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 International Series of Numerical Mathematics

Michael Hintermüller,
Roland Herzog,
Christian Kanzow,
172
Michael Ulbrich,
Stefan Ulbrich, Editors

Non-Smooth and
Complementarity-Based
Distributed Parameter
Systems
Simulation and Hierarchical
Optimization
ISNM
International Series of Numerical Mathematics

Volume 172

Series Editors
Michael Hintermüller, Weierstrass Institute for Applied Analysis and Stochastics,
Berlin, Berlin, Germany
Günter Leugering, Department Mathematik, Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg,
Erlangen, Bayern, Germany

Associate Editors
Zhiming Chen, Inst. of Computational Mathem., Chinese Academy of Sciences,
Beijing, China
Ronald H. W. Hoppe, Dept of Mathematics, University of Houston, Houston, TX,
USA
Nobuyuki Kenmochi, Fac. Education, Chiba University, Chiba, Japan
Victor Starovoitov, Novosibirsk State University, Novosibirsk, Russia

Honorary Editor
Karl-Heinz Hoffmann, Technical University of Munich, Garching, Germany

The International Series of Numerical Mathematics is open to all aspects of

numerical mathematics, with topics of particular interest including free boundary
value problems for differential equations, phase transitions, problems of optimal
control and optimization, other nonlinear phenomena in analysis, nonlinear partial
differential equations, efficient solution methods, bifurcation problems, and approx-
imation theory. When possible, the topic of each volume is discussed from three
different angles, namely those of mathematical modeling, mathematical analysis,
and numerical case studies.
All manuscripts are peer-reviewed to meet the highest standards of scientific
literature. Interested authors may submit proposals by email to the series editors
or to the relevant Birkhäuser editor listed under “Contacts.”

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/4819

Michael Hintermüller • Roland Herzog
Christian Kanzow • Michael Ulbrich
Stefan Ulbrich
Editors

Non-Smooth and
Complementarity-Based
Distributed Parameter
Systems
Simulation and Hierarchical Optimization
Editors
Michael Hintermüller Roland Herzog
Weierstrass Institute for Applied Institute for Applied Mathematics
Analysis and Stochastics University of Heidelberg
Berlin, Germany Heidelberg, Germany

Christian Kanzow Michael Ulbrich

Lehrstuhl für Mathematik VII Department of Mathematics
Julius-Maximilians-Universität Würzburg Technical University of Munich
Würzburg, Bayern, Germany Garching b. München, Bayern, Germany

Stefan Ulbrich
Fachbereich Mathematik
Technische Universitaet Darmstadt
Darmstadt, Hessen, Germany

ISSN 0373-3149 ISSN 2296-6072 (electronic)

International Series of Numerical Mathematics
ISBN 978-3-030-79392-0 ISBN 978-3-030-79393-7 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-79393-7

Mathematics Subject Classification: 49J52, 49J53, 90C33, 46N10, 93A13, 49J21, 49J20, 49K40

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of
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Preface

This volume of the International Series of Numerical Mathematics presents research

results obtained in the first funding phase of the Special Priority Program (SPP)
1962 on Nonsmooth and Complementarity Based Distributed Parameter Systems:
Simulation and Hierarchical Optimization from 2016 to 2019. The program was
funded by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG). Within the funding period,
24 projects located at many universities and research institutions across Germany,
involving also a tandem project which was co-funded by the Swiss National Fund
(SNF) with one project partner in Lugano, unfolded various research activities,
leading to more than 100 preprints as well as several workshops and exchange
activities in particular for young researchers. The SPP 1962 also co-organized
the International Conference on Continuous Optimization (ICCOPT) which was
held in Berlin from August 5 to 8, 2019, preceded by a summer school for early
career researchers from August 3 to 4, 2019. The coordination project for the entire
program (supported scientifically by Amal Alphonse and Michael Hintermüller)
was located at the Weierstrass Institute for Applied Analysis and Stochastics in
Berlin.
The main mathematical theme of the SPP1962 is non-smoothness as many of
the most challenging problems in the applied sciences involve non-differentiable
structures as well as partial differential operators, thus leading to non-smooth
distributed parameter systems. The non-smoothness considered in this SPP typically
arises:
(i) Directly in the problem formulation
(ii) Through inequality constraints, nonlinear complementarity, or switching sys-
tems
(iii) As a result of competition and hierarchy
In fact, very challenging applications for (i) come from frictional contact
problems, or non-smooth constitutive laws associated with physical processes such
as Bean’s critical state model for the magnetization of superconductors, which
leads to a quasi-variational inequality (QVI) problem; for (ii) are related to non-
penetration conditions in contact problems, variational inequality problems, or

v
vi Preface

inequality constraints in optimization problems, which, upon proper re-formulation,

lead to complementarity problems and further, by means of non-linear complemen-
tarity problem (NCP) functions, to non-smooth systems similar to (i); and for (iii)
come from multi-objective control systems or leader-follower principles, as they
can be found in optimal system design in robotics and biomechanics. Modeling
“competition” often leads to generalized Nash equilibrium problems (GNEPs) or
partial differential games. Moreover, modeling “hierarchy” results in mathematical
programs with equilibrium constraints (MPECs), a class of optimization problems
with degenerate, non-smooth constraints. All of these problems are highly nonlinear,
lead to QVIs, and represent rather novel mathematical structures in applications
based on partial differential operators. In these and related applications, the
transition from smoothing or simulation-based approaches to genuinely non-smooth
techniques or to multi-objective respectively hierarchical optimization is crucial.
Fundamental difficulties in non-smooth partial differential systems, associated
optimization, and hierarchical problems are of analytical as well as algorithmic and
numerical nature. For instance, for QVIs, the existence and stability of solutions is
a major challenge, whereas MPECs suffer from a lack of existence of Lagrange
multipliers due to constraint degeneracy, which hinders the derivation of proper
stationarity conditions. Numerical challenges, which are present in all non-smooth
problems of this SPP, involve the stability of discretization/model reduction schemes
or severe mesh dependence of algorithms. In order to overcome these difficulties,
the goals of this SPP are to advance tools from non-smooth and set-valued analysis
and to build a basis for stable numerical approximation/discretization schemes that
enable the design of algorithms with mesh independent convergence. The SPP 1962
also aims to address the influence of parameters, which enter the above applied
problems and which either range within a specified set or result from hierarchy.
The former leads to robust optimization in form of deterministic MPECs, which
challenge the characterization of stationary points and the development of efficient
solvers. Hierarchical problems (or MPECs) contain variables which enter into
lower-level problems as parameters. Summarizing, the research program of the SPP
leads to a modern treatment of non-smooth problems and will therefore shape future
applications in the field.
Corresponding to the above goals, each subsequent section of this volume
presents the findings of projects within the SPP.

Berlin, Germany Michael Hintermüller

Contents

Error Bounds for Discretized Optimal Transport and Its Reliable

Efficient Numerical Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Sören Bartels and Stephan Hertzog
Numerical Methods for Diagnosis and Therapy Design of
Cerebral Palsy by Bilevel Optimal Control of Constrained
Biomechanical Multi-Body Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Hans Georg Bock, Ekaterina Kostina, Marta Sauter, Johannes P. Schlöder,
and Matthias Schlöder
ROM-Based Multiobjective Optimization of Elliptic PDEs via
Numerical Continuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Stefan Banholzer, Bennet Gebken, Michael Dellnitz, Sebastian Peitz,
and Stefan Volkwein
Analysis and Solution Methods for Bilevel Optimal Control Problems . . . . 77
Stephan Dempe, Felix Harder, Patrick Mehlitz, and Gerd Wachsmuth
A Calculus for Non-smooth Shape Optimization with
Applications to Geometric Inverse Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Marc Herrmann, Roland Herzog, Stephan Schmidt, and José Vidal-Núñez
Rate-Independent Systems and Their Viscous Regularizations:
Analysis, Simulation, and Optimal Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Roland Herzog, Dorothee Knees, Christian Meyer, Michael Sievers,
Ailyn Stötzner, and Stephanie Thomas
Generalized Nash Equilibrium Problems with Partial Differential
Operators: Theory, Algorithms, and Risk Aversion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Deborah Gahururu, Michael Hintermüller, Steven-Marian Stengl,
and Thomas M. Surowiec
Stability and Sensitivity Analysis for Quasi-Variational Inequalities . . . . . . 183
Amal Alphonse, Michael Hintermüller, and Carlos N. Rautenberg

