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Biological Anthropology: Concepts and
Connections

Introduction

FAQs for biological anthropology

Many students take a course in biological

anthropology without much background in science. As
a result, they have a lot of questions. So, we’ll start
this book by introducing a bit of scientific context and
history. This information, along with the illustrations in
this section, will be useful to set the stage for the rest
of the book. How Old Is the Planet and What
Organisms Have Lived on It over That Time? Before we
begin discussion about human biological evolution,
we need to review the evolution of the planet and life
on it. Let’s quickly run through the last 4.5 billion years
of the planet’s geological and biological history to give
us a little perspective on the relative context of
humankind. The history of this planet is divided into
eras, which are divided into periods, which are further
divided into epochs (Figure I.1). The majority of the
earth’s history is in the Proterozoic era. The
Proterozoic began with the formation of the earth,
approximately 4.5 billion years ago, and ended with
the first major diversification of life-forms,
approximately 600 million years ago. It is in this era
that we find the first hints of life on this planet: tiny
fossilized impressions suggesting clusters or chains of
linked cells resembling today’s blue-green algae and
bacteria (prokaryotic cells, or cells that do not contain
a nucleus). From about 3.5 to 1.5 billion years ago,
these are the only kinds of fossils we find. So,
prokaryotes were the only organisms on the planet for
the first 2 billion years of the evolution of life. ■
FIGURE I.1 The geological timescale shows the
sequence of appearance of the major forms of life on
earth. Starting around 1.2–1.5 billion years ago, life-
forms became slightly more diverse. We begin to find
evidence of eukaryotic cells (cells that have a nucleus,
like those of all animals and plants). By 1 billion years
ago, we find indirect evidence (fossilized burrowing
tracks and fecal pellets) of multicellular organisms.
Between 1 billion and 570 million years ago, we see a
diversification of types of fossil organisms; however,
all life is still very small and confined to limited
habitats in the oceans. 3 The next geologic era, the
Paleozoic, began around 540 million years ago. The
first period of the Paleozoic era, the Cambrian, shows
the first major example of an adaptive radiation
(expansion by a single group of organisms into a
diverse array of forms) that we see in the fossil record.
At the start of this period there was an explosion of
forms moving into a wide array of new niches, or
habitats and lifeways, in the oceans. From the basic
structures of organisms in the late Precambrian, we
see a multitude of variants arise as organisms exploit
new oceanic environments and ways of making a
living. By the end of the Cambrian period, we have the
first precursors for many modern animal lineages.
adaptive radiation expansion by a single group of
organisms into a diverse array of forms 4 Throughout
the rest of the Paleozoic we see an array of new forms
arising from existing varieties. In the Ordovician we
see a great expansion in complex multicellular
organisms, including the first fishes (jawless fishes).
By the beginning of the Silurian we find fossils of jawed
fishes, which suggests a radical change in the cycle of
life (that is, the appearance of active chewing). These
are the first serious vertebrate predators. These
earliest jawed fish have no bones, only cartilage, and
at least one lineage of these early Silurian fish is
ancestral to modern sharks and rays. By the middle of
the Silurian, bony fish show up in the fossil record and
diversify into at least two main groups: the lobe-finned
and the ray-finned fishes. The currently favored
hypothesis is that one or more lineages of lobe-finned
fishes gave rise to the first land vertebrates (the
amphibians). The first fossils of land plants show up
during this period. By the end of the Devonian, we
have evidence of land animals (insects), complex land
plant formations (like swamps), and a huge array of
life-forms in the seas. From the rest of the Paleozoic
we find a growing number of fossils of land animals,
especially in coastal areas, where the early
amphibians (which looked very much like slightly
modified lobe-finned fish) gradually changed into a
wide array of amphibian forