The Fundamental Unit of Life

Cell
Cells: An Overview

Diverse forms of living organisms are present in our surroundings. Like ourselves, all of
them are made up of tiny structures called cells. Cells are the building blocks of life. They
are the basic structural and functional units from which life takes shape. A cell is the
smallest living entity in a living organism.

How cells are formed

In 1838 & 1839, the two German scientists Matthias Schleiden (1838) and Theodor
Schwann (1839) proposed the cell theory and formulated that all plant and animal tissues
are made up of cells. They, however, were unsuccessful in explaining how new cells are
formed. Later, in 1855, Rudolf Virchow further expanded the cell theory by suggesting that
all cells arise from pre-existing cells. The cell theory states that:

 All living organisms are composed of cells and products of cells.

 Cells are the basic units of structure and function in an organism.

 All cells arise from pre-existing cells.

Know Your Scientist

 Robert Hooke (1635-1703)

The term ‘cell’ was introduced by Robert Hooke in 1665 after observing the cellular
structure of cork (a substance obtained from the bark of a tree). While examining a thin
slice of cork under a compound microscope, Hooke observed many small compartments
resembling honeycombs. These he termed as cells.

Robert Brown (1773-1858)

In 1831, Robert Brown discovered the presence of nucleus in the centre of a plant cell.

Theodor Schwann (1810-1882) and Matthias Schleiden (1804-1881)

In 1838, Matthias Schleiden, a German physiologist, discovered that all plant tissues are
made up of cells, i.e., cells are the fundamental units of all plants. In the next year(1839),
Theodor Schwann, a German physiologist, discovered that all animal tissues are made up of
cells, i.e., cells are the fundamental units of all animals.
 Invention of Microscope

Cells are very small living entities that are not visible to the naked eyes. The invention of
microscopes hence played the key role in the discovery of cells.

Simple Microscopes

 First simple microscopes were constructed by Antony van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723).

 They consisted of single biconvex lens.
 Their magnifying power was up to 200 times.

Compound Microscopes

 These were first constructed by Robert Hooke (1635-1703).

 He developed the compound microscope using two lenses for increasing the magnifying
power.
 He examined a thin slice of cork under it and observed tiny, box-like compartments, that he
named 'cells'.

The modern ordinary compound microscope has greatly improved in design and
magnification power (up to 2,000 times).
 Electron Microscopes

 The invention of electron microscope has led to great advancements in the study of cells.
 Electron microscopes use beams of electrons which are bent by magnets to magnify
the images.
 They can magnify an object up to 200,000 times.

Properties of Living Cells

Some important properties of living cells are as follows:

 Generally, a cell is so small that it is not visible to the naked eye.

 Cell shape and size vary both within an organism and between different organisms. The
shape and size of a cell is related to the specific function it performs.

 All living cells exhibit certain basic properties like respiration, growth and metabolism.

 Nerve cells are some of the longest cells.

Examples of cells with different shapes and sizes

Did You Know?

 The smallest unicellular organism we know is the Mycoplasma, a type of bacteria. Its
diameter is 0.1 µm.

 There are more red blood cells in our body than any other type of cell.
Solved Examples Medium

Example 1: Illustrate how the shape and size of a cell is related to the specific function it
performs.
 Solution: Different types of cells with different shapes and sizes are present in our body. A
cell’s shape and size are relevant to the specific function it performs. The irregularly
shaped white blood cell is a case in point. A white blood cell protects the body by killing
harmful foreign bodies. Whenever it encounters any antigen, it changes its shape
accordingly and engulfs the antigen. Thus, the shape of the white blood cell is directly
related to the function it performs.
Classification of Cells

Based on the number of cells: Unicellular and multicellular

As you now know, a cell is the

smallest living entity capable of independent existence. There are certain organisms that
are made up of only a single cell; such organisms are known as unicellular organisms.
Examples of unicellular organisms include Amoeba and yeast. All other organisms (i.e.
those made up of more than one cell) are known as multicellular organisms. Examples
of multicellular organisms include humans, plants and animals.

 Multicellular organisms can perform a variety of tasks efficiently due to division of labour.
This gives the organisms a wide range of adaptabilities to survive.

 In multicellular organisms, dead cells play an important role. For example, the dead
epidermal cells in animal skin protect the underlying cells.

Division of labour

Divisio12701n of labour refers to the specialized roles of the different organs present in a
multicellular organism. All organs, tissues or cells of a multicellular organism cannot carry
out all the functions. Each of them is evolved to carry out a specific set of tasks. Each organ
system coordinates with the others to perform the activities required for life. This division
of labour minimizes the load of carrying out all the functions and, consequently, it allows
the organs to operate efficiently.

Concept Builder

Let us understand this concept of division of labour using the example of a cricket team. As
you know, in a cricket team, some members specialize in batting while some specialize in
bowling. Each member is assigned a specific set of functions in the team. More often than
not, the team that wins a game is one whose members perform their specific tasks
efficiently.