vii
viii Contents

Simulation and Control of a Nonsmooth Cahn–Hilliard

Navier–Stokes System with Variable Fluid Densities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Carmen Gräßle, Michael Hintermüller, Michael Hinze, and Tobias Keil
Safeguarded Augmented Lagrangian Methods in Banach Spaces . . . . . . . . . 241
Christian Kanzow, Veronika Karl, Daniel Steck, and Daniel Wachsmuth
Decomposition and Approximation for PDE-Constrained
Mixed-Integer Optimal Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Mirko Hahn, Christian Kirches, Paul Manns, Sebastian Sager,
and Clemens Zeile
Strong Stationarity for Optimal Control of Variational
Inequalities of the Second Kind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
Constantin Christof, Christian Meyer, Ben Schweizer, and Stefan Turek
Optimizing Fracture Propagation Using a Phase-Field Approach . . . . . . . . . 329
Andreas Hehl, Masoumeh Mohammadi, Ira Neitzel,
and Winnifried Wollner
Algorithms for Optimal Control of Elastic Contact Problems
with Finite Strain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Anton Schiela and Matthias Stöcklein
Algorithms Based on Abs-Linearization for Non-smooth
Optimization with PDE Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
Olga Weiß, Andrea Walther, and Stephan Schmidt
Shape Optimization for Variational Inequalities of Obstacle
Type: Regularized and Unregularized Computational Approaches. . . . . . . . 397
Volker H. Schulz and Kathrin Welker
Extensions of Nash Games in Finite and Infinite Dimensions with
Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
Jan Becker, Alexandra Schwartz, Sonja Steffensen, and Anna Thünen
Stress-Based Methods for Quasi-Variational Inequalities
Associated with Frictional Contact. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
Bernhard Kober, Gerhard Starke, Rolf Krause, and Gabriele Rovi
An Inexact Bundle Method and Subgradient Computations for
Optimal Control of Deterministic and Stochastic Obstacle Problems . . . . . 467
Lukas Hertlein, Anne-Therese Rauls, Michael Ulbrich, and Stefan Ulbrich
Maxwell Variational Inequalities in Type-II Superconductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
Malte Winckler and Irwin Yousept
Error Bounds for Discretized Optimal
Transport and Its Reliable Efficient
Numerical Solution

Sören Bartels and Stephan Hertzog

Abstract The discretization of optimal transport problems often leads to large

linear programs with sparse solutions. We derive error estimates for the approxi-
mation of the problem using convex combinations of Dirac measures and devise
an active-set strategy that uses the optimality conditions to predict the support
of a solution within a multilevel strategy. Numerical experiments confirm the
theoretically predicted convergence rates and a linear growth of effective problem
sizes with respect to the variables used to discretize given data.

Keywords Optimal transport · Sparsity · Optimality conditions · Error bounds ·

Iterative solution

Mathematics Subject Classification (2020) 65K10, 49M25, 90C08

1 Introduction

The goal in optimal transportation is to transport a measure μ into a measure ν

with minimal total effort with respect to a given cost function c. This optimization
problem can be formulated as an infinite-dimensional linear program. One way
to find optimal solutions is to approximate the transport problem by (finite-
dimensional) standard linear programs. This can be done by approximating the
measures μ and ν by convex combinations of Dirac measures, and we prove that this
leads to accurate approximations of optimal costs. The size of these linear programs
grows quadratically in the size of the supports of these approximations, i.e., if M
and N are the number of atoms on which the approximations are supported, then
the size of the linear programs is MN. Thus, they can only be solved directly on

S. Bartels () · S. Hertzog

Abteilung für Angewandte Mathematik, Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg, Freiburg i.Br.,
Germany
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 1

M. Hintermüller et al. (eds.), Non-Smooth and Complementarity-Based Distributed
Parameter Systems, International Series of Numerical Mathematics 172,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-79393-7_1
2 S. Bartels and S. Hertzog

coarse grids, i.e., typically only for approximations with a few thousand atoms. It is
another goal of this article to devise an iterative strategy that automatically identifies
the support of a solution using auxiliary problems of comparable sizes. For other
approaches to the numerical solution of optimal transport problems, we refer the
reader to [1–3, 5, 14]; for details on the mathematical formulation and its analytical
features we refer the reader to [8, 17, 18].
Our error estimate follows from identifying convex combinations of Dirac
measures supported in the nodes of a given triangulation as approximations of
probability measures via the adjoint of the standard nodal interpolation operator
defined on continuous functions. Thereby, it is possible to quantify the approxima-
tion quality of a discretized probability measure in the operator norm related to a
class of continuously differentiable functions.
Using the fact that if c is strictly convex and μ has a density, the support of
optimal solutions is contained in a lower-dimensional set, we expect that the linear
programs have a sparse solution, i.e., the number of nonzero entries in the solution
matrix is comparable to M + N . Related approaches have previously been discussed
in the literature, cf. [12, 15]. In this article, we aim at investigating a general strategy
that avoids assumptions on an initial guess or a coarse solution and particular
features of the cost function and thus leads to an efficient solution procedure that
is fully reliable.
The optimality conditions for standard linear programs characterize the optimal
support using the Lagrange multipliers φ and ψ which occur as solutions of the
dual problem. Given approximations of those multipliers, we may restrict the full
linear program to the small set of atoms where those approximations satisfy the
characterizing equations of the optimal support up to some tolerance, with the
expectation that the optimal support is contained in this set. If the solution of the
corresponding reduced linear program satisfies the optimality conditions of the
full problem, a global solution is found. Otherwise, the tolerance is increased to
enlarge the active set of the reduced problem, and the procedure is repeated. Good
approximations of the Lagrange multipliers result from employing a multilevel
scheme and in each step prolongating the dual solutions computed on a coarser
grid to the next finer grid.
Our numerical experiments reveal that this iterative strategy leads to linear
programs whose dimensions are comparable to M + N . The optimality conditions
have to be checked on the full product grid which requires O(MN ) arithmetic
operations. These are however fully independent and can be realized in parallel. The
related algorithm of [12] avoids this test and simply adds atoms in a neighbourhood
of a coarse-grid solution. This is an efficient strategy if a good coarse-grid solution
is available. Similar approaches have been discussed in [9, 11, 16].
Another alternative is the method presented in [15] where the concept of
shielding neighbourhoods is introduced. Solutions which are optimal in a shielding
neighbourhood are analytically shown to be globally optimal. Strategies to construct
those sets are presented for several cost functions. However, each cost function
requires a particular strategy to find the neighbourhoods, depending on its geometric
structure. Critical for the efficiency of the algorithm is the sparsity of shielding
Discrete Optimal Transport 3

neighbourhoods for which theoretical bounds and intuitive arguments are given,
confirmed by numerical experiments.
The efficiency of our numerical scheme can be greatly increased if it is combined
with the methods from [12] or [15]. In this case, the activation of atoms is only done
within the described neighbourhoods of the support of a current approximation. This
is expected to be reliable once asymptotic convergence behaviour is observed.
The outline of this article is as follows. The general optimal transport problem,
its discretization, optimality conditions, and sparsity properties are discussed in
Sect. 2. A rigorous error analysis for optimal costs based on the approximation
of marginal measures via duality is carried out in Sect. 3. Section 4 devises the
multilevel active-set strategy for efficiently solving the linear programs arising from
the discretization. The efficiency of the algorithm and the optimality of the error
estimates are illustrated via numerical experiments in Sect. 5.

2 Discretized Optimal Transport

We describe in this section the general mathematical framework for optimal trans-
port problems, their discretization, optimality conditions, and sparsity properties of
optimal transport plans.

2.1 General Formulation

The general form of an optimal transport problem seeks a probability measure π ∈

M(X × Y ) called a transport plan on probability spaces X and Y such that its
projections onto X and Y coincide with given probability measures μ ∈ M(X)
and ν ∈ M(Y ), respectively, called marginals, and such that it is optimal in the set
of all such measures for a given continuous cost function c : X × Y → R. The
minimization problem thus reads
 
Minimize I[π ] = c(x, y) dπ(x, y)
)
(P X×Y
subject to π ∈ M(X × Y ), π ≥ 0, PX π = μ, PY π = ν.

