomes
Edited by Steven J. Ross and Megan C. Masters

Researching Creativity in Second Language Acquisition

Ashleigh Pipes

Communicative Competence in a Second Language

Theory, Method, and Applications
Edited by Matthew Kanwit and Megan Solon

For more information about this series, please visit: www.routle​dge.com/​

Sec​ond-​Language-​Acquisition-​Research-​Series/​book-​series/​LEASLARS
iii

Researching Creativity in
Second Language Acquisition

Ashleigh Pipes
iv

Designed cover image: Getty Images | enjoynz

First published 2023
by Routledge
605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158
and by Routledge
4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2023 Ashleigh Pipes
The right of Ashleigh Pipes to be identified as author of this work has been
asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and
Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised
in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or
hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information
storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks,
and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
Library of Congress Cataloging-​in-​Publication Data
Names: Pipes, Ashleigh, author.
Title: Researching creativity in second language acquisition / Ashleigh Pipes.
Description: New York, NY : Routledge, 2023. |
Series: Second language acquisition research series |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2022047714 | ISBN 9780367504588 (paperback) |
ISBN 9780367504618 (hardback) | ISBN 9781003049951 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Second language acquisition. |
Creative thinking. | Individual differences.
Classification: LCC P118.2 .P566 2023 |
DDC 418.0071–dc23/eng/20221121
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022047714
ISBN: 978-​0-​367-​50461-​8 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-​0-​367-​50458-​8 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-​1-​003-​04995-​1 (ebk)
DOI: 10.4324/​9781003049951
Typeset in Sabon
by Newgen Publishing UK
v

Contents

Preface  vii
Acknowledgments  ix

1 Proposals for Any Deadline  1

Audience 1
Elements of a Proposal 2
Abstract-​style Proposals 8
Sample Projects 10
Conclusion 21
Thinking Inside the Box 21
Thinking Outside the Box 21

2 Studying Creativity  23
What Is Creativity? Definitions, Theories, and
Frameworks 24
Bilingualism and Creativity 30
Creativity as an Individual Difference in Second Language
Acquisition 34
Summary 38
Thinking Inside the Box 39
Thinking Outside the Box 39

3 Assessing Creativity for Linguistics Research  42

Types of Creativity Tests 42
Three Good Assessments for SLA 46
Thinking Inside the Box 56
Thinking Outside the Box 57
Additional Resources 57

4 Preparing Linguistic Instruments  60

Creativity’s Unique Challenges 60
Selecting, Developing, and Testing Tasks 63
Participant Recruitment 67
vi

vi Contents
Sample Linguistic Instruments for a Creativity Study 71
Thinking Inside the Box 77
Thinking Outside the Box 77

5 Working With Other Individual Differences  80

Differential Psychology and Individual Differences
in SLA 80
Demographic Variables 82
Affective Variables 86
Cognitive Variables 93
Proficiency 98
Thinking Inside the Box 99
Thinking Outside the Box 100

6 Managing and Analyzing Data  105

Data Management 105
Data Preparation 108
Analysis 115
Qualitative Research 118
Thinking Inside the Box 120
Thinking Outside the Box 120

7 Sharing Results  123

Presentations 123
Posters 129
Papers 132
Thinking Inside the Box 134
Thinking Outside the Box 134

8 Moving Forward  136

Summary 136
Cautions and Limitations 139
Pedagogical Implications 142
Coordinating Efforts 144
Thinking Inside the Box 148
Thinking Outside the Box 148

Glossary  151
Index  159
vi

Preface

Individual differences in second language acquisition (SLA) provide an

excellent entry-​point for people who have enjoyed teaching or learning
second and foreign languages and then decide to study applied linguis-
tics. However, the volume of existing research in motivation, anxiety, and
other common strands can be overwhelming. Creativity is a relatively
new strand of research in SLA that is easily accessible for new scholars,
yet has the advantage of being a well-​established construct in psychology,
education, and other related fields.
This book is designed to serve as a constant companion for graduate
students as early as their first semester of linguistics, or as a ready reference
for emerging scholars who want to expand their research agenda into cre-
ativity at any scale. It provides sufficient guidelines to create publication-​
quality research while still acknowledging that not all research is bound
for publication. The reality of graduate student life is that sometimes
projects must be done quickly, and there is value in learning to execute
a quick turnaround. Therefore, unlike research guides that are geared
towards larger projects that must be scaled down for student use, this
book embraces the perspective of a student project while also providing
guidelines for scaling up to large projects.
Many research methods books include a chapter situated towards the
end with suggestions for new research studies. However, since formu-
lating a project typically comes first in the research cycle and therefore
early in a semester, I have put this “launch” chapter with eight sample
research questions and project ideas at the beginning. It is meant to be
a quick start guide to help readers write a proposal and get a project
underway, even if the project is hypothetical. Having a project in mind
will make it more meaningful to read the following chapters, which may
be read in any order as needed.
Although the chapters work through the sequence of a full project, this
is not a thorough methodology book. It is a supplement to concepts usu-
ally presented in greater depth in graduate coursework. However, it can
take multiple exposures to internalize academic standards and procedures,
so this text can serve as a preview and/​or reinforcement of concepts in
the context of a student or scholar’s ongoing study. Along with the more
vi

