Chapter 2: Movement of Substances

DIFFUSION
•Def : It is the passive movement of molecules (or
ions) from a region of higher concentration to a
region of lower concentration.
•The difference between the regions of high
concentration and low concentration is called the
concentration gradient.
•The steeper the concentration gradient, the
faster diffusion takes place
 Diffusion
Copper sulphate and potassium
iodide ions are evenly distributed
permeable
membrane throughout on both sides.
water

20 20 10 10
potassium copper potassium copper
iodide ions sulphate ions Key iodide ions, sulphate ions,
10 10
potassium iodide ions
copper potassium
copper sulphate ions sulphate ions iodide ions
 FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE RATE OF
DIFFUSION
• Particle size – small particles diffuse faster
• Diffusion takes place faster through thin membrane,
only a short diffusion pathway.
• Diffusion is faster if the surface area is large.
• The shorter the distance between two regions, the
faster the rate.
• Increase in temperature increases the rate of diffusion
as particles have more kinetic energy.
 PARTIALLY-PERMEABLE MEMBRANES
• A partially-permeable membrane will allow certain molecules to pass
through it, but not others.

• Generally, small particles

can pass through…
Partially permeable
membrane

…but large
particles cannot
 Osmosis
10% sucrose solution
(less water, more
sucrose)
rise in level

A B A B A B

5% drop in
sucrose level
water
solution
(more molecules
water, diffuse
less from B to
sucrose) A.
partially
permeable
membrane
8 sucrose 4 sucrose 8 sucrose 4 sucrose
Key
molecules, molecules, molecules, molecules,
9 water 18 water sucrose molecule 18 water 9 water
molecules molecules molecules molecules
water molecule
Net movement of water
molecules
 Lower Higher Same concentration
concentration concentration of sugar
of solute (sugar) of sugar

H2O

Partially permeable
membrane: large sugar molecules
cannot pass through pores,
but water molecules can pass
through

Osmosis
 partially permeable

Concentrated solution Dilute solution

Low water potential High water potential

• During osmosis, only water molecules diffuses

through the partially permeable membrane in
BOTH directions.
 OSMOSIS
• Osmosis is the passive movement of water molecules
from a region of higher water potential to a region of
lower water potential across a partially-permeable
membrane.

•Water potential is a measure of the tendency of water to

move from one place to another.

•A dilute solution has more water molecules per unit

volume than a concentrated solution, so it has a higher
water potential than a concentrated solution.
Tonicity:
the ability of a solution to cause a cell to gain or lose water

• Isotonic solution: Solute concentration is the same as that

inside the cell; no net water movement across the plasma
membrane

• Hypertonic solution: Solute concentration is greater than

that inside the cell; cell loses water

• Hypotonic solution: Solute concentration is less than that

inside the cell; cell gains water
 DEFINITIONS
• Water potential
is a measure of the tendency of
water to move from a high water
concentration to low water
concentration.
 DEFINITIONS
• Hypotonic solution (= Dilute solution
compared to cell cytoplasm)
Low solute concentration!
High water potential!
(high water concentration)
 DEFINITIONS
• Hypertonic solution(= Concentrated
solution compared to cell
cytoplasm)
High solute concentration!
Low water potential!
(low water concentration)
 DEFINITIONS
• Isotonic solution(= Similar solute
concentration compared to cell
cytoplasm)
Similar water potential!
[similar water concentration]
 What Happens to an Animal Cell in a
Solution with High Water Potential?

in a solution with
cytoplasm high water
potential

cytoplasm has
lower water
potential than
animal cell outside solution

17 January 2024 16
What Happens to an Animal Cell in a
Solution with High Water Potential?

water diffuses into

in a solution with the cell by osmosis
high water
potential

cell
expands

As water enters the cell, the cell swells as it

does not have a cell wall to protect it.

17 January 2024 17
What Happens to an Animal Cell in a
Solution with High Water Potential?

in a solution with
high water
potential

Cell eventually
bursts.

17 January 2024 18
 What Happens to an Animal Cell in a
Solution with Low Water Potential?

in a solution with
cytoplasm
low water
potential

cytoplasm has
higher water
potential than
animal cell outside solution

17 January 2024 19
What Happens to an Animal Cell in a
Solution with Low Water Potential?
water diffuses out of
the cell/cytoplasm by
in a solution with osmosis
low water
potential

As the cell loses water, it shrinks

in size.