Here, PX π and PY π are defined via PX π(A) = π(A×Y ) and PY π(B) = π(X×B)
for measurable sets A ⊂ X and B ⊂ Y , respectively. This formulation may be
regarded as a relaxation of the problem of determining a transport map T : X → Y
which minimizes a cost functional in the set of bijections between X and Y subject
to the constraint that the measure μ is pushed forward by T into the measure ν:
 
Minimize I [T ] = X c(x, T (x)) dμ(x)
(P )
subject to T bijective and T# μ = ν.
4 S. Bartels and S. Hertzog

Here, the pushforward measure T# μ is the measure on Y defined via T# μ(B) =

μ(T −1 (B)) for all measurable sets B ⊂ Y . In the case that μ and ν have densities
f ∈ L1 (X) and g ∈ L1 (Y ), the relation T# μ = ν is equivalent to the identity

g ◦ T det DT = f,

which is a Monge–Ampère equation if T = ∇ for a convex potential . Since the

formulation (P ) does not provide sufficient control on variations of transport maps
to pass to limits in the latter equation, it is difficult to establish the existence of
solutions directly. In fact, optimal transport maps may not exist, e.g., when a single
Dirac mass splits into a convex combination of several Dirac masses. The linear
program (P ) extends the formulation (P ) via graph measures π = (id × T )#μ and
admits solutions. In the case of a strictly convex cost function c it can be shown that
optimal transport plans correspond to optimal transport maps, i.e., optimal plans are
supported on graphs of transport maps, provided that μ has a density. In this sense
) is a relaxation of (P ); we refer the reader to [8, 17, 18] for details.
(P

2.2 Discretization

In the case where the marginals are given by convex combinations of Dirac measures
supported in atoms (xi )i=1,...,M ⊂ X and (yj )j =1,...,N ⊂ Y , respectively, i.e.,


M 
N
j
μh = μih δxi , νh = νh δyj ,
i=1 j =1

we have that admissible transport plans π are supported in the set of pairs of atoms
(xi , yj ). Indeed, if A × B ⊂ X × Y with (xi , yj ) ∈ A × B, i.e., xi ∈ A for all
i ∈ {1, 2, . . . , M} or yj ∈ B for all j ∈ {1, 2, . . . , N }, then one of the inequalities

π(A × B) ≤ π(A × Y ) = μh (A) = 0,

π(A × B) ≤ π(X × B) = νh (B) = 0,

holds, and we deduce π(A×B) = 0. By approximating measures μ and ν by convex

combinations of Dirac measures μh and νh , we therefore directly obtain a standard
linear program that determines the unknown matrix πh ∈ RM×N :
  N
Minimize Ih [πh ] = M
ij
h ) i=1 j =1 c(xi , yj )πh
(P  ij i M π ij = ν j .
subject to πh ≥ 0, N j =1 πh = μh , i=1 h h

The rigorous construction of approximating measures μh and νh via duality argu-

ments will be described below in Sect. 3. Weak convergence of discrete transport
Discrete Optimal Transport 5

plans to optimal transport plans can be established via abstract theories, cf. [12, 18]
for details.

2.3 Optimality Conditions

Precise information about the support of an optimal discrete transport plan πh is

provided by the Lagrange multipliers corresponding to the marginal constraints.
h leads to
Including these in a Lagrange functional L


M  
N  
N  
M 
h [πh ; φh , ψh ] = Ih [πh ] +
L φhi μih −
ij
πh +
j j
ψh νh −
ij
πh
i=1 j =1 j =1 i=1


M 
N  
M 
N
ij j j j
= πh c(xi , yj ) − φhi − ψh + φhi μih + ψh νh .
i=1 j =1 i=1 j =1

Minimization in πh ≥ 0 and maximization in φh and ψh provide the condition

j
c(xi , yj ) − φhi − ψh ≥ 0,

and the implication

j ij
φhi + ψh < c(xi , yj ) ⇒ πh = 0,

which determines the support of the discrete transport plan πh .

2.4 Sparsity

The Knott–Smith theorem and generalizations thereof state that optimal transport
plans are supported on c-cyclically monotone sets, cf. [18]. In particular, if c is
strictly convex and if the marginal μ has a density, then optimal transport plans are
unique and supported on the graph of the c-subdifferential of a c-convex function .
For the special case of a quadratic cost function, it follows that  is a solution of the
Monge–Ampère equation for which regularity properties can be established, cf. [7,
17]. Hence, in this case it is rigorously established that the support is contained in
a lower-dimensional submanifold. Typically, such a quantitative behaviour can be
expected but may be false under special circumstances. We refer the reader to [6]
for further details on partial regularity properties of transport maps.
On the discrete level, it is irrelevant to distinguish measures with or without
densities since the action of a discrete measure on a finite-dimensional set Vh of
6 S. Bartels and S. Hertzog

continuous functions can always be identified with an integration, i.e., we associate

a well defined density fh ∈ Vh by requiring that

vh fh dx = μh , vh ,
X

for all vh ∈ Vh . The properties of optimal transport plans thus apply to the discrete
transport problem introduced above. Asymptotically, these properties remain valid
provided that we have fh → f in L1 (X) for a limiting density f ∈ L1 (X).

3 Error Analysis

We derive an error estimate for the approximation of the continuous problem (P )

h ) by appropriately interpolating measures. For this we
by the discrete problem (P
follow [13] and assume that we are given a triangulation Th with maximal mesh-
size h > 0 of a closed domain U ⊂ Rd which represents X or Y with nodes

Nh = {z1 , z2 , . . . , zL }

and associated nodal basis functions (ϕz : z ∈ Nh ). With the corresponding

nodal interpolation operator onto the set of elementwise affine, globally continuous
functions given by

Ih : C(U ) → S 1 (Th ), Ih v = v(z)ϕz ,
z∈Nh

we define approximations Ih∗ of measures ∈ M(U )  C(U )∗ via


Ih∗ , u = , Ih u = u(z) , ϕz ,
z∈Nh

i.e., we have the representation


Ih∗ = z δz
z∈Nh

with z = , ϕz . Standard nodal interpolation estimates imply that we have, cf. [4],

− Ih∗ , u = , u − Ih u ≤ cI h1+α uC 1,α (U )  M(U ) ,

for all u ∈ C 1,α (U ). Analogously, we can approximate measures on the product

space X × Y with triangulations TX,h and TY,h , nodes NX,h and NY,h , and
Another random document with
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"At the foot of one of those hills the Lake of Sleep has its source; it
is made of the fluid of five springs alone. If it did not mingle with the
three rivers and thicken their waters with its weight no animal in our
world could sleep."
I cannot express the impatience I felt to question him about these
three rivers, which I had never heard of before. But I was contented
by his promising me that I should see everything.
We soon reached the valley and almost at the same time the carpet
which borders this great lake.
"Truly", said Campanella, "you are fortunate to behold all the
marvels of this world before you die; it is well for the inhabitants of
your globe to have produced a man who can inform them of the
Sun's marvels since without you they were in danger of living in
gross ignorance and of enjoying a hundred agreeable things without
knowing whence they come; for it is not to be imagined what
liberalities the Sun pours upon all your little globes; this valley alone
scatters an infinite number of gifts through all the universe, without
which you could not live nor even see the light of day. It seems to
me that to have seen this country is sufficient to make you admit
that the Sun is your Father and the Author of all things.[80] The five
rivulets which debouch here flow only fifteen or sixteen hours; and
yet when they arrive they seem so tired they can scarcely move; but
they show their weariness in very different ways. Sight narrows as it
approaches the Pool of Sleep; Hearing as it debouches grows
confused, wanders and is lost in the mud; Smell creates a murmur
like that of a man snoring; Taste, deadened from the way, becomes
wholly insipid, and Touch, formerly so powerful that it harboured all
its companions, is reduced to hiding its dwelling-place. The Nymph
of Peace, who lives in the midst of the Lake, receives her guests with
open arms, lays them in her bed, and indulges them with such
delicacy that she herself takes the trouble to cradle them to put
them to sleep. Some time after they have been mingled in this vast
round pond they are seen to divide again at the other end into five
rivulets, which, as they leave, take up again the names they
abandoned on entering. But the most impatient of the party (who
worry their companions to set out again) are Hearing and Touch; as
for the three others they wait for these two to arouse them, and
Taste especially always lags behind the others.[81]
"The black concave of a grotto arches over the Lake of Sleep.
Quantities of tortoises walk slowly on the bank; a thousand poppy
flowers reflected in the water give it the power of putting to sleep;
for fifty leagues round even the marmots come to drink of it and the
whisper of the stream is so delightful that it seems to rustle over the
pebbles in measure and to compose a sleepy music."
The wise Campanella no doubt saw that I should be affected by it to
some extent and therefore advised me to increase my pace. I should
have obeyed him, but the charms of this water had so enveloped my
reason that I retained scarce enough to understand these last
words:
"Sleep, then, sleep, and I will leave you; the dreams one has here
are so perfect that some day you will be glad to remember what you
are about to dream. I will amuse myself by visiting the rarities of the
place and then I will rejoin you."
I do not think he spoke any more, or else the fumes of sleep had
already placed me in a state where I was incapable of hearkening to
him.
I was in the midst of the wisest and best conceived dream
imaginable, when my philosopher awakened me. I will relate it to
you later on, when it will not interrupt the thread of my discourse,
for it is very important for you to know it, so that you may
understand with what liberty the mind of an inhabitant of the Sun
acts, while his senses are imprisoned by sleep.[82] For my part I
think that this Lake exhales an air which has the property of
purifying completely the mind from the embarrassment of the
senses; for nothing is presented to your thought by it which does
not seem to perfect and instruct you; for which reason I have the
greatest respect in the world for those philosophers called Dreamers,
whom our ignorant people mock at.
I opened my eyes with a start. It seems to me I heard him say:
"Mortal, you have slept enough; rise up, if you wish to see a rarity
which would never even be imagined in your world. For an hour
since I left you, in order not to disturb your repose, I have been
walking alongside the five streams, which flow out of the Pool of
Sleep. You may imagine how attentively I have observed them all;
they bear the names of the five Senses and flow very close together.
Sight seems a forked tube filled with powdered diamonds and little
mirrors, which steal and restore the images of everything that comes
near, and in its course it circles the Kingdom of the lynxes; Hearing
is similarly double, it turns in as many windings as a maze and in the
most hollow concaves of its bed can be heard an echo of every noise
which sounds about it; I am very much deceived if I did not see
foxes cleaning their ears beside it; Smell appears like the two
preceding streams divided into two little hidden channels under a
single arch; from everything it meets it extracts something invisible
from which it composes a thousand kinds of smell, which occupy the
place of water in it; on the banks of this stream may be seen many
dogs purifying their noses; Taste flows in spurts, which usually only
occur three or four times a day, and even then a large coral sluice-
gate must be lifted up and underneath that a number of other very
small ones, which are made of ivory; its fluid resembles saliva. But
as to the fifth, the stream of Touch, it is so vast and so deep that it
surrounds all its sisters, even lying full length in their bed, and its
thick moisture is scattered far around on lawns completely green
with sensitive plants.
"Now you must know that I was admiring, frozen with admiration,
the mysterious turnings of all these streams when, as I walked on, I
reached the place where they flow into the three rivers. But follow
me, you will understand the arrangement of all these things far
better by seeing them."
So potent a promise woke me completely; I held out my arm to him
and we walked by the same way he had taken along the
embankment which retained the five streams, each in its channel.
At the end of about a stadium something as shining as a lake
reached our eyes. The wise Campanella had no sooner perceived it
than he said to me:
"At last, my son, we are approaching. I see the three rivers
distinctly."
At this news I felt myself transported with such an ardour that I felt
as if I had become an eagle. I flew rather than walked, and rushed
all about, with so eager a curiosity, that in less than an hour my
guide and I had observed all that you are about to hear.
Three large rivers water the brilliant plains of this kindling world: the
first and the widest is called Memory; the second, narrower but
deeper, Imagination; the third, smaller than the others, is called
Judgment.
On the banks of Memory there is heard night and day the
importunate calling of Jays, Parrots, Magpies, Starlings, Linnets,
Finches, and birds of all kinds, which twitter what they have learned.
At night they say nothing, because they are then occupied in
drinking the thick vapour exhaled from these aquatic places. But
their feeble stomachs digest it so ill that in the morning when they
think they have converted it into their own substance it is seen to
flow from their bills as pure as if it were in the river. The water of
this river seems viscous and flows noisily; the echoes formed in its
caverns repeat its speech more than a thousand times; it engenders
certain monsters, whose faces are like the face of Woman. Others
yet more furious are seen with square horny heads very similar to
those of our Pedants. These do nothing but exclaim, and yet say
nothing but what they have heard other people say.
The river of Imagination flows more gently; its light brilliant fluid
sparkles on all sides; when one looks at this water composed of a
torrent of damp sparks they seem to observe no certain order as
they fly along. When I had observed it more attentively I took notice
that the humour that flowed in its bed was pure potable gold and its
foam oil of talc. The fishes it breeds are Remoræ, Sirens, and
Salamanders; instead of gravel there are to be found those pebbles
of which Pliny speaks, which make one heavy when touched on one
side and light when applied on the other side. I noticed others again,
of which Gyges had a ring, which renders invisible; but above all a
large number of philosopher's stones glittered in its sands. On its
banks were numerous fruit-trees, principally those found by
Mohammed in Paradise; the branches swarmed with phœnixes, and
I noticed seedlings of that fruit-tree whence Discord plucked the
apple she cast at the feet of the three Goddesses; they had grafted
on it shoots from the garden of the Hesperides. Each of these two
wide rivers separated into an infinity of interlacing arms; and I
observed that when a large stream of Memory approached a smaller
one of Imagination the former immediately exterminated the latter;
but on the contrary, if the stream of Imagination were larger, it dried
up that of Memory. Now, since these three streams always flow side
by side, either in their main channel or in their branches, wherever
Memory is strong, Imagination diminishes, and the one increases as
the other sinks.
Near at hand the river of Judgment flows incredibly slowly; its
channel is deep, its fluid seems cold, and when scattered on
anything dries instead of moistens. In the mud of its bed grow
plants of Hellebore,[83] whose roots spreading out in long filaments
purify the water of its mouth. It nourishes serpents, and a million
elephants repose on the soft grass which carpets its banks; like its
two cousins it splits into an infinity of little branches; it increases as
it flows and although it always gains ground turns and returns upon
itself eternally.
The whole Sun is watered with the moisture of these three rivers; it
serves to dilute the burning atoms of those who die in this great
world; but this deserves to be treated more at length.
The life of animals in the Sun is very long; they only die by a natural
death, which never occurs until the end of seven or eight thousand
years, when from the continuous excesses of mind to which their
fiery temperament inclines them, the order of their matter grows
confused; for as soon as Nature feels in a body that more time is
needed to repair the ruins of its being than to compose a new one,
she tends to dissolve it; so that from day to day the animal is seen,
not to rot, but to fall into particles like red ashes.
Death only happens in this way. When he has expired, or rather, is
extinguished, the small igneous bodies which composed his
substance enter the gross matter of this lighted world until chance
has watered them with the fluid of these three rivers; for then,
becoming mobile through their fluidity, with the purpose of
exercising quickly the faculties which this water has impressed upon
their obscure comprehension, they attach themselves in long
threads, and, by a flood of luminous points sharpen into rays and
are scattered upon the surrounding spheres, where they are no
sooner enveloped than they arrange the matter as far as they can in
the shape proper to exercise all the functions, whose instinct they
acquired in the water of the three rivers, the five fountains and the
Pool; and so they allow themselves to be attracted to plants to
vegetate; plants allow themselves to be cropped by animals to feel,
and animals allow themselves to be eaten by men in order that by
passing into their substance they may repair those three faculties of
Memory, Imagination and Judgment, whose power they presaged in
the rivers of the Sun.
Now, according to whether the atoms have been more or less
soaked in the moisture of these three rivers, they bring the animals
more or less Memory, Imagination or Judgment; and according to
whether, while they were in the three rivers, they absorbed more or
less of the liquid of the five fountains and of the little Lake, they
elaborate in them more or less perfect senses and produce more or
less sleepy souls.
This is approximately what we observed, as touching the nature of
these three rivers. Their little veins are to be met with scattered here
and there; but the principal arms all debouch in the province of the
philosophers; and so we returned to the highway without going
farther from the stream than was necessary to get on to the road.
We could see the whole time the three large rivers flowing beside
us; but we watched from above the five streams winding below us
through the meadows. This road, although solitary, is very
agreeable; one breathes a free subtle air there, which feeds the soul
and causes it to reign over the passions.
At the end of five or six days' journey, while we were delighting our
eyes in considering the different rich aspects of the landscape, a
languishing voice like a sick person moaning reached our ears. We
approached the place from which we imagined it might come and on
the bank of the river Imagination we found an old man, who had
fallen backwards and was uttering loud cries. Tears of compassion
came into my eyes and the pity I felt for this wretch's misfortune
compelled me to ask the reason.
"This man", replied Campanella, turning towards me, "is a
philosopher in the death agony; for we die more than once, and
since we are merely parts of this Universe we change our shape in
order to take up our lives again elsewhere; and this is not an evil,
but a method of perfecting one's being and of acquiring an infinite
amount of knowledge. His malady is that which causes the death of
nearly all great men."
His discourse made me observe the sick man more attentively and at
the first glance I perceived that his head was as large as a butt and
open in various places.
"Come", said Campanella, drawing me by the arm, "all the help we
should think we were giving this dying man would be useless and
would merely serve to disturb him. Let us go on, since his disease is
incurable. The swelling of his head comes from his having over-
exercised his mind; for although the elements with which he has
filled the three organs or the three ventricles of his brain are very
small images, they are corporeal and consequently occupy a large
space when they are very numerous. Now you must know that this
philosopher so swelled up his brain by piling into it image upon
image that, unable to contain them any longer, it burst. This manner
of dying is that of great geniuses, and is called Bursting with Wit."
We walked on as we talked and the first things which presented
themselves to us furnished us with subjects of conversation. I should
have liked to leave the opaque regions of the Sun and to return to
those which are luminous; for the reader knows that all its countries
are not diaphanous: some are obscure as in our world and but for
the light of a Sun, which is seen there, would be enveloped in
darkness. Now, in proportion as one enters these opaque regions
one gradually becomes opaque and on approaching the transparent
regions one sheds that dark obscurity under the vigorous irradiation
of the climate.
I remember that, apropos this desire which consumed me, I asked
Campanella whether the province of the philosophers were brilliant
or shadowy.
"It is more shadowy than brilliant", he replied, "for since we still
sympathize greatly with the Earth, our native land, which is opaque
by nature, we have not been able to settle in the brightest regions of
this globe. Nevertheless, when we so desire we can render ourselves
diaphanous by a vigorous effort of will; and the greater part of the
philosophers do not even speak with the tongue but, when they
desire to communicate their thought, they purge themselves by a
sally of their fantasy of a dark vapour under which their conceptions
are generally hidden; and as soon as they have caused this darkness
of the spleen, which darkened them, to return to its seat, their body
becomes diaphanous and there can be perceived through their brain
what they remember, what they imagine, what they judge; and in
their liver and their heart what they desire and what they resolve;
for although these little portraits are more imperceptible than
anything we can imagine, yet in this world our eyes are sharp
enough to distinguish easily the smallest ideas.
"Thus, when one of us desires to show his friend the affection he
bears to him, his heart is seen to throw its rays as far as his memory
upon the image of the person he loves; and when on the contrary
he desires to show his aversion, his heart is seen to project swirls of
burning sparks against the image of the person he hates and to
retire as far as possible from it: similarly, when he speaks to himself