viii Preface
formal guidelines, I have incorporated basic tips and hints throughout.
I hope that it will fill in some gaps left by several years of online educa-
tion, which often lacks the valuable informal discussions before and after
class that lead to a great deal of fortuitous learning. Established students
and scholars may skip past things they already know, and references to
more in-​depth methodology works are provided throughout for novice
researchers.
Creativity is a fun and fascinating strand of research. It will be exciting
to see it expand within applied linguistics in the coming years. I hope
researchers of all levels enjoy the process and widely share their results.
xi

Acknowledgments

Many thanks for their contributions in varied forms to Katie Allison

(URTOPS), Garrett Iván Colón (Purdue OWL), Morgan Crafton, Christina
Gkonou, Cendel Karaman, Alison Mackey, Paul Meara, Luke Plonsky,
the Routledge editorial assistants, Desiree Sharpe (Torrance Center for
Creativity and Talent Development), Lee Smith (HCS Gifted Education),
Charles Stansfield (Language Learning and Testing Foundation, Inc.), the
Studio, Kaitlyn Tagarelli (Mango Languages), the Walker Center, and
most especially all of my family and friends.
x
1
newgenprepdf

1 Proposals for Any Deadline

Whether you are a first-​semester graduate student or a well-​established

scholar of Second Language Acquisition (SLA), the reality of academic
life is that you might be writing a proposal of some sort before you have
time to read all eight chapters of this research guide. The purpose of this
chapter is to provide a quick start guide to help you develop a solid plan
for a project studying the relationship between creativity and language
learning. It contains the information you will probably need right away at
the beginning of a semester or the formation of a new research endeavor.
Additionally, the remainder of this book will be more meaningful and
interesting if you have a project in mind, even if it is hypothetical. In other
words, rather than reading straight through and then starting a project,
you may start a project now and use this book to help you throughout
the entire process.
The first part of the chapter focuses on several audiences you might
need to address and describes the content of each section of a proposal
with guidelines on how to customize them for a study of creativity and
SLA. Recognizing the varied resources of time and money available to
researchers, the second part of the chapter provides sample research
ideas ordered from least to most resources required. The ideas begin
with one-​semester student projects that can be completed without any
funding and progress towards in-​ depth multi-​ year undertakings for
advanced researchers. The following chapters provide detailed guidance
for carrying out projects at any level.

Audience
Almost every proposal you write will have some specific guidelines to
follow, but the essence of the document is to explain what you plan to
investigate, why it needs to be studied, and how you are going to do
it. Before you even begin your proposal, take a few moments to con-
sider the audience who will read it and its purpose. If you are a student
taking courses, your initial audience will most likely only be your pro-
fessor, a teaching assistant, and possibly a classmate or two. Consider

DOI: 10.4324/9781003049951-1
2

2 Proposals for Any Deadline

their background knowledge and your need to exhibit understanding of
the learning objectives for a particular course. If you are working on a
graduate thesis or dissertation, a committee of several professors will be
reading your proposal. You will probably know them and will quickly
learn what they require and prioritize. If you are writing a proposal for
a grant, it might be read by an anonymous committee, so you will need
to rely on the information provided in a call for proposals or other avail-
able sources. A proposal for conference presentations will also be read
by several anonymous peer reviewers who are reviewing many similar
proposals in a short time frame, so brevity and clarity are priorities. Even
though you are usually writing for a small audience when preparing any
proposal, be sure to use the style and tone common to publications in
SLA, which you will learn by reading and practicing.

Elements of a Proposal

Introduction
Because creativity has been so sparsely studied in SLA, it is especially
important to orient your readers to the topic. Creativity studies in SLA
do not just examine a relationship between people who draw, sculpt, or
dance well and their success at second language learning. Introducing the
topic will therefore involve explaining the difference between creativity
form a strictly artistic perspective and creativity from a psychological per-
spective. Psychology sources can provide background that explains cre-
ativity from the perspective of process, product, person, and press. A brief
preview of the typical components used to evaluate creative thinking
and potential—​fluency, flexibility, originality, and elaboration—​is also
useful in the introduction. This will prime the readers evaluating your
proposal to the approach you will take and further emphasize the distinc-
tion between cognitive creativity and artistic creativity. See Chapter 2 for
a thorough look at the study of creativity as an individual difference in
psychology and SLA.
Additionally, more than in well-​established lines of research, it might
be necessary to devote a portion of your proposal to explicitly justi-
fying the importance of pursuing creativity research in SLA. One of the
main arguments in favor of the need for creativity research is the wide-
spread use of communicative language teaching and task-​based language
teaching in modern language classrooms around the world. The role
plays, jigsaw tasks, and other activities so common in these approaches
to language teaching often require a great deal of creativity on the part
of the language learner. For example, if two students are given 5 minutes
to complete a role play between a shop keeper and a customer, they are
often required to fill in many of the details. Creative students might not
hesitate in the slightest to invent a conflict and elaborate on the details
in original ways. Students with less inclination toward creative thinking,
3