In the same way, the different organ systems in the human body are assigned different
functions. For example, the digestive system is assigned to carry out digestion, while the
excretory system is assigned to carry out excretion. This is division of labour. Ultimately, a
healthy body is one in which the different organ systems perform their respective functions
properly.
Classification of Cells

Based on the cellular complexity: prokaryotes and eukaryotes

This type of classification is based on the sub-cellular organization of a cell.

The given table lists the characteristic features of prokaryotes and eukaryotes.

Characteristics Prokaryotes Eukaryotes

Cells vary in size and are
Size of the cell Cells are small in size. generally larger than those in
prokaryotes.
There is a well-defined
No nucleus with a nuclear
Nucleus nucleus with a nuclear
membrane is present.
membrane.
Organelles having a
Membrane-enclosed membrane around them (e.g., Membrane-enclosed
organelles mitochondria, plastids) are organelles are present.
absent.
Cell wall is usually present. It Cell wall is usually present in
Cell wall is composed plant cells. It is composed
of peptidoglycan. of cellulose.
The genetic material is
The genetic material is
present as nucleoid, i.e., a
Genetic material present inside the well-
properly defined nucleus is
defined nucleus.
absent.

Solved Examples Medium

Example 2: Distinguish between bacteria and yeast.

Solution:
Bacterium Yeast
It is a unicellular prokaryote. It is a unicellular eukaryote.
It lacks a well-defined nucleus. It has a well-defined nucleus
 It has no cellular organelles such as It has cellular organelles such as
mitochondria and endoplasmic mitochondria and endoplasmic
reticulum. reticulum.
Structure of Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Cell

Cell Division

Cells undergo division to form new cells. These new cells are used to grow, replace old,
dead and injured cells, and to form gametes required for reproduction. There are two types
of division a cell undergoes -

Mitosis - Each cell divides to form two daughter cells. The daughter cells have the same
chromosome number as the mother cell.

Meiosis - This type of division is shown by specific cells of the reproductive organs or
tissues in animals and plants. These cells divide to form gametes, which after fertilisation
give rise to new offsprings. In meiosis, four cells are produced from a single cell and the
new cells have half the chromosome number than the mother cell.
Cell Wall, Plasma Membrane and Cytoplasm
Basic Components of a Cell

The two basic components of a cell are the protoplasm and plasma/cell membrane. The
protoplasm consists of the cytoplasm and nucleus. The cell membrane is the outermost
covering in animal cells, and is next to the cell wall in plant cells.
 The term ‘protoplasm’ refers to the living contents of a cell, i.e., the nucleus and cytoplasm
enclosed by a membrane. The cytoplasm is a jelly-like matrix surrounding the nucleus.

Plasma Membrane

In animal cells (which lack the cell wall), the cell membrane is the outermost covering. It
acts as a barrier between the internal cell machinery and the harsh external environment.
Hence, it functions as a protecting agent.

Basic structure of the plasma membrane

Conceived by Singer and Nicolson in 1972, the fluid mosaic model is used for describing
the structure of the plasma membrane. According to this model, the major components of
the plasma membrane are lipids and proteins. A small amount of carbohydrates can also
be found in it. The plasma membrane is flexible in nature and allows the entry and exit of
selective molecules.

To understand the cell membrane better, imagine it to be like a big

plastic bag with many pores on its surface. This bag contains all the cellular contents,
including the organelles, and keeps them separate from the outside environment. The
pores present on the surface allow the entry and exit of only some
molecules/substances.The cell membrane is extremely delicate, thin and elastic. It is the
living membrane of the cell. It surrounds the cytoplasm and regulates the movement of
substances into and out of the cell. This means that the cell membrane allows only certain
substances to enter and exit. For this reason it is known as a selectively permeable
membrane.

Functions of the plasma membrane

 It protects the cellular organelles from the outside environment.

 It selectively allows molecules to move into and out of the cell.
 It can engulf substances within a cell through endocytosis. It can also expel substances out
of the cell through exocytosis.
 It establishes communication between cells.

Whiz KidWhat makes the plasma membrane selectively permeable?

The plasma membrane is made up of several organic molecules, but the major component
is phospholipid. A phospholipid is a lipid molecule containing phosphorus. It has two
parts—the head region and the tail region. The former is hydrophilic in nature, i.e., it has a
strong affinity for water. The latter is hydrophobic in nature, i.e., it lacks the affinity for
water.

The phospholipids arrange themselves in such a way that the polar heads face toward the
outside (i.e., toward water) and the fatty-acid tails face toward the inner side of the bilayer.
Consequently, the hydrophobic region remains protected from the aqueous environment
(as shown in the figure).

Due to this special arrangement, all molecules cannot pass through the membrane. Polar
molecules like glucose and water can easily pass through the membrane, but non-polar
molecules like oils cannot pass through. This structural arrangement that allows only
selective molecules to pass through the plasma membrane is what makes it a selectively
permeable membrane.

Diffusion
 In order to maintain a proper balance in the internal environment of the body, cells need to
take in useful substances and release harmful materials.

Do you know how food, waste matter and water are transported across a cell?

Such transportation occurs mainly because of two processes—diffusion and osmosis.

DIFFUSION

Diffusion is the movement of individual molecules from a region of higher concentration to

a region of lower concentration.

 The larger the difference in concentration, the more rapid is the flow of molecules.

 In diffusion, the movement of molecules is random and independent of each other.

 The most common example of diffusion is the transportation of gases and absorption of
nutrients in the human body.

 The inhaled air contains oxygen. In the lungs, oxygen diffuses through the blood capillaries
and reaches the red blood cells. There, it binds with the haemoglobin to form oxy-
haemoglobin.

 Oxy-haemoglobin is then circulated throughout the body.

 Oxygen concentration is lesser in tissues than in the blood or the red blood cells. Thus,
oxygen diffuses out of the blood and enters the tissues and, later, the cells.

 Similarly, in the digestive tract, food is broken down into simpler products such as glucose.
Nutrients are then absorbed by the intestinal cells through diffusion.

Osmosis: A Special Case of Diffusion

Osmosis describes a special case of diffusion in which two solutions having different
concentrations are separated by a semi-permeable membrane. Some features of osmosis
are as follows:

 The movement of water (i.e., the solvent) takes place from the region of lower
concentration of the solute to the region where there is a higher concentration of the
solute.

 In other words, the movement of the solvent takes place from the region where its
concentration is higher to the region where its concentration is lower.
 Significance of osmosis in living organisms

 Plant roots absorb soil water through osmosis. Water concentration is higher in soil than in
root cells. Therefore, water moves from the soil to the cells
 Water is re-absorbed in the tubules of nephrons of the kidneys through osmosis..

Solved Examples

Easy

Example 1: Distinguish between diffusion and osmosis

The basic differences between diffusion and osmosis are given in the table.

Diffusion Osmosis
Solute molecules move across a concentration Water molecules move across a concentration
gradient. gradient
It does not require a semi-permeable
It requires a semi-permeable membrane.
membrane.
Experiment on Osmosis

Take three beakers with a few raisins in them. Pour pure water hypotonic solution in the
first beaker, an isotonic solution in the second beaker and a highly concentrated solution
in the third beaker. Let the raisins soak in the liquids for five minutes.

Observation

After five minutes, you will observe that the raisins in the first beaker have swollen up. In
the second beaker, you will see no change in the raisins. In the third beaker, you will
observe that the raisins have shrunk and broken down.
Explanation

Pure water does not contain salt. Thus, to maintain equilibrium, water enters the raisins in
the first beaker. This swells up the raisins.The salt concentration in an isotonic solution is
the same as that in raisins. This results in osmotic balance. Hence, no change can be
observed in the raisins in the second beaker.The third beaker
contains hypertonic solution. To maintain equilibrium, water moves out of the raisins.
This shrinks the raisins. Excessive shrinkage results in the breakdown of the membrane.
This phenomenon is called plasmolysis.

Solved Examples

Medium

Example 1: Osmosis is a special kind of diffusion. Explain.

Solution:

Diffusion refers to the movement of the particles of a substance from a region where their
concentration is higher to a region where their concentration is lower. This happens so that
the particles spread uniformly in the given space. Diffusion can take place in all three
states—solid, liquid and gaseous. Osmosis is a special case of diffusion wherein the
medium is water. This phenomenon occurs through a semi-permeable membrane.

In diffusion, the moving particles can be those of the solute or of the solvent. Also, these
particles can move in both directions. However, in osmosis, only the unidirectional flow of
water takes place. Therefore, osmosis is a special kind of diffusion.

Easy

Example 2: There are two bowls—one containing hot rice pudding and the other
containing dry raisins. What will you observe if you put dry raisins in the rice
pudding?
 Solution:

When transferred to the rice pudding, the dry raisins will swell up. The reason for this is
the difference between the concentration of water in the pudding and in the raisins. The
concentration of water in the former is higher than it is in the latter. To maintain osmotic
balance, water will enter the raisins from the pudding, according to the concentration
gradient; consequently, the dry raisins will swell.
Cell Wall

As mentioned before, in animal cells, the plasma membrane is the outermost covering. In
plant cells, however, the outermost covering is the cell wall.

Now, you might wonder why the cell wall is present only in plant cells. Let us first
understand what the cell wall is and then we will ascertain as to why it is found solely in
plant cells.

 The cell wall is the hard, protective outermost covering of plants, fungi and bacteria.

 It is a rigid structure that gives support to a plant cell.

 It allows a plant to stand upright and maintain the shape of the cell when placed in a
hypotonic or hypertonic solution.