17 January 2024 20
What Happens to an Animal Cell in a
Solution with Low Water Potential?

spikes
in a solution with
low water potential

• As the cell shrinks, little spikes appear on the

cell surface membrane. This process is called
crenation. The cell is said to be crenated.
• An animal cell will become dehydrated and
eventually die.
 Red Blood Cells/Erythrocytes
A. B. C.
isotonic hypertonic hypotonic

Label the following as being in either

concentrated (hypertonic) solution or diluted
(hypotonic) solution or isotonic solution.
 What Happens to a Plant Cell in a Solution
with High Water Potential?

cell sap in vacuole cell wall in a solution with

high water
potential

cell sap has lower

cytoplasm plant cell water potential
than outside
solution

17 January 2024 23
What Happens to a Plant Cell in a Solution
with High Water Potential?
water diffuses into cytoplasm
by osmosis as there is a high
water potential outside of the
in a solution with cell.
high water potential

• As water enters the cell, the vacuole increases in size and

pushes the cell contents against the cell wall
• Cell enlarges and becomes swollen or turgid. This turgidity of
the cell with water is called turgor. The pressure exerted by the
water on the cell wall is the turgor pressure.

17 January 2024 24
What Happens to a Plant Cell in a Solution
with High Water Potential?

cell wall prevents cell from

in a solution with bursting
high water potential

• The cell wall is strong and relatively inelastic. It

prevents over-expansion of the cell by exerting an
opposing pressure as water enters the cell. This
prevents the entry of more water.
• It protects the cell and therefore the cell does not
burst.
17 January 2024 25
 What Happens to a Plant Cell in a Solution
with Low Water Potential?

cell sap in vacuole cell wall in a solution with

low water
potential

cell sap has

higher water
cytoplasm plant cell potential than
outside solution

17 January 2024 26
What Happens to a Plant Cell in a Solution
with Low Water Potential?
water diffuses out of the
cytoplasm by osmosis as there is
a low water potential outside of
in a solution with the cell.
low water potential

As the cell loses water, the vacuole decreases in

size.

17 January 2024 27
What Happens to a Plant Cell in a Solution
with Low Water Potential?

cytoplasm shrinks
away from cell wall
in a solution with
low water potential

• The shrinkage of cytoplasm and cell

membrane away from the cell wall is known as
plasmolysis. The cell is said to be plasmolysed.

17 January 2024 28
Plasmolysis in plant cells
 Osmosis in Plant cells

• turgor pressure (or turgidity)

– the pressure of the cell contents against the cell wall in
plant cells,
– determined by the water content of the vacuole,
resulting from osmotic pressure (water potential).
 Movement of Substances Into or Out of Cells

Processes

Diffusion Osmosis

Movement of molecules Movement of water molecules across a

or ions down a partially permeable membrane, from a
concentration gradient. solution of higher water potential to a
solution of lower water potential.

• Refers to any substance, • Refers only to water (solvent

gaseous or liquid molecules)

• Membrane is not required • Takes places across a partially

permeable membrane

17 January 2024 31
 Movement of Substances Into or Out of Cells

Processes

Diffusion Osmosis

Similarities
• Both are passive processes (no
respiratory energy required)
• Movement of substances down a
concentration gradient

Differences

• Refers to any substance, • Refers only to water (solvent

gaseous or liquid molecules)

• Membrane is not required • Takes places across a partially

permeable membrane

17 January 2024 32
 FACILITATED DIFFUSION
• Diffusion of molecules and ions
across the cell membrane
assisted, or “facilitated,” by
protein channels within the
membrane down a
concentration gradient.

• Usually involves large or

strongly charged molecules,
which cannot dissolve in the
phospholipid bilayer.
 FACILITATED DIFFUSION
• Def: The spontaneous passage of
molecules and ions, bound to specific
carrier proteins, across a biological
membrane down their concentration
gradients.

• Facilitated diffusion is still PASSIVE

transport.

• It takes place with the help of carrier

and channel proteins.
FACILITATED DIFFUSION
• Charged ions such as K+, Na+,Ca2+
and Cl-, cannot diffuse easily across
the non-polar centre of the
phospholipid bilayer.

• Channel proteins open up spaces

(pores) across the membrane to allow
entry or exit of substances.
• The pores are lined with polar
groups allowing charged ions to pass
through.

• Usually, each channel protein is

specific for one type of ion. Allows
only one type of ion to pass through.
 Facilitated Diffusion through Channel Proteins
Hydrophilic Water-soluble/polar/ hydrophilic substances
channel e.g. water, salts, sugars, charged atoms or molecules
 CARRIER PROTEINS

• Areable to allow diffusion across the

membrane of larger polar molecules
such as sugars and amino acids.

• A particular molecule attaches to the

carrier protein at its particular binding
site.

• This causes the carrier protein to

change its shape.