Proposals for Any Deadline 3

however, might struggle to create enough content to sustain a fictional
conversation. Including an example like this can demonstrate how cre-
ativity is becoming increasingly necessary to thrive in a communicative
or task-​based language classroom. See more on pedagogical implications
in Chapter 8.
After you introduce and justify the study of creativity, you should
summarize the major SLA creativity studies published to date (Albert &
Kormos, 2004, 2011; McDonough et al., 2015; Ottó, 1998). There are
only a few, but as more are published, check the major journals such
as Studies in Second Language Acquisition, Language Learning, TESOL
Quarterly, the Modern Language Journal, and the Annual Review of
Applied Linguistics for more recent publications. Database searches are
useful, but scanning the tables of contents of key journals can also be a
surprisingly efficient way to find the most recent, reputable, and relevant
articles.
To finish the introduction section of your proposal, include informa-
tion about the linguistic feature(s) or other individual differences you are
using as your dependent variables. Define or explain them and share other
studies that examine them. It is ideal to use parallel studies that examine
individual differences other than creativity alongside the dependent vari-
able you are using (see Chapter 5). For example, if you are looking at the
relationship between creativity and use of questions in a second language
(L2), give an overview of other SLA studies that have examined an indi-
vidual difference such as anxiety as an independent variable and use of
questions as a dependent variable.
By the end of the introduction, you will have introduced the study
of creativity from a psychological perspective; established its importance
for language learning and teaching; summarized the existing studies of
creativity and SLA; and demonstrated what aspect of SLA you will be
studying in relation to creativity. Similar studies of another individual
difference with the same dependent variable will further demonstrate the
need for more research. For many projects, the introduction section of the
proposal will be revised, expanded, or contracted to serve as the literature
review in a final paper. Write accordingly, based on your time constraints.
No matter how short or long though, all of the information in the intro-
duction should point towards your research questions.

Research Questions
This is the point where you will state exactly what you are investi-
gating. Good research questions should be concise, specific, and clear.
As explained by Mackey and Gass (2016), yes/​no research questions are
more likely to be suitable in undeveloped research areas, such as cre-
ativity and SLA. These research questions will typically begin with a
phrase such as “Is there a relationship between … (A and B)?” More
established research areas will develop increasingly nuanced research
4

4 Proposals for Any Deadline

questions that typically include phrases such as “How does A affect B
in light of C” or “To what extent…” Qualitative research questions
would be more open-​ended, such as “How do creativity and second
language learning interact?” If you are embarking upon a completely
new direction in this line of research, for example relationships between
creativity and a learner’s use of syntax, you might use a simple dichot-
omous “Is there a relationship” question. If you are pursuing one of
the previously researched relationships, you might use a more nuanced
research question. See Chapter 2 for an overview of relationships already
established in creativity and SLA. Unlike the literature review and other
parts of the proposal, the research questions should not change once the
study is approved and underway. Incidental findings might be reported
in some studies, but adding or altering research questions, especially after
data is collected, is poor research practice.

Methodology
The methodology section describes what activities you will undertake in
order to find answers to your research questions. The tests, tasks, and
other activities your participants complete are called research tools or
instruments. It is rare to have all of your research instruments completely
ready to go at the time you submit a proposal. Realistically, you will actu-
ally be proposing the research tools you will use for a pilot study. Make
the best plan you can at this point with the expectation that you will need
to make adjustments after you test your instruments with a sample of
your participant population.
Depending on your research questions, you will have a minimum of
two instruments: one for creativity (your independent variable), and
one for your linguistic measure (your dependent variable). If you are
examining additional individual differences or have multiple linguistic
measures, you will add an instrument for each. For all instruments, be
sure to explain which previous studies have used the instruments you
are choosing; why you chose them; what makes them appropriate for
your study; and any alterations you plan to make to the original use. Be
sure to spell out unfamiliar acronyms such as Torrance Tests of Creative
Thinking (TTCT) and explain what an alternative uses task is if you are
using one. See Chapters 3, 4, and 5 respectively for guidance on selecting
instruments for creativity, linguistic measures, and other individual
differences.
It is often helpful at this point to create a diagram or flowchart of your
study plan. Most often this shows what the process will be for participants,
including differences for separate participant groups. Representing
your research design graphically can quickly clarify your plan for busy
professors, grant reviewers, etc. Given that most, if not all, proposals are
submitted and reviewed electronically, do not hesitate to use color or
other graphic features to support what you are communicating. However,
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
The Project Gutenberg eBook of The grateful
elephant
 This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away
or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License
included with this ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you
are not located in the United States, you will have to check the
laws of the country where you are located before using this
eBook.

Title: The grateful elephant

And other stories translated from the Pāli

Author: Eugene Watson Burlingame

Illustrator: Dorothy Pulis Lathrop

Release date: July 18, 2024 [eBook #74064]

Language: English

Original publication: New Haven: Yale University Press, 1923

Credits: Susan E., David E. Brown, and the Online Distributed

Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This book
was produced from images made available by the
HathiTrust Digital Library.)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE GRATEFUL

ELEPHANT ***
The Grateful Elephant
 By the same author:
Buddhist Parables. Translated from the original Pāli. One
volume. xxix + 348 pages. With photogravure of a
Bodhisattva head from Gandhāra, from original in the
Pennsylvania Museum. Octavo. Cloth. Yale University
Press, 1922. $5.00.
Buddhist Legends. Translated from the original Pāli text of the
Dhammapada Commentary. Three volumes. Harvard
Oriental Series, 28, 29, 30. 1114 pages. Octavo. Cloth.
Harvard University Press, 1921. $15.00 a set.
Then the elephant with his trunk caressed the Future
Buddha and lifted him up.
 The Grateful Elephant
And Other Stories Translated from
the Pāli
By Eugene Watson Burlingame
with Illustrations by Dorothy Lathrop

New Haven, Yale University Press

London, Humphrey Milford, Oxford University Press
Mcmxxiii
Copyright 1923 by Yale University Press.

Printed in the United States of America.

To my nephew Westcott
This book contains twenty-six stories selected from the
author’s larger work Buddhist Parables, Yale University
Press, 1922. The translation is a close, idiomatic rendering
of the original Pāli text. In a few cases, words and phrases
have been softened, and sentences have been omitted. In
Story 1, two whole paragraphs which interrupt the
progress of the story have been omitted. The author has
not, however, “written down” any of the stories in order to
remove such difficulties as the original translation may
present to the child.
 Note on Pronunciation of Pāli
Names.
The quantity of vowels is marked throughout. Short a is
pronounced like u in but, long ā like a in father, long ī like
ee in see, long ū like oo in too, short i and short u
differing from the corresponding long vowels not in sound
but in length. The u in Buddha, for example, is short.
Simple consonants are pronounced as in English, except
that c is pronounced like ch in church, g as in get, and j as
in judge. Combinations like th and dh should be
pronounced as in hothouse and madhouse. Names
containing underdotted letters have been eliminated. A
syllable is said to be long if it contains either a long vowel,
or a short vowel followed by two consonants (except a
consonant followed by h). Words of three or more
syllables are accented on the second syllable from the
last, provided the next to the last syllable is short, as
Gótama, Mállika. If the next to the last syllable is long, it
receives the accent, as Brahmadátta, Nibbāna.
 Contents.
PAGE
Note on pronunciation of Pāli names viii
List of illustrations xiii
Introduction xv
Note on the illustrations xxix
1. The grateful elephant Jā. 156: ii. 17 1
Where there’s a will, there’s a way
2. Grateful animals and ungrateful
Jā. 73: i. 322 9
man
Driftwood is worth more than some men
3. Elephant and ungrateful
Jā. 72: i. 319 19
forester
The whole earth will not satisfy an ungrateful man
4. Quail, crow, fly, frog, and
Jā. 357: iii. 174 26
elephants
The biter bit
5. Quails and fowler Jā. 33: i. 208 30
In union there is strength
6. Brahmadatta and the prince Vin. i. 342 33
Love your enemies
7. Antelope, woodpecker, tortoise,
Jā. 206: ii. 152 48
and hunter
In union there is strength
8. Brahmadatta and Mallika Jā. 151: ii. 1 52
Overcome evil with good
9. A Buddhist Tar-baby Jā. 55: i. 272 58
 Keep the Precepts
10. Vedabbha and the thieves Jā. 48: i. 252 64
Cupidity is the root of ruin
11. The anger-eating ogre S. i. 237 72
Refrain from anger
12. The patient woman M. 21: i. 125 75
Patient is as patient does
13. Blind men and elephant Udāna, 66 79
Avoid vain wrangling
14. King and boar 83
Evil communications corrupt good manners
Part 1. Gem, hatchet, drum, and
Jā. 186: ii. 101
bowl
Part 2. Corrupt fruit from a good
Jā. 186: ii. 104
tree
15. A Buddhist Henny-Penny Jā. 322: iii. 74 92
Much ado about nothing
16. The birds (cf. 17) Vin. iii. 147 97
Nobody loves a beggar
17. Dragon Jewel-neck 99
Nobody loves a beggar
A. Canonical version Vin. iii. 145
B. Uncanonical version Jā. 253: ii. 283
18. Snake-charm 107
A blessing upon all living beings!
A. Canonical version Vin. ii. 109
B. Uncanonical version Jā. 203: ii. 144
19. Partridge, monkey, and elephant 114
Reverence your elders
A. Canonical version Vin. ii. 161
B. Uncanonical version Jā. 37: i. 217
20. The hawk 119
Walk not in forbidden ground
A. Canonical version S. v. 146
B. Uncanonical version Jā. 168: ii. 58
21. How not to hit an insect 124
Better an enemy with sense than a friend without it
A. Boy and mosquito Jā. 44: i. 246
B. Girl and fly Jā. 45: i. 248
22. Monkey-gardeners 129
Misdirected effort spells failure
A. One-stanza version Jā. 46: i. 249
B. Three-stanza version Jā. 268: ii. 345
23. Two dicers 135
Take care!
A. Canonical version D. ii. 348
B. Uncanonical version Jā. 91: i. 379
24. Two caravan-leaders 138
Be prudent!
A. Canonical version D. ii. 342
B. Uncanonical version Jā. 1: i. 95
25. Boar and lion Kathāsaritsāgara, 72 154
Eat me, O lion!
Kathāsaritsāgara, 22
26. Fairy-prince and griffin 157
and 90
Eat me, O griffin!
Glossary 169
 List of Illustrations.
Story Facing
Title-
1. The grateful elephant
page
Then the elephant with his trunk caressed the
Future Buddha and lifted him up
2. Grateful animals and ungrateful man 12
Thus did those four persons travel together, swept
along by the river
3. Elephant and ungrateful forester 22
The man actually cut off his two principal tusks!
7. Antelope, woodpecker, tortoise, and hunter 50
At that moment the tortoise had chewed all of the
strips except just one strap
9. A Buddhist Tar-baby 60
Then he hit him with a spear
11. The anger-eating ogre 72
“Here, Sire, a certain ogre, ill-favored, dwarfish, sits
in your seat”
14. King and boar 86
He bit the gem, and by its magical power rose into
the air
15. A Buddhist Henny-Penny 96
So taking the little hare on his back, he sprang
forward with the speed of a lion
17. Dragon Jewel-neck 104
Every day Jewel-neck the dragon-king would
encircle him with his coils
22. Monkey-gardeners 130
“When you water the young trees, pull them up by
the roots, every one”
 Introduction.
THESE stories are said to have been related by Gotama Buddha for
the purpose of conveying to his hearers moral and religious lessons
and the lessons of common sense.
Gotama Buddha was born nearly twenty-five centuries ago in the
city of Kapila, in Northeast India. Kapila was the principal city of the
Sakya tribe, and his father was king of the tribe. Gotama was his
family name. Buddha means Awakened or Enlightened, that is to
say, awakened or enlightened to the cause and the cure of human
suffering.
The Buddhist Scriptures tell us that when Gotama was born, the
angels rejoiced and sang. An aged wise man inquired: “Why doth
the company of angels rejoice?” They replied: “He that shall become
Buddha is born in the village of the Sakyas for the welfare and
happiness of mankind; therefore are we joyful and exceeding glad.”
The wise man hastened to the king’s house, and said: “Where is the
child? I, too, wish to see him.” They showed him the child. When he
saw the child, he rejoiced and was exceeding glad. And he took him
in his arms, and said: “Without an equal is he! foremost among
men!” Then, because he was an old man, and knew that he was
soon to die, he became sorrowful and wept tears.
Said the Sakyas: “Will any harm come to the child?” “No,” replied the
wise man, “this child shall one day become Buddha; out of love and
pity for mankind he shall set in motion the Wheel of Religion; far and
wide shall his religion be spread. But as for me, I have not long to
live; before these things shall come to pass, death will be upon me.
Therefore am I stricken with woe, overwhelmed with sorrow,
afflicted with grief.”
Seven days after Gotama was born, his mother died, and he was
brought up by his aunt and step-mother. When he was nineteen
years old, he married his own cousin. For ten years he lived a life of
ease, in the enjoyment of all the comforts and luxuries which riches
and high position could give him. When he was twenty-nine years
old, a change came over him.

For many centuries, it has been a common belief in India that when
a human being dies, he is at once born again. If he has lived a good
life, he will be born again on earth as the child of a king or of a rich
man, or in one of the heavens as a god. If he has lived an evil life,
he will be born again as a ghost, or as an animal, or in some place
of torment.
According to this belief, every person has been born and has lived
and died so many times that it would be impossible to count the
number. Indeed, so far back into the past does this series of lives
extend that it is impossible even to imagine a beginning of the
series. What is more to the point, in each of these lives every person
has endured much suffering and misery.
Said the Buddha: “In weeping over the death of sons and daughters
and other dear ones, every person, in the course of his past lives,
has shed tears more abundant than all the water contained in the
four great oceans.”
And again: “The bones left by a single person in the course of his
past lives would form a pile so huge that were all the mountains to
be gathered up and piled in a heap, that heap of mountains would
appear as nothing beside it.”
And again: “The head of every person has been cut off so many
times in the course of his past lives, either as a human being or as
an animal, as to cause him to shed blood more abundant than all the
water contained in the four great oceans.”
Nothing more terrible than this can be imagined. Yet for many
centuries it has been a common belief in India. Wise men taught
that there was a way of escape, a way of salvation. If a person
wished to avoid repeated lives of suffering and misery, he must leave
home and family and friends, become a monk, and devote himself to
fasting, bodily torture, and meditation.

The Buddhist Scriptures tell us that when Gotama was twenty-nine

years old, he saw for the first time an Old Man, a Sick Man, a Dead
Man, and a Monk. The thought that in the course of his past lives he
had endured old age, sickness, and death, times without number,
terrified him, and he resolved to become a monk.
Leaving home and wife and son, he devoted himself for six years to
fasting, bodily torture, and meditation. Finally he became convinced
that fasting and bodily torture were not the way of salvation, and
abandoned the struggle. One night he had a wonderful experience.
First he saw the entire course of his past lives. Next he saw the fate
after death of all living beings. Finally he came to understand the
cause of human suffering and the cure for it.
Thus it was that he became Buddha, the Awakened, the
Enlightened. He saw that the cause of rebirth and suffering was
craving for worldly pleasures and life and riches. He saw that if this
craving were uprooted, rebirth and suffering would come to an end.
He saw that this craving could be uprooted by right belief, right
living, and meditation.

For forty-five years the Buddha journeyed from place to place,

preaching and teaching. He founded an order of monks and nuns,
and won many converts. He lived to be eighty years old. Missionaries
carried his teachings from India to Ceylon and Burma and China and
Tibet and Japan. In a few hundred years the religion of the Buddha
had spread over the whole of Asia. Hundreds of millions of human
beings have accepted his teachings.
In at least two respects, the teachings of the Buddha were quite
remarkable. In the first place, he insisted on the virtue of
moderation. He urged upon his hearers to avoid the two extremes of
a life devoted to fasting and self-torture, and a life of self-
indulgence. In the second place, he taught that a man must love his
neighbor as himself, returning good for evil and love for hatred. But
this was not all. He taught men to love all living creatures without
respect of kind or person. He taught men not to injure or kill any
living creature, whether a human being or an animal, even in self-
defense. All war, according to the teaching of the Buddha, is unholy.
In the course of time it came to be believed that Gotama had
become Buddha as the fruit of good deeds performed in countless
previous states of existence, especially deeds of generosity. At any
time, had he so desired, he might have uprooted craving for worldly
pleasures and life and riches by meditation, and thus have escaped
the sufferings of repeated states of existence. But this he deemed
an unworthy course. Out of pity and compassion and friendliness for
living creatures, he preferred to be reborn again and again, to suffer
and to die again and again, in order that, by the accumulated merit
of good works, he might himself become enlightened and thus be
able to enlighten others.
In comparison with the career of the Future Buddha, devoted to the
performance of good works, unselfish, generous to the point of
sacrificing his own body and blood,—the career of the monk,
isolated from the world, selfish, seeking by meditation to uproot
craving for worldly pleasures and life and riches, seemed low and
mean. The disciple began to imitate his Master. Thus began the
Higher Career or Vehicle of Mahāyāna or Catholic Buddhism, as
distinguished from the Lower Career or Vehicle of the more primitive
Hīnayāna Buddhism of the Pāli texts. Thus did the quest of
Buddhahood supplant the quest of Nibbāna. This development took
place long before the beginning of the Christian era.

Gotama Buddha made frequent use of similes, allegories, parables,

fables, and other stories, to illustrate his teachings. His example was
imitated by his followers, and in the course of time hundreds and
hundreds of stories were attributed to him on general principles.
Most of these stories were, in their original form, nothing but simple
folk-tales, many of them of great antiquity. Parallels and variants are
found in the Mahābhārata, the Panchatantra, Bidpai’s Fables, the
Hitopadesha, the Kathāsaritsāgara, and other fiction-collections,
especially those of the Jains.
Of the twenty-six stories contained in this book, of eight of which
two versions are given, eleven stories or versions of stories (6, 11,
12, 13, 16, 17 a, 18 a, 19 a, 20 a, 23 a, 24 a) are taken from the
oldest canonical texts of the Buddhist Sacred Scriptures. Of these
eleven stories, the first nine are said to have been related by
Gotama himself, the last two being attributed to the Buddhist sage
Kumāra Kassapa. It is highly probable that the tradition embodied in
the texts regarding these eleven stories is correct. We may therefore
feel quite certain that such remarkable parables as Brahmadatta and
the prince (6), Blind men and elephant (13), and The birds (16)
were actually related by Gotama himself, in substantially the same
form as that in which we now have them. It is not at all unlikely that
such a parable as Brahmadatta and Mallika (8) was also related by
Gotama, but of this we cannot be certain.
The approximate date of these old canonical texts is now well
established. Numerous references to the Buddhist Scriptures in the
Bhābrā edict of Asoka, about 250 b.c., and in the canonical work
Kathāvatthu, of about the same date, amply justify the statement
that the texts from which these eleven stories are taken are, in their
present form, at least three or four centuries anterior to the
Christian era. It may interest the reader to know that these texts,
originating in North India in the lifetime of Gotama, were handed
down by oral tradition for many generations, were reduced to
canonical form within a century or two of the death of Gotama, were
carried to Ceylon in the third century b.c., were written down for the
first time in the first century b.c., and were copied and recopied on
palm-leaves by successive generations of scribes until comparatively
recent times.
The rest of the stories (except 25 and 26) are taken from the Book
of the Buddha’s Previous Existences or Jātaka Book. This remarkable
work, which also originated in North India, relates in mixed prose
and verse the experiences of the Future Buddha in each of 550
states of existence previous to his rebirth as Gotama. The received
text of this work represents a recension made in Ceylon early in the
fifth century a.d., but much of the material is demonstrably many
centuries older. For example, the stanzas rank as canonical Scripture,
older versions of some of the stories occur in the canonical texts,
and many of the stories (including 4 and 7 and 22) are illustrated by
Bharahat sculptures of the third century b.c. Stories 25 and 26 are
also Jātaka tales, adapted from C. H. Tawney’s translation of the
Kathāsaritsāgara.

For the most part, the Jātaka stories purport to relate incidents in
Gotama’s previous states of existence as a human being. For
example, as Prince Noble-heart (1), he triumphs over his enemies
and succeeds to the throne of his father through the kindly offices of
a grateful elephant. As a Brahman’s son (2), he befriends in turn a
pampered prince, a snake, a rat, and a parrot, with the result that
he is basely betrayed by the prince, but treated with profound
gratitude by the three animals.
As King Brahmadatta (8), he overcomes anger with kindness, evil
with good, the stingy with gifts, and the liar with truth. As Prince
Five-weapons (9), he overcomes the giant ogre Sticky-hair with the
Weapon of Knowledge. As a Brahman’s son (17 b), he frees his
younger brother from the power of Jewel-neck, the dragon-king. As
a Brahman’s son (18 b), he teaches friendliness for all living beings.
As a caravan-leader (24 b), he protects his companions from a troop
of man-eating ogres. As Jīmūta-vāhana, prince of the fairies (26), he
offers the sacrifice of his body and blood for the welfare of all living
beings.
Several of the stories purport to relate incidents in Gotama’s
previous states of existence as an animal. For example, as a
generous elephant (3), he gives his tusks to an ungrateful forester
who has betrayed him. As a merciful elephant (4), he spares the life
of a tiny quail. As a wise quail (5), he avoids the snares of a fowler.
As a brave lion (15), he averts the destruction of a host of frightened
animals. As a wise partridge (19 b), he serves as the preceptor of a
monkey and an elephant. As a wise quail (20 b), he outwits a hawk.
As a wise boar (25), he offers the sacrifice of his body and blood.

How did the Future Buddha come to be identified with the hero of
each of these stories? The stories themselves give us the answer.
For example, in the story of Brahmadatta and the prince (6), we
read that a high-minded prince generously forgave the murderer of
his father and mother, returning good for evil and love for hatred. In
this, the oldest form of the story, the Future Buddha is not even
mentioned. But in a later form of the story, Jātaka 371, we are
expressly told that the generous prince was none other than the
Future Buddha.
Stories 17, 18, 19, 20, 23, and 24 illustrate the same process in a
very striking way. Of each of these stories we have two versions, an
earlier version from a canonical source, and a later version from an
uncanonical source. It will be observed that in the older versions the
Future Buddha is not mentioned at all. But in the later versions he is
identified in turn with a wise ascetic (17 b, 18 b), a wise partridge
(19 b), a wise quail (20 b), an honest dicer (23 b), and a wise
caravan-leader (24 b).
Originally a simple folk-tale, each of these stories has been
converted into a birth-story by the simple literary device of
identifying the highest and noblest character in the story with the
Future Buddha. This, of course, was a comparatively easy matter, for
the Future Buddha, in his previous states of existence, was believed
to have exhibited the qualities of wisdom, courage, and generosity,
and there are few of the stories in which at least one of the
characters does not exhibit one or another of these qualities.
The attempt to introduce the Future Buddha into the stories is not
always carried out in a way to satisfy or convince the reader. Thus,
as an honest dicer (23 b), he violates Buddhist teaching by
administering deadly poison to his companion, a dishonest dicer. The
latter must not, of course, be allowed to die. The honest dicer is
therefore made to administer an emetic to his companion and to
admonish him. As a wise quail (20 b), he again violates Buddhist
teaching by saving his own life at the expense of his enemy’s life.
Here the inconsistency is allowed to stand, and the story is used to
illustrate the folly of walking in forbidden ground.
In the case of some of the stories, the figure of the Future Buddha
is, so to speak, lugged in by the heels. For example, little or nothing
is gained by identifying the antelope caught in a trap (7) with the
Future Buddha. As a Brahman’s pupil (10), and as a king’s counsellor
(14), the Future Buddha offers only a word of advice. As a trader
(21), and as a wise man (22), he is merely a spectator, and contents
himself with remarking on the folly of misdirected effort. It is quite
clear that in the case of these stories also we are dealing with simple
folk-tales which have undergone only slight modification.
Some of the stories have traveled all over the world. In the thirteenth,
fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries, many of them found their way
into the highways and byways of European literature. With Story 1,
The grateful elephant, compare the story of Androclus and the lion,
Aesop’s fable of the Lion and the Shepherd, and Gesta Romanorum
104. With Story 2, Grateful animals and ungrateful man, compare R.
Schmidt, Panchatantra i. 9; C. H. Tawney, Kathāsaritsāgara ii. 103; E.
Chavannes, Cinq Cents Contes 25; A. Schiefner, Tibetan Tales 26;
Gesta Romanorum 119; and the following stories in Grimm, Kinder-
und Hausmärchen: 17 Die weisse Schlange, 60 Die zwei Brüder, 62
Die Bienenkönigin, 85 Die Goldkinder, 107 Die beiden Wanderer, 126
Ferenand getrü und Ferenand ungetrü, 191 Das Meerhäschen. For
additional parallels, see J. Bolte und G. Polivka, Anmerkungen zu den
Kinder- und Hausmärchen der Brüder Grimm, Märchen 17, 62, 191.
With Story 3, Elephant and ungrateful forester, compare E.
Chavannes, Cinq Cents Contes 28. With Story 4, Quail, crow, fly,
frog, and elephants, compare R. Schmidt, Panchatantra i. 18.
Variants of Stories 5 and 7 form the frame-story of Panchatantra ii.
With Story 5, Quails and fowler, compare C. H. Tawney,
Kathāsaritsāgara ii. 48; J. Hertel, Tantrākhyāyika iii. 11; also Aesop’s
fable of the Falconer and the Birds. With Story 7, Antelope,
woodpecker, tortoise, and hunter, compare Mahābhārata xii. 138; C.
H. Tawney, Kathāsaritsāgara i. 296; also Aesop’s fable of the Lion
and the Mouse. With Story 6, Brahmadatta and the prince, compare
E. Chavannes, Cinq Cents Contes 10; also Jātaka 371. With Story 8,
Brahmadatta and Mallika, compare Mahābhārata iii. 194.
With Story 9, A Buddhist Tar-baby, compare E. Chavannes, Cinq
Cents Contes 89 and 410; also the well-known story in Joel Chandler
Harris, Uncle Remus, His Songs and His Sayings. Story 10, Vedabbha
and the thieves, is the original of Chaucer’s Pardoner’s Tale; compare
also A. Schiefner, Tibetan Tales 19. With Story 13, Blind men and
elephant, compare E. Chavannes, Cinq Cents Contes 86. With Story
14, Part 1, Gem, hatchet, drum, and bowl, compare Grimm, Kinder-
und Hausmärchen: 36 Tischchen deck dich, Goldesel, und Knüppel
aus dem Sack; 54 Der Ranzen, das Hütlein, und das Hörnlein. For
additional parallels, see Bolte-Polivka.
With Story 15, A Buddhist Henny-Penny, compare A. Schiefner,
Tibetan Tales 22; also the well-known children’s story of the same
name. With Story 19, Partridge, monkey, and elephant, compare A.
Schiefner, Tibetan Tales 24. With Story 21, How not to kill an insect,
compare Aesop’s fable of the Bald Man and the Fly. For an
interesting account of the history of some of the stories, see W. A.
Clouston, Popular Tales and Fictions, as follows: Story 2: i. 223-241.
Story 9: i. 133-154. Story 10: ii. 379-407. Story 14: i. 110-122. Story
15: i. 289-313. Story 21: i. 55-57.
 Note on the Illustrations.
Just fifty years ago Sir Alexander Cunningham discovered among the
ruins of a memorial mound or stūpa near the village of Bharahat,
120 miles southwest of Allahabad, a series of sculptures of the third
century b.c., illustrating the legendary life of the Buddha and stories
from the Book of the Buddha’s Previous Existences or Jātaka Book.
Photographs of these sculptures, together with a detailed description
of each, will be found in the explorer’s monumental work Stūpa of
Bharhut.
It is from these Bharahat sculptures that the artist has taken most of
the materials for the illustrations to the present volume. From these
sculptures have been taken, not only three entire scenes, but
animals, costumes, trees, plants, fruits, flowers, and other objects.
In the case of two scenes, where the sculptured objects differ
materially from the objects described in the text, the artist has
followed the sculptures rather than the text. In the matter of details,
the illustrations are believed to be correct in every particular.
The design which appears on the cover, and again on the title-page,
Elephant and children, is taken from Cunningham, Plate xxxiii. 2,
Elephant and monkeys. The Bharahat sculpture represents an
elephant being driven along by a troop of monkeys. The artist has
substituted children for monkeys, but has preserved the spirit of the
scene. It may as well be said here as anywhere else that the saffron
yellow of the cover is the exact color of the robes of a Buddhist
monk. The color is therefore symbolic.
The frontispiece, illustrating Story 1, The grateful elephant,
represents the scene in the elephant-stable. A pure white elephant is
shown in the act of raising the young prince, the Future Buddha, to
his shoulders. On the right stands the queen, under a parasol held
by an attendant. On the left stand ministers of state, ladies-in-