 Its constituent compounds are different in case of different organisms. The cell wall of
plants, fungi and bacteria is made up of cellulose, chitin and peptidoglycan respectively.

 The cell wall connects the internal environment of a cell to the external environment.

 It can withstand dilute hypotonic media and prevent bursting of cells. For this reason plant
cells can withstand changes in environmental concentration better than animal cells.

Solved Examples

Medium

Example 1: Why is the cell wall not necessary in animal cells?

Solution:

The cell wall is the tough and rigid layer around the cells of plants and bacteria. It provides
both structural support and protection to the cells. Animal cells do not require the cell wall
for the following reasons.

1) Animal cells have other forms of support such as the exoskeleton and endoskeleton.
 2) Animal cells can regulate osmotic pressure by pumping ions and salts across the cell
membrane. So, they do not require the cell wall to protect themselves from bursting due to
endosmosis.

3) Animal cells require flexibility for function and movement, which would not have been
possible if the cells were surrounded by the cell wall. This is because the cell wall restricts
flexibility.
Cytoplasm

Cytoplasm is the inner content of the cell membrane which separates the cell membrane
from the nucleus. Some important features of cytoplasm are as follows:

 It is composed of cytosol, organelles and inclusions.

 Cytosol is the soft, sticky and semi-transparent fluid in which various cell organelles are
suspended.

 Cytoplasm is not a simple clear fluid. Rather, it is a complex viscous fluid that contains 70%
water. The remaining portion is made up of proteins, carbohydrates and lipids.

 Cytoplasm is one of the most active parts of a cell. While it does not take part in the cellular
processes, it does host most of the metabolic reactions.

 It helps a cell to perform several vital functions by transporting essential nutrients to the
required destinations.

 One of the important components of the cytoplasm is the cytoskeleton. Cytoskeleton is a

network of proteins (microtubules and microfilaments) which together form the skeleton
of the cytoplasm. The cytoskeleton is responsible for the shape and movement of a cell.

Solved Examples

Medium

Example 1: Differentiate between cytoplasm, cytosol, protoplasm and protoplast.

Solution:

Cytoplasm is the inner content of the cell membrane. It separates the cell membrane from
the nucleus. It comprises cytosol, organelles and inclusions.

∴ Cytoplasm = Cytosol + Cell organelles + Inclusions

A constituent of cytoplasm, cytosol is a soft, sticky and semi-transparent fluid. In it the
various cell organelles remain suspended.

Along with the nucleus, the cytoplasm makes up the protoplasm—the living part of a cell. It
does not include the cell membrane or the cell wall

∴ Protoplasm = Cytoplasm + Nucleus

Protoplast is the protoplasm of a living plant or bacterial cell whose cell wall has been
removed but has its cell membrane intact.

Know More

Have you ever heard of a cybrid?

The word ‘cybrid’ is the combination of the words ‘cytoplasmic’ and ‘hybrid’. The plasma
membranes of cells (having different origins) are broken down to obtain cytoplasms. These
naked cells are then fused to obtain a hybrid cell called a cytoplasmic hybrid or cybrid.
Cybrids are often known as heterokaryons as they contain multiple and genetically-
different nuclei. Cybrids are important for research purposes.
Cytoplasmic Streaming

Cytoplasmic streaming refers to the movement of the viscous fluid of a cell (i.e., cytoplasm)
in order to perform a particular function. This phenomenon can be easily understood with
the help of the unicellular eukaryotic organism Amoeba.

Amoeba can constantly change its shape. It forms finger-like projections

called pseudopodia (meaning ‘false feet’) as shown in figures 1 and 2. These pseudopodia
are nothing but the flowing projections of cytoplasm.

When Amoeba senses its prey, it uses its pseudopodia to engulf the prey. These cytoplasmic
projections not only help Amoeba in engulfing food but also in locomotion. Thus, they
exemplify the phenomenon of cytoplasmic streaming.
 Did You Know?

 Cells can be grown outside the body through a process known as cell culture.

 Cell culture media is always isotonic in nature. The salt concentration of an isotonic
solution is 0.9% of NaCl, which is equivalent to the intracellular salt concentration.

 Viruses do not have the plasma membrane and cytoplasm.

Nucleus: Structure and Function
Nucleus: General Introduction

In the centre of all eukaryotic cells, there is a large prominent membrane-bound organelle
known as the nucleus. Some features of nucleus are as follows:

 The nucleus is visible under a light microscope. It is acidic in nature. Any basic stain can be
used to see the nucleus.

 It is also present in prokaryotes, but it lacks a well-defined membrane.

 Generally, one nucleus is present in a cell; however, there are certain eukaryotic cells which
do not contain even a single nucleus (e.g., red blood cell) and there are certain others that
contain more than one nucleus i.e. they are multinucleate (e.g., slime mould).

 In some organisms like bacteria, the nuclear region of the cell may be poorly defined due to
the absence of a nuclear membrane. Such an undefined nuclear region containing only
nucleic acids is called the nucleoid. It is found in prokaryotes.