the elements, that is to say, the character of everything he is
meditating upon, are clearly seen either impressed or in relief,
presenting before the eyes of the onlooker not an articulated
speech, but a pictured story of all his thoughts."
My guide would have continued, but he was interrupted by an
accident hitherto unheard of: and this was that we suddenly
perceived the earth grow dark beneath our feet and the burning rays
of the sky grow faint above our heads, as if a canopy four leagues
square had been spread betwixt us and the Sun.
It would be difficult to tell you what we imagined at this occurrence;
we were assailed by all manner of terrors, even by that of the end of
the world, and none of these terrors seemed to us beyond all
likelihood; for, to see night in the Sun or the air darkened with
clouds, is a miracle which never happens there. But this was not all;
immediately afterwards a sharp squealing noise, like the sound of a
pulley turning rapidly, struck our ears and at the same time we saw
a cage fall at our feet. Scarcely had it touched the sand when it
opened and was delivered of a man and a woman; they dragged out
an anchor, which they hooked in the roots of a rock; after which we
saw them coming towards us. The woman led the man and dragged
him along with menaces. When she was near us she said in a
slightly excited voice:
"Gentlemen, is not this the province of philosophers?"
I answered that it was not, but that we hoped to arrive there in
twenty-four hours, that the old man, who suffered me to remain in
his company, was one of the principal officers of that monarchy.
"Since you are a philosopher", replied this woman, addressing
Campanella, "I must unburden my heart here before going any
further.[84]
"To tell you in a few words the matter which brings me here, you
must know that I come to complain of a murder committed upon the
person of my youngest child; this barbarian I am holding has killed it
twice, although he was its father."
We were mightily embarrassed by this discourse and so I desired to
know what she meant by a child that was killed twice.
"Know, then", replied the woman, "that in our country among other
statutes of Love there is a law to regulate how often a husband shall
pay his debt to his wife; therefore every evening each doctor goes
through all the houses of the district and, having examined the
husband and the wife, he allots them so many embraces for that
night, according to their good or bad health. My husband here was
allotted seven; however, piqued at some rather disdainful words I
said to him as we were undressing, he did not approach me all the
time we were in bed. But God, who avenges the cause of the
afflicted, permitted this wretch (tickled by the thought of the kisses
he had withheld from me) to waste a man in a dream. I told you
that his father killed him twice, because by preventing him from
existing he caused him not to exist, which was his first murder; and
he caused him never to have existed, which was the second; while
an ordinary murderer knows that the person he deprives of the
daylight ceases to exist, but he cannot cause him not to have existed
at all. Our magistrates would have made short work of him; but he
cunningly excused himself by saying he would have performed his
conjugal duty if he had not feared that by embracing me in the
height of the anger I had put him into he would beget a frantic man.
"The senate, embarrassed by this justification, ordered us to go to
the philosophers and to plead our cause before them. As soon as we
received the order to go we entered a cage hung on the neck of the
great bird you see there, from which we lower ourselves to the
ground and hoist ourselves into the air by means of a pulley
attached to it. In our province there are persons expressly employed
in taming them when young and in training them for the tasks which
render them useful to us. They are principally urged to yield
themselves to discipline contrary to their ferocious natures, by their
hunger, which is almost always unsatisfied; and so we abandon to
them the bodies of all beasts which die. For the rest, when we desire
to sleep (for, on account of the too continuous excesses of love
which weaken us, we need repose) we send up from the country at
regular intervals twenty or thirty of these birds, each attached to a
cord and, as they fly up, their vast wings spread in the sky a shadow
wider than the horizon."
I was very attentive to her discourse and observed in an ecstasy the
enormous height of this giant bird; but as soon as Campanella had
looked at it a little he exclaimed:
"Ha! Truly, it is one of those feathered monsters called condors
which are seen in the island of Mandragora in our world and
throughout the torrid zone; they cover an acre of ground with their
wings; but since these animals become larger in proportion as the
Sun, which saw their birth, is more heated, it cannot be but that
they are of a fearful size in the world of the Sun.
"However", he added, turning towards the woman, "you must
necessarily continue your voyage since you have to be judged by
Socrates, to whom the supervision of morals has been allotted. But I
beg you to tell us of what country you are, because I have only been
three or four years in this world and do not yet know the map."
"We are", she replied, "from the Kingdom of Lovers; this great state
is bounded on one side by the republic of Peace and on the other by
that of the Just. In the country whence I come the boys at the age
of sixteen enter the novitiate of Love: this is a most sumptuous
palace which covers nearly a quarter of the city. As for the girls, they
enter it at thirteen. There they spend a year of probation, during
which the boys are only occupied in deserving the affection of the
girls and the girls in making themselves worthy of the friendship of
the boys. At the end of twelve months the Faculty of Medicine visits
this Seminary of Lovers in a body; they examine them all one after
another, down to the most secret parts of their persons, and cause
them to couple before their eyes; and then in proportion as the male
is found by experiment to be vigorous and suitable, he is given as
his wives ten, twenty, thirty or forty girls from among those who
affect him, provided the affection be reciprocal.[85] The husband,
however, may only lie with two at once and he is not allowed to
embrace any of them while she is pregnant. Those women who are
found to be sterile are employed as menials and impotent men are
made slaves and can mingle carnally with the sterile women.[86] For
the rest, when a family has more children than it can feed the
republic looks after them; but this is a misfortune which never
happens, because as soon as a woman is delivered in the city, the
treasury furnishes an annual sum for the education of the child
according to its rank, and the treasurers of the state themselves
carry the money to the father's house on a given day. But if you wish
to know more, come into our basket, it is large enough for four.
Since we are going the same road we will deceive the length of the
way by talk."
Campanella was of the opinion that we should accept the offer. I,
too, was very glad to avoid the fatigue; but when I came to help
them weigh the anchor I was very surprised to find that instead of a
large cable to hold it, it was hung on a thread of silk as fine as a
hair. I asked Campanella how it could be that a heavy mass, such as
this anchor was, did not break so frail a thing with its weight; and
the good man replied that this cord did not break, because it had
been spun equally throughout and therefore had no reason to break
at one point more than at another. We crowded into the basket and
then pulleyed[87] ourselves up to the bird's throat, where we
seemed like a bell hung round his neck. When we found ourselves
touching the pulley we fastened the cable to which our cage was
hung round one of the lightest feathers of its down, which
nevertheless was as thick as a thumb; and as soon as the woman
had signed to the bird to start we felt ourselves cleaving the sky with
violent rapidity. The condor diminished or increased its flight, rose or
sank, at the will of its mistress, whose voice served it as a bridle. We
had not flown two hundred leagues, when on our left hand we saw
upon the ground a shadow similar to that produced underneath us
by our living parasol. We asked the strange woman what she
thought it was.
"It is another malefactor on his way to be judged in the province
whither we are going; his bird is no doubt stronger than ours or else
we have wasted a good deal of time, since he left after me."
I asked her of what crime this wretch was accused.
"He is not merely accused", she replied, "he is condemned to die,
because he is already convicted of not fearing death."
"What", said Campanella, "do the laws of your country order that
death should be feared?"
"Yes", replied the woman, "they enjoin it upon all except those who
have been received into the College of Wise Men; for our
magistrates have proved from disastrous experience that he who
does not fear to lose his life is capable of taking the life of anyone
also."
After some more conversation resulting from this, Campanella
desired to know at more length the manners of her country. He
asked her what were the laws and customs of the Kingdom of
Lovers, but she excused herself from speaking of them, because she
had not been born there and only half knew it; for which reason she
was afraid of saying either too much or too little.
"I come indeed from that province", continued the woman, "but I
and all my ancestors were inhabitants of the Kingdom of Truth; my
mother was delivered of me there and had no other child. She
brought me up in that country until I was thirteen, when the king,
by the doctor's advice, ordered her to take me to the Kingdom of
Lovers whence I come, so that by being bred up in the place of
Love, a softer and more joyous education than that of our country
would render me more fertile than she. My mother took me there
and placed me in the House of Pleasure.
"I had great difficulty in growing used to their customs. At first they
appeared to me very uncivilised; for, as you know, the opinions we
have sucked in with our milk always appear to us the most
reasonable and I had only just arrived from my native land, the
Kingdom of Truth.
"I did indeed perceive that this Nation of Lovers lived with much
more gentleness and indulgence than ours; for although everyone
averred that the sight of me wounded him dangerously, that my
looks were mortal, and that my eyes sent out a flame which
consumed all hearts, yet the kindness of everybody and principally
of the young men was so great that they caressed me, kissed me,
and embraced me, instead of avenging upon me the ill I had done
them. I even grew angry with myself for the disorders of which I
was the cause; and, moved by compassion, I one day revealed to
them the resolution I had taken of running away. 'But, alas! how will
you escape', they all cried, throwing themselves on my neck and
kissing my hands, 'your house is besieged by water on all sides and
the danger appears so great that without a miracle you and we shall
inevitably be drowned'."
"What", I interrupted, "is the country of Lovers liable to
inundations?"[88]
"It must be so", she replied, "for one of my lovers (and this man
would not have deceived me, since he loved me) wrote to me that
his regret at my departure had caused him to shed an ocean of
tears. I saw another who assured me that for three days his eye-
balls had distilled a river of tears; and as I was cursing (out of love
for them) the fatal hour when they saw me, one of those who was
numbered among my slaves sent to tell me that the night before his
over-flowing eyes had made a flood. I was about to take myself off
from the world, so that I might no longer be the cause of so many
misfortunes, but the messenger added that his master had bidden
him assure me there was nothing to fear, because the furnace of his
bosom had dried up the flood. You may easily conjecture that the
Kingdom of Lovers must be very aquatic, since with them it is but
half-weeping, unless streams, fountains and torrents flow from
beneath their eyelids.
"I was greatly troubled to know by what machine I could escape all
the waters flowing in upon me. But one of my lovers, who was
known as the Jealous, advised me to tear out my heart and then to
embark in it; he added that I should not fear it would fail to hold
me, because it held so many others, nor that it would sink, because
it was too light, and that all I had to fear would be burning, because
the matter of such a vessel was very liable to fire; and that I should
set out upon the sea of his tears, that the bandage of his love would
serve me as a sail and that the favourable wind of his sighs would
carry me safe to port in spite of the tempest of his rivals.
"For a long time I meditated how I could put this enterprise into
execution. The natural timidity of my sex prevented me from daring
it; but at last the opinion I had that no man would be so foolish as
to advise it if the thing were impossible, still less a lover to his
mistress, gave me courage.
"I grasped a knife, I pierced my breast; already my two hands were
groping in the wound and with an intrepid gaze I sought my heart to
tear it out, when a man who loved me arrived. He wrested the steel
away from me against my will and then asked me the motive of an
action, which he called despairing. I related what had happened; but
I was very surprised when a quarter of an hour later I learned that
he had handed the Jealous over to justice. But the magistrates, who
feared perhaps to attach too much importance to the example or the
novelty of the incident, sent the case to the parliament of the
Kingdom of the Just. There he was condemned to banishment for
life and to end his days as a slave in the territories of the Republic of
Truth, with a prohibition to all his descendants down to the fourth
generation to set foot in the Province of Lovers; moreover, he was
enjoined never to use hyperboles on pain of death.
"From that time on I conceived a great affection for the young man
who had preserved me; and either on account of this service or
because of the passion he had shown me I did not refuse him when,
on the completion of his novitiate and mine, he asked me to be one
of his wives.
"We have always lived comfortably together and we should still have
done so had he not, as I have informed you, killed one of my
children twice, for which I am about to implore vengeance in the
Kingdom of Philosophers."
Campanella and I were vastly astonished at this man's complete
silence; and I was about to try to console him, judging that so
profound a silence was the daughter of a most profound grief, when
his wife prevented me.
"'Tis not excess of grief closes his mouth, but our laws, which forbid
every criminal awaiting his trial to speak except before his judges."
During this conversation the bird continued to advance, when I was
astonished to hear Campanella exclaim, with a face filled with joy
and delight:
"Welcome, dearest of all my friends; come, gentlemen, come",
continued this good man, "let us meet Monsieur Descartes; let us
descend, there he is not three leagues from here."
For my part I was greatly surprised by this sally, for I could not
understand how he could know of the arrival of a person of whom
we had received no news.
"Assuredly", said I, "you have just seen him in a dream."
"If you call a dream", said he, "that which your soul can see as
certainly as your eyes the day when it shines, I confess it."
"But", I cried, "is it not a dream to think that Monsieur Descartes,
whom you have not seen since you left the world of the Earth, is
three leagues from here, because you have imagined it?"
As I spoke the last syllable we saw Descartes arrive. Campanella at
once ran to embrace him. They talked together at length, but I could
not attend to their mutual expressions of regard, so much did I burn
to learn from Campanella the secret of his divination. That
philosopher, reading my passion upon my face, related the incident
to his friend and begged him to agree to his informing me. M.
Descartes replied with a smile and my learned preceptor discoursed
to this effect:
"There are exhaled from all bodies elements, that is to say, corporeal
images which fly in the air. Now, in spite of their movement, these
images always preserve the shape, the colour and all the other
proportions of the object whereof they speak; but since they are
very subtle and very fine they pass through our organs without
causing any sensation there; they go straight to the soul, where they
make an impression, because its substance is so delicate, and thus
they cause it to see very distant things, which the senses cannot
perceive; and this is an ordinary occurrence here, where the mind is
not involved in a body formed of gross matter, as in your world. We
will tell you how this happens, when we have had leisure fully to
satisfy the desire we both have to converse together; for, assuredly,
you fully deserve that we should show you the greatest favour."[89]
 Gonsales' Voyage to the Moon