• As it does so, it ‘delivers’ the

molecule through the membrane.
Facilitated Diffusion through Carrier Proteins
 Passive diffusion Facilitated diffusion
Rate depends on Specific molecules
concentration gradient diffuse faster
Similar molecules Via special pores /
diffuse at similar rate carrier molecules
Diffusion can occur in Diffusion faster in one
either direction direction
Equilibrium reached Equilibrium reached
when concentrations when concentrations
equal equal
Energy from ATP not Energy from ATP not
needed needed
40
 CARRIER PROTEINS
2 TYPES:
1. Passive transport: Substrate
attachment brings about
conformational change in the protein,
thus facilitating diffusion of the
molecule.

2. Active transport: ATP is required to

bring about conformational change in
the protein.
Passive Source of Description Example
process energy

Diffusion Kinetic Movement along Oxygen moving through

energy of a concentration plasma membrane
molecules gradient

Facilitated Kinetic Diffusion using Glucose moving into cells

diffusion energy of channel proteins
molecules or carrier
proteins

Osmosis Kinetic Diffusion of Movement of water in and

energy of water through a out of cells
molecules partially
permeable
membrane
 ACTIVE TRANSPORT
• Active mean that the membrane protein
'pump' requires energy to function .
•There are specific carrier proteins present
in the cell membrane.
• Molecule / ion combines with a specific
carrier protein.

Cells involved in active transport tend to

have:
 many mitochondria
 high rate of respiration
Cellular Transport
 Active Transport
• the movement of materials through a plasma
membrane against a concentration gradient.

• Particles are ‘pumped’ from low concentration to

high concentration

• requires energy! in the form of ATP molecules

 ACTIVE TRANSPORT
Factors that affect respiration will affect active transport
 Temperature
 Oxygen concentration
 Presence of poisons such as cyanide

Processes that involve active transport

 nerve impulse transmission
 muscle contraction
 absorption of amino acids in the gut
 absorption of mineral salts by plant roots
 excretion of urea by the kidney
Active Transport
 Active Transport
Examples:
• plants absorb mineral salts, Na+, Ca2+
at root hair cells (low water potential)

• glucose & amino acids absorbed in villi

of ileum (small intestines)
 Movement of Substances Into or Out of Cells

Processes

Diffusion Osmosis Active Transport

Movement of molecules Movement of water molecules across a Movement of

or ions down a partially permeable membrane, from a substances (solutes or
concentration gradient. solution of higher water potential to a ions) against a
solution of lower water potential. concentration
gradient.
Respiratory energy is
required.

• Refers to any substance, • Refers only to water (solvent

gaseous or liquid molecules)

• Membrane is not required • Takes places across a partially

permeable membrane

Copyright © 2006-2011 Marshall Cavendish International (Singapore) Pte. Ltd. 17 January 2024 50
 ENDOCYTOSIS AND EXOCYTOSIS
There are processes where the cell can transport large quantities of
material (solids or liquids) into the cell (endocytosis) or out of the
cell (exocytosis).
Both are active processes.

Endocytosis
Cell wraps the plasma membrane around the material and brings it
into the cytoplasm inside a vesicle.
Two types of endocytosis
 Phagocytosis
 Pinocytosis
 DEFINITIONS
• ENDOCYTOSIS : The cellular uptake of
macromolecules and particulate substances by localized
regions of the plasma membrane that surround the
substance and pinch off to form an intracellular vesicle.

• 2 Types :
1. Phagocytosis
2. Pinocytosis

• EXOCYTOSIS : The cellular secretion of

macromolecules by the fusion of vesicles with the
plasma membrane.
Endocytosis Exocytosis
PHAGOCYTOSIS (CELL EATING)
• Solid material taken into the cell in a vesicle.

• Lysosomes fused with the vesicle, emptying their enzymes into it.
• The enzymes digest the material and the products are absorbed into
the cytoplasm.
•Eg White blood cell & bacteria
 PINOCYTOSIS (CELL DRINKING)
• Similar to phagocytosis
• Liquid material is taken into the cell
• Vesicles formed during pinocytosis can be extremely small.
• Eg. Uptake of nutrients by egg cells from surrounding follicles
 EXOCYTOSIS
• Reverse of endocytosis.

• Passage of materials out

of the cells.
• Often this material is a
useful secretion, like
digestive enzymes,
hormones or mucus
•Eg secretion of enzymes
from pancreas
Active Source of Description Example
processes energy
Active ATP Movement through Sodium-
transport a membrane against potassium
a concentration pump
gradient
Exocytosis ATP Vesicles fuse with Secretion of
plasma membrane insulin from
and eject contents pancreatic cells
from the cell
Endocytosis ATP Vesicles formed Phagocytosis
from the cell and
exterior, creating pinocytosis
vesicles that move
inward
Limitation of the size of cell