Solved Examples Medium

Example 1: Can you give a reason as to why a red blood cell lacks the nucleus?
 A red blood cell (RBC) loses its nucleus at maturity. The main function of RBCs is to
transport oxygen to all body parts. For meeting the oxygen requirements of the body, they
need to carry large amounts of oxygen. So, an RBC loses its nucleus to attain the extra
space. Thus, it is part of the cell’s adaptation to lose the nucleus at maturity so that the
oxygen requirements of the body can be fulfilled.

Structure of the Nucleus

The following points list the various parts of the nucleus with their respective functions.

 Nuclear envelope: The nucleus is enclosed by a double-layered cellular membrane called

the nuclear envelope. The space between the two layers is known as the perinuclear space
and is filled with fluid. The nuclear envelope separates the contents of the nucleus from the
cytoplasm. The nuclear membrane is pierced with holes known as the nuclear pores. These
pores allow the nucleus to communicate with the rest of the cell as they control the passage
of substances into and out of the nucleus. The outer nuclear membrane (ONM) is connected
to a network of tubules and sacs i.e., the endoplasmic reticulum .

 Nucleolus: When observed under a microscope, the centre of the nucleus has a dark dense
spherical area known as the nucleolus. The nucleolus is the production factory
of ribosomes, which in turn manufacture proteins. Thus, it can be said that the nucleolus is
indirectly involved in protein and RNA synthesis.

 Nucleoplasm: The nucleus contains nuclear sap or a semi-fluid matrix enclosed by the
nuclear envelope. This is known as the nucleoplasm or karyoplasm. It holds the nucleolus
and the suspended chromatin.

 Chromatin network: The nucleus contains the genetic material of an organism in the form
of a network of chromatin. DNA gets associated with protein molecules to form chromatin.
This chromatin gets folded and coiled to form chromosomes.
 Solved Examples Medium

Example 1: Distinguish between the nucleus and nucleolus.

Solution: The following table illustrates the differences between nucleus and nucleolus.

Nucleus Nucleolus
The nucleus is the main organelle of The nucleolus is present inside the
a cell. nucleus.
It is surrounded by the nuclear It is not covered by any membrane.
envelope.
It contains DNA, proteins and the It contains RNA and proteins.
nucleolus.
It is the control centre of a cell, It performs the function of ribosome
controlling important functions such synthesis.
as DNA replication and protein
synthesis.
Nucleus: The Director of a Cell

Inside the nucleus, rod-shaped

structures called chromosomes are present. These chromosomes bear the hereditary units
known as genes. Genes are the segments of DNA which provide information for carrying
out the regular metabolic activity of a cell. For example, DNA contains the information on
how to make the proteins of the cells. The proteins, in turn, control the chemical reactions
of the cells and provide structural support to both the cells and tissues. The nucleus also
plays a crucial part, along with the environment, in determining the way a cell will develop
and the form that it will exhibit at maturity by directing the chemical activities of the cell.
Thus, also known as the director of a cell.

Functions of the nucleus:

 The nucleus controls all metabolic activities of a cell.

 It is concerned with the transmission of hereditary traits from the parent to the offspring.
 It plays an important role in cellular reproduction—the process by which a single cell
divides to form two new cells.

 It also plays a crucial part in determining the way a cell will develop and the form it will
exhibit at maturity. It does this by directing the chemical activities of the cell.

Cloning

We often hear of scientists producing clones. Do you know what clones are and how they
are created? Let us understand cloning and the role of the nucleus in it.

Cloning refers to the technique of producing an identical copy of an organism. In biology,

clones signify genetically identical organisms.A clone of an animal is produced by
transferring the nucleus from a donor adult cell (somatic cell) to an egg cell from which the
nucleus has been removed in the laboratory. When provided with all the required
conditions, the egg begins to divide normally to form a zygote. This zygote is then placed
inside the uterus of a female recipient, who then gives birth to the baby. The baby thus
born is identical to the donor organism (whose nucleus was used) and is said to be a clone
of the donor.

Did You Know?

 If the entire DNA from a single cell is stretched out, it would be two metres long!

 The nucleus is the largest organelle in a cell.

Solved Examples Medium

Example 1: What is the chemical nature of the nucleus—acidic or basic? Give reason
for your answer.
 Solution: The nucleus consists of genetic material—DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), which is
acidic in nature. This makes the entire nucleus acidic.

Vacuoles
Vacuoles: An Overview

A vacuole is a storage sac (for solid or liquid contents) found in a cell. Its enclosing
membrane is known as tonoplast which has a large number of pores on its surface. These
pores control the entry and exit of different molecules. Vacuoles are found in both plant
and animal cells, but are much larger in plant cells. The central vacuole of some plant cells
may occupy 50%−90% of the cell volume.In plant cells, vacuoles are full of cell sap. They
provide turgidity and rigidity to the cells. A vacuole stores food and nutrients that a cell
needs to survive. These include amino acids, sugars, various organic acids and some
proteins. It may store the waste products of a cell. In single-celled organisms
like Amoeba, the food vacuole contains the food items that Amoeba consumes. In some
unicellular organisms, a specialized vacuole plays an important role in expelling excess
water and some wastes from the cell.