APPENDICES
1. Extracts From Godwin, D'urfey and Swift
2. Bibliography
3. Genealogy
4. Coat of Arms
 APPENDIX I
Bishop Godwin—Tom d'Urfey—Swift
To give full extracts from all the books copied by or copied from
Cyrano de Bergerac would make a volume. In the notes or the
introduction attention has already been called to Cyrano's greater or
less indebtedness to Lucian, Rabelais, Sorel, Gassendi, Descartes,
Rohault and other writers. His borrowing from Bishop Godwin's Man
in the Moon is considerable. This pamphlet is included in the
Harleian Miscellany (1810) vol. xi. The hero is a Spaniard, Domingo
Gonsales, who manufactures a flying machine, drawn by "gansas,"
or wild geese, in which he is carried to the moon. There is a certain
amount of scientific disquisition upon gravity and a rebuke to those
who reject the Copernican system of astronomy; which corresponds
with Cyrano's talk with the governor of New France. Other points in
common may be tabulated:
1. Gonsales does not feel hungry on his voyage "on account of the
purity of the air".
2. He sees the earth turning beneath him.
3. Everything in the moon is larger than in the earth and the people
are "generally twice as high as ours"; they "live wonderful long", "a
thousand years".
4. They fan themselves rapidly through the air; the "attraction" of
the moon's earth is much less than ours.
5. A paragraph about sleep seems to have inspired Cyrano with his
beds of flowers and tickling attendants.
6. "Their language is very difficult, since it hath no affinity with any
other I ever heard, and consists not so much of words and letters,
as tunes and strange sounds, which no letters can express; for there
are few words but signify several things.... Yea, many words consist
of tunes only without words, by occasion whereof I find a language
may be framed, and easily learned, as copious as any other in the
world, only of tunes, which is an experiment worth searching after."
This pamphlet was published in England in 1638 and translated into
French in 1648.
Tom d'Urfey's Wonders in the Sun or the Kingdom of the Birds
(London, 1706) is obviously inspired by Cyrano's Voyages (without
acknowledgment). There are characters taken from Cyrano: the
main situation is the trial before the court of birds and whole slices
of the prose dialogues are simply a translation. Characters are
Domingo Gonzales and Diego his man; the Daemon of Socrates; all
with leading parts; and King Dove. The other bird-characters are
ingenious and Tom's own. Here is an extract from Act I, scene 1:
Daemon: Two thousand Years and upwards since the Death of that
Philosopher I've carefully Employ'd in Art's Improvement, I first in
Thebes Taught wise Epaminondas, then turning over to the Roman
side Espous'd the Party of the younger Cato.
Gonzales: The world admir'd your fame, the Learned Cardan still
doted on your Tenets.
Daemon: He had reason. I Taught him many things. Trithmethius
too, Cæzar, La Brosse and the occult Agrippa were all my Pupils,
beside a new Cabal of Wise young Men, vulgarly called the Rosa-
crucian Knights, those were, should I dilate their Virtues fully, the
very Keys of the locks of Nature.
Gonzales: Gossendus too in France, and Campanella were under
your instruction.
That is almost word for word from the Moon. In the same scene
occurs this:
Gonzales: Well, and pray, Sir, your Philosophers, what must they
feed on?
Daemon: Steams, luscious Fumes, rich edifying Smoak.
The next scene contains a translation of Cyrano's notion of the
dignity of walking on all fours. Acts II and III furnish other parallels;
but in Act IV, the trial scene is very closely imitated from Cyrano's
trial in the History of the Birds in The Sun. The speech of the
prosecution is almost a word for word translation; the sentence is
the same and the prisoners are rescued by a parrot named "Cæzar"!
(See The Sun.)
It has long been recognised that Gulliver's Travels owes quite as
much to Cyrano de Bergerac as to any other book. The resemblance
is rather one of general ideas, taken up and exploited by Swift, than
of parallel passages. One passage in the Voyage to Lilliput, chapter
VI, is taken directly from Cyrano:
"Their notions relating to the duties of parents and children differ
extremely from ours. For, since the conjunction of male and female
is founded upon the great law of Nature, in order to propagate and
continue the species, the Lilliputians will needs have it that men and
women are joined together, like other animals, by the motives of
concupiscence; and that their tenderness towards their young
proceeds from the like natural principle: for which reason they will
never allow that a child is under any obligation to his father for
begetting him, or to his mother for bringing him into the world,
which, considering the miseries of human life, was neither a benefit
in itself, nor intended so by his parents, whose thoughts in their love
encounters were otherwise employed. Upon these and the like
reasoning, their opinion is, that parents are the last of all others to
be trusted with the education of their own children: and therefore
they have in every town public nurseries, where all parents, except
cottagers and labourers, are obliged to send their infants of both
sexes to be reared and educated, when they come to the age of
twenty moons, at which time they are supposed to have some
rudiments of docility." (See The Moon.)
Chapter II of the Voyage to Brobdingnag has a strong likeness to
those parts of Cyrano's Moon describing how he was showed by a
mountebank. The flashing swords in chapter VII, the king's desire to
"propagate the breed" in chapter VIII, even the adventure with the
monkey, may have been suggested by Cyrano. As to the
"Houyhnhnms", the device of satirising and shaming man by
showing him to be inferior in virtues to the very beasts is a favourite
one of Cyrano. The scenes with the birds and trees in the Sun and
some of the philosophical conversations in the Moon may be referred
to for confirmation of this. There can be little doubt that Swift read
Cyrano de Bergerac closely and frequently built upon what the
French writer had done or took up and developed better the hint of
some idea. The unity of Swift's purpose, the even tone of his prose,
the strong air of common sense, the Defoe-like illusion of reality, are
all in sharp contrast with Cyrano's wandering fancies, varying styles,
extravagance and lack of common sense.
 APPENDIX II
LIST OF EDITIONS
(A complete bibliography of Cyrano de Bergerac's works will be
found in M. Lachèvre's edition. This list will give only editions of the
Complete Works and of the Estats et Empires de la Lune et du Soleil,
but will add all the discoverable English translations of Cyrano's
work.)