Vacuole in a plant cell

Functions of Vacuoles

Some important functions of vacuoles are as follows:

 They help in the removal of unwanted structural debris.

 They maintain the turgor pressure within cells.

 In Amoeba, the food vacuole stores food.

 They help in maintaining the proper pH of cells.

 In some fungal cells, vacuoles act like lysosomes and play an important role in autophagy

Solved Examples

Medium

Example 1: Why do plant cells have large-sized vacuoles as compared to animal cells?

Solution:

Plants form the base of the food chain. They are capable of converting inorganic matter into
organic matter. To store these inorganic ions, they are provided with large vacuoles.
Moreover, plants cannot move from one place to another. So, it is very essential for plants
to be able to store extra nutrients for future use, when the nutrients may not be available.
Unlike plants, animals can take their food from their surroundings according to their
requirement. Therefore, they do not need organelles for food storage.

Hard

Example 2: How does vacuole maintain turgor pressure inside a cell?

Solution:

Turgor pressure is the pressure buildup in cell cytoplasm against the cell wall. This
pressure pushes the wall outward. In a normal situation, an equal and opposite force called
wall pressure is exerted by the cell wall to maintain the shape and structure of the cell.
When a cell is placed in a hypotonic solution, the water tends to move from the solution to
 the cell along the concentration gradient. This causes the volume of the cell to increase
considerably. In this situation, the size of the vacuole increases. It stores the excess water in
order to avoid the cell from bursting and dying due to the continuous supply of water into
the cell. Consequently, the concentration of cell cytoplasm is maintained and it exerts an
optimum turgor pressure.
Endoplasmic Reticulum and Golgi Apparatus
Endoplasmic Reticulum: Introduction

In ‘endoplasmic reticulum’, ‘endo’ means ‘inside’, ‘plasmic’ means ‘plasm’ and ‘reticulum’
means ‘network’. The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a system or network of folded
membranes—tubules, vesicles and cisternae—that form channels. Cisternae are
flattened disc-like membranous structures. Tubules are tubular in shape, while vesicles are
sac-like structures.ER is found fused with the nuclear membrane inside eukaryotic cells.It
is the site where many important chemical reactions take place, including the synthesis of
important proteins, lipids and many other materials.It functions as a packaging system.
However, it does not work alone; it works closely with the Golgi apparatus and
ribosomes.ER may look different from cell to cell, but it always forms a network system.

Types of Endoplasmic Reticulum

When seen under an electron microscope, two types of endoplasmic reticulum can be
observed—the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) and the smooth endoplasmic
reticulum (SER).

 Rough endoplasmic reticulum: When ribosomes get attached to the surface of ER, it
becomes RER.
 Smooth endoplasmic reticulum: When ribosomes are absent from the surface of ER, it is
called SER. This type of ER is found in liver cells, interstitial cells, adipose cells and muscle
cells.

Difference between RER and SER

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)

It is the endoplasmic reticulum that does It is the endoplasmic reticulum that bears
not bear ribosomes and appears smooth. ribosomes on the surface.
It is the major site for the synthesis of lipids. It is actively involved in protein synthesis.
It maintains the calcium ion concentration It transports proteins to different
in cytosol. destinations like the plasma membrane.

Functions of the Endoplasmic Reticulum

Some important functions performed by endoplasmic reticulum are as follows-

 ER serves as a channel for the transport of materials (especially proteins) between various
regions of the cytoplasm or between the cytoplasm and the nucleus.

 It functions as a cytoplasmic framework, providing a surface for some of the biochemical

activities of the cell.

 ER gives mechanical support by forming a network in the cytoplasm.

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

 SER acts as a storage organelle.

 It stores those steroids and ions in solution which the cell may need at a later time.

 It helps in manufacturing fat molecules or lipids that are important for cell functioning.

 Some of these proteins and lipids help in building the cell membrane. This process is
known as membrane biogenesis.

 It actively participates in drug detoxification.

 It maintains the calcium ion concentration in cytosol.

Rough endoplasmic reticulum

 RER is important for the synthesis and packaging of proteins. Most of the lysosomal
proteins are produced in RER. These proteins might be used in the cell or sent out to
various destinations depending upon the needs of the other processes.

 RER is the major site of glycosylation (addition of carbohydrates in proteins).

Ribosomes

Ribosomes are the organelles found in all living cells. These are found attached to the
membrane of rough endoplasmic reticulum, nuclear membrane and even in the nucleolus.
They are the sites of protein synthesis. Hence, are also known as the protein factories of the
cell.

Golgi Apparatus: In Depth

The Golgi apparatus is another packaging organelle like the endoplasmic reticulum. Let's
study the golgi apparatus in detail.

 It consists of a system of membrane-bound vesicles arranged approximately parallel to

each other in stacks of cisternae.

 The Golgi apparatus was discovered by Camillo Golgi in 1898.

 A Golgi body is usually composed of five−eight stacks of cisternae.

 Vesicles leave the Golgi body from the end known as the cis face. The other end is known as
the trans face.
 Plant cells contain many freely distributed subunits of the Golgi apparatus,
called dictyosomes.

Functions of the Golgi apparatus:

 It is involved in the transport of lipids in cells.

 It is involved in the formation of lysosomes.

 It also takes part in glycosylation and phosphorylation of certain proteins.

Solved Examples

Easy

Example:1 How is the Golgi apparatus linked to the endoplasmic reticulum?

Solution: Mainly, the Golgi apparatus performs the function of packing the material to be
delivered. The membranes of the Golgi apparatus are often connected to the endoplasmic
reticulum membranes. A number of proteins synthesized by the ribosomes on the
endoplasmic reticulum are modified in the cisternae of the Golgi apparatus before they are
released. The Golgi apparatus also helps endoplasmic reticulum in the making of another
organelle called lysosome.
Mitochondria and Lysosomes
Mitochondria: General Introduction

We know that our body needs energy to perform various activities. We get this energy from
the food we eat. But have you ever given thought to how this energy is produced from the
food inside our body? This energy is produced by the organelle called mitochondrion.

Features of mitochondria

 In most eukaryotic cells, double-membrane-enclosed organelles known as mitochondria

are present in the cytoplasm.

 Mitochondria are responsible for the production of most of the energy in cells. For this
reason they are also known as the powerhouse of cells.

 Energy is produced as a result of the breaking of sugar. This process occurs in

mitochondria.

 The energy released by mitochondria is stored in the form of ATP molecules. ATP is known
as the energy currency of a cell. The body uses the energy stored in ATP for making new
chemical compounds and for mechanical work. The number of mitochondria in a cell is
dependent upon the nature of the physiological activity carried out by it. For example, in
humans, the red blood cells do not contain any mitochondria, while liver and muscle cells
may contain hundreds or even thousands of them.

Structure of Mitochondria

Mitochondria are present in both plant and animal cells. Mitochondria are typically round
to oval in shape. Their sizes range from 0.5 μm to10 μm. A mitochondrion is enclosed by
two membranes—the outer membrane and the inner membrane, which are composed
of phospholipids and proteins. Let us learn more about the different components of
mitochondria.

1. Outer membrane: The entire

mitochondrion is enclosed by a smooth outer membrane. Like the plasma membrane, it is
made up of phospholipids and proteins. It contains many pores on its surface known as
porins. These enable the movement of molecules of a specific size.

2. Inner membrane: Unlike the outer membrane, the inner membrane is more complex. It
contains a high amount of proteins. Except for oxygen, carbon dioxide and water, it does
not allow any molecules to pass through it. This membrane is the main site for the
production of ATP(energy currency of the cell)

3. Perimitochondrial space:The space between the inner and outer membranes is known
as the perimitochondrial space. It contains several molecules that enter the organelle by
crossing the outer membrane but are not able to pass through the inner membrane.

Structure of Mitochondria

4. Cristae: These are the structures formed by the folding of the inner membrane (as
shown in the figure). They contain several enzymes and provide enough area for chemical
reactions to occur.
 5. Matrix: Just like the cytoplasm inside a cell, a mitochondrion contains a viscous fluid
enclosed by its inner membrane. This fluid is a mixture of dissolved carbon dioxide, oxygen,
proteins, water, enzymes and many other important compounds required for various
chemical reactions that take place in the organelle. This matrix contains mitochondrial DNA
and ribosomes. The presence of DNA and ribosomes allows the mitochondria to make some
of their own proteins.

Functions of Mitochondria

 They produce the energy (in the form of ATP) required for the functioning of cells.

 They regulate the free calcium ion concentration in cytosol.

 They participate in apoptosis or programmed cell death.

 They provide intermediates for the synthesis of various chemicals such as fatty acids,
steroids and amino acids.

Lysosomes

Lysosomes are membrane-bound vesicles that are usually found in animal cells. Some
important features of lysosomes are as follows:

 They are formed by budding off from the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi bodies.

 They contain digestive hydrolytic enzymes such as acid hydrolase. With the help of these
enzymes, they are able to digest a variety of substances including worn out organelles,
proteins, nucleic acids, lipids and carbohydrates.

 They are also known as the ‘suicide bags’ of cells. This is because they burst out and
release hydrolytic enzymes into cytosol when a cell is damaged.

 Lysosomes provide energy during starvation by controlled breakdown of stored food.

How lysosomes are produced?