ŒUVRES COMPLÈTES
Les œuvres de Monsieur de Cyrano Bergerac. Première (et seconde)
partie. A Paris, chez Charles de Sercy, au Palais, au Sixiesme Pilier de
la Grand' Salle, vis-à-vis la Montée de la Cour des Aydes, à la Bonne-
Foy couronnée. M.DC.LXXVI. in-12.
Ditto. Rouen, 1677. 2 Vol. in-12.
Ditto. Paris, Ch. Osmont, 1699. 2 Vol. in-12.
Les œuvres diverses de monsieur de Cyrano Bergerac. Tome premier
(et second). Enrichi de Figures en taille-douce. A Amsterdam, chez
Daniel Pain, Marchand Libraire sur le Woorburgwal, proche du
Stilsteeg. M.DC.XCIX.
Ditto. Rouen, J.-B. Besonge, 1710. 2 Vol. in-12.
Ditto. Amsterdam, Jacques Desbordes, M.DCC.X.
Les Œuvres de Monsieur de Cyrano Bergerac.... A Amsterdam,
Jacques Desbordes, M.DCC.IX.
Ditto. Nouvelle édition, Paris, 1709. 2 Vol. in-12.
Les Œuvres Diverses de monsieur de Cyrano Bergerac. Tomes
premier (second et troisième). A Amsterdam, chez Jacques
Desbordes.... M.DCC.XII (1741 or 1761). in-8.
(Editions labelled Amsterdam actually printed at Rouen or perhaps
Trévoux.)