The enzyme proteins are created in the Rough ER. These proteins are packaged in small
vesicles and sent to golgi apparatus. The golgi apparatus does the modification work on the
vesicles by preparing digestive enzymes and shoots off very small vesicle in the cytoplasm.
This vesicle is lysosome and it floats in the cytoplasm until it is needed by the cell.
The lysosomes are the digestive factories of the cell so their action starts when cell absorbs
or eat some food particle. As soon as the food particle enters the cell, the lysosome releases
the digestive enzymes which break down the complex molecules.

Solved Examples Medium

Example 1: Mitochondria are semi-autonomous organelles. Justify this statement.

Solution: Mitochondria contain their own genetic material, i.e., DNA (which is known as
mitochondrial genome) and ribosomes. They are considered as semi-autonomous
organelles because they are only partially dependent upon the nucleus for the proteins
required for their functioning. The presence of the DNA and ribosomes allows them to
synthesize some of these proteins. This is in contrast to other organelles which wholly
depend upon the nucleus for the proteins required for their functioning.

Easy

Example 2: What would happen if the mitochondria of a cell were to get damaged?

Solution: The most important function of mitochondria is the production of energy in the
form of ATP. Any damage to these organelles would block the production of ATP, thereby
depleting the energy in the cell. This would ultimately lead to the death of the cell.

Plastids
Plastids: An Overview

You see different kinds of plants and trees in your surroundings. Most of them are green in
colour. What do you think is the reason behind this green colour?
 Green plants and trees appear so because of the presence of the green colour pigment
called chlorophyll. This pigment is actually present inside the organelle
called chloroplast.

 Chloroplast is a type of plastid which in turn is a major organelle found in plant cells and
algae. The presence of plastids allows plants to prepare their own food through
photosynthesis.

 Animals cannot make their own food because they lack plastids.

 Plastids are present in the cytoplasmic matrix of a plant cell. They are round- or oval-
shaped bodies.

 Like mitochondria, chloroplasts have their own DNA and, thus, have the ability to self
replicate.

Types of Plastids

The two major types of plastids are Leucoplasts and chromoplasts .They are the major
sites for the production and storage of food and many other useful chemical compounds.

Leucoplasts: They are white or colourless plastids; hence, they do not contain any
coloured pigments. They are found in those plant regions wherein photosynthesis is not
carried out, e.g., the roots. Their main function is storage and synthesis of various
important compounds such as fatty acids and amino acids.
 Chromoplasts:They are the coloured plastids containing coloured pigments such as
xanthophylls (yellow) and carotene (orange). These pigments are responsible for the
colour of a plant. Chloroplast is the most common type of coloured plastid.

Functions of plastids:

 They carry out photosynthesis.

 They contribute to the colours of leaves and flowers.

 Some plastids perform the function of storage and production of many important
compounds like lipids and proteins.

Chloroplasts

Location: Chloroplasts are the main

sites for photosynthesis. As we know, photosynthesis efficiently takes place in the green
parts of a plant, i.e., in leaves (and to a lesser extent in green stems or floral parts). This is
because leaves have specialized cells that contain chloroplasts. These cells are
called mesophyll cells .

Structure: Chloroplasts are disc-shaped organelles enclosed by a double membrane.

A plastid has two distinct regions—grana and stroma.

Grana are the stacks of flattened discs containing chlorophyll molecules.

These molecules are responsible for the production of food through photosynthesis.
The inner membrane of the chloroplast encloses the protein-rich fluid-like ground
substance known as stroma. Stroma is the homogeneous mixture in which the grana are
embedded.

Thylakoids usually lie in stacks (like coins in piles) called grana.

Thylakoids are believed to be the main sites for photosynthesis. The grana are
interconnected by tubular membranes called lamellae.

Solved Examples

Medium

Example 1: Is it true that only plants with green leaves can carry out photosynthesis?
Give reason for your answer.

Solution: No, it is not true that only plants with green leaves can carry out photosynthesis.

Leaves of certain plants are green in colour due to the large presence of the chlorophyll
pigment. This pigment is responsible for carrying out photosynthesis in plants.

In some plants, leaves are orange or yellow in colour, but it does not mean that they do not
contain chlorophyll. Instead, it implies that in such leaves other pigments are in greater
amounts than chlorophyll. Nevertheless, such plants are also capable of carrying out
photosynthesis.

Easy

Example 2: Distinguish between grana and stroma.

Solution:
Grana Stroma

They are the stacks of thylakoids It is the fluid material present inside
present within chloroplasts. chloroplasts. It forms the floor of a
chloroplast.
They contain chlorophyll molecules It contains various enzymes that are
that are responsible for photosynthesis required for photosynthesis to occur.

Cell Inclusions

Cell inclusions are the result of various chemical reactions that take place inside the cell,
either in the cytoplasm or in the vacuole.
Cell inclusions may be the food products like starch or oil globules or the waste materials
like gums, resins, tannins, and latex