ŒUVRES DIVERSES (containing the Voyages)

Les Œuvres diverses de Monsieur de Cyrano Bergerac. A Paris, chez
Antoine de Sommaville.... Paris, M.DC.LXI. in-12.
Les Œuvres diverses de Monsieur de Cyrano Bergerac.... A Paris.
Chez Charles de Sercy au Palais, dans la Salle Dauphine, à la Bonne-
Foy. M.DC.LXI.
Ditto. Lyon. Christophe Fourmy.... M.DC.LXIII. 2 Vol. in-12.
Ditto. Rouen, chez Antoine Ferrand. M.DC.LXIII. 2 Vol.
Ditto. Rouen, R. Sejourne, 1676, in-12.
Ditto. A Rouen, chez Jean B. Besonge.... 1678.
L'AUTRE MONDE
Histoire Comique, par Monsieur de Cyrano Bergerac. Contenant les
Estats et Empires de la Lune. A Paris, chez Charles de Sercy, au
Palais, dans la Salle Dauphine, à la Bonne-Foy couronnée.
M.DC.LVII. in-12.
Ditto. Paris. Sercy. M.DC.LIX. in-12.
Histoire comique, par monsieur de Cyrano Bergerac. Contenant les
Estats et Empires de la Lune. A Lyon, chez Christophe Fourmy, rue
Merciere, à l'enseigne de l'Occasion. M.DC.LXII. in-12.
Ditto. Lyon, 1672, in-12.
Voyages imaginaires, songes, visions et romans cabalistiques. Ornés
de figures. Tome Treizième. A Amsterdam et Paris. M.DCC.LXXXVII.
in-8.

MODERN EDITIONS
Œuvres de Cyrano de Bergerac, précédées d'une Notice par Le
Blanc. Voyage Comique dans les Estats et Empires de la Lune,
Voyage Comique dans les Estats et Empires du Soleil. Paris. Victor
Lecou, et Toulouse, Librairie centrale, 1855, in-8.
Histoire Comique des Estats et Empires de la Lune et du Soleil, par
Cyrano de Bergerac. Nouvelle Edition revue et publiée avec des
notes et une Notice historique. Par P.L. (Paul Lacroix) Jacob,
bibliophile. Paris, Adolphe Delahays, 1858, in-8.
Voyages Fantastiques de Cyrano Bergerac. Publiés avec une
introduction et des Notes par Marc de Montifaud. Paris, Librairie des
Bibliophiles, 1875, in-8.
Histoire Comique de la Lune et du Soleil. Paris, Garnier, 1876, in-12.
Histoire Comique, etc. Expurgated edition, 1886.
Cyrano de Bergerac. Voyage dans la Lune. Paris, Ernest Flammarion.
No date, in-8.
Cyrano de Bergerac, Œuvres Comiques, etc. Paris, Librairie de la
Bibliothèque nationale, 1898.
Collection des plus belles pages. Cyrano de Bergerac.... Notice de
Remy de Gourmont. Paris, Société du Mercure de France, M.CM.VIII.
in-18. (A good and useful edition of very full selections.)
De Cyrano Bergerac. L'Autre Monde, etc. Illustrations de Robida.
Librairie Moderne. Maurice Bauche, éditeur.... Paris, M.CM.X. in-8.
(Contains a hybrid text, part from MSS. and part from ed. Lyon,
1663.)
S. de Cyrano Bergerac. Histoire Comique, etc. As above. M.CM.X.
Les Œuvres Libertines de Cyrano de Bergerac, Parisien (1619-1655).
Précédées d'une notice Biographique par Frédéric Lachèvre. Paris.
Librairie Ancienne Honoré Champion. 2 Vols. 1921.
(Contains the whole of Cyrano's work, except a few of the letters;
the best text of the Voyages with MS. variations and notes; the
notice is very full and accompanied with many unpublished
documents. The edition is indispensable for any serious study of
Cyrano de Bergerac. Its text has been used throughout for this
translation.)

ENGLISH TRANSLATIONS

Satyrical Characters and handsome Descriptions, in Letters written to

several persons of quality. Translated out of the French. London,
1658. (B.M.)
Σεληναρχία, or, the Government of the World in the Moon. A Comical
history.... Done into English by T. St. Serf. London, 1659. (B.M.)
The Comical History of the States and Empires of the Worlds of the
Moon and Sun ... newly Englished by A. Lovell. London, 1687. (B.M.)
A Voyage to the Moon.... A Comical Romance. Done from the French
of M. Cyrano de Bergerac. By Mr Derrick. London, 1754. (B.M.)
Cyrano de Bergerac. The agreement. A Satyrical and facetious
dream. To which is annexed the truth, the whole truth and nothing
but the truth. By J. Friendly. London, 1756. (B.M.)
(A version of Cyrano's Letter: Un Songe)
An expurgated version of the Pédant Joué is recorded from Harvard
in 1900. There is no copy at the British Museum.
 APPENDIX III

GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE CYRANO FAMILY

 APPENDIX IV

Cyrano de Bergerac
La vraye et parfaite science des armoires, augmentée par P. Paillot,
Dijon et Paris, 1660, folio, gives a description of the arms of Cyrano
which (with apologies to heralds) I English as follows:
"Azure, a chevron or, two lion-skins or bound gules suspended in
chief, a lion with a tail saltire-wise or armed gules, with a chief
gules."
In spite of this imposing shield the Cyrano family failed to establish
its claim to nobility at the visitations of 1668 and 1704. On the
former occasion Abel de Cyrano (brother of our author) was fined
300 livres for claiming nobility unlawfully and on the latter occasion a
cousin, J. D. de Cyrano, was fined the large sum of 3000 livres for
the same offence.

[1] Le Bret, Préface, 1657.

[2] "Nothing could be clearer or better in style, and it is less
archaic than Corneille." (Remy de Gourmont).
[3] Which means "Strike, there is the enemy", but might also
mean "Strike, there is the sacrament."
[4] Tallemant des Réaux, Historiettes, 1858. Vol. 7: "Suite des
Naifvetez, Bons Mots, etc."
[5] Menagiana, Amsterdam, 1693, page 199.
[6] Retrospective Review, 1820. Vol. I. Part 2. Art. viii. Satyrical
Characters and Handsome Descriptions in Letters, written to
several Persons of Quality, by Monsieur de Cyrano Bergerac.
Translated from the French by a Person of Honour. London, 1658.
[7] The critic proceeds to sum up Cyrano's writing in the same
Corinthian style. French commentators, quoting this passage,
often make the mistake of dating it 1658 instead of 1820.
[8] Charles Nodier, Bibliographie des Fous. Quoted by F. Lachèvre.
[9] Charles Nodier, Bonaventure Desperiers et Cyrano de
Bergerac. Quoted by Remy de Gourmont.
[10] Three errors in ten words!
[11] In Périgord there is no castle called De Bergerac. (Brun).
Mauvières and Bergerac, often known as Sous-Forest, are in the
commune of Saint-Forgeux, canton of Chevreuse, arrondissement
of Rambouillet. (Frédy de Coubertin).
[12] The genealogical tree of the Cyrano family will be found in
Appendix III.
[13] From Saint-Amant's Le Débauche. In English it means
roughly: "'Sdeath! how it rains outside | Let us make it rain wine
in our bellies—you understand that without a word spoken and
that's the real jest; sing, laugh, make a row, drink here all night,
and to-morrow let the fair Aurora find us all here still at table."
[14] See M. Magne's Chevalier de Lignières (1920) for an
elaborate and highly-coloured account of this affair. Marshal
Gassion is said to have offered Cyrano his protection when he
heard of it, which Cyrano refused.
[15] Menagiana. 1695. Quoted by Remy de Gourmont. The reader
will remember Rostand's use of this anecdote.
[16] F. T. Perrens, Les Libertins en France au XVIIe Siècle, is an
interesting book.
[17] See Rigal's Le Théâtre Français avant la Période classique.
[18] I know Descartes was patronised by Mazarin and made a
visit to Paris "to be honoured"; but he soon returned to Holland.
[19] Ed. 1657: "returning from Clamard, near Paris (where M. de
Cuigny the younger, who is its Seigneur, had entertained several
of us....)".
[20] Girolamo Cardan, 1501-1576, Italian mathematician and
astrologer, a man of remarkable scientific attainments. There is an
interesting article on him in The Retrospective Review.
[21] Monsieur de Montbazon was governor of Paris in 1649.
(Lachèvre).
[22] The word "Jesuit" is omitted in the early editions.
[23] Tycho Brahe, 1546-1601, Danish astronomer.
[24] An illustration frequently used by early followers of
Copernicus.
[25] Cartesian terms.
[26] Linear diameter of sun: 109 × earth's equatorial diameter =
864,000 miles. Sun's mass = 332,000 × mass of the earth.
[27] M. Lachèvre says this notion is "accepted by science," but it
is rejected by recent astronomers and assuredly by the Relativists.
[28] Commentators have seen in this and the following passage a
hint of the "nebula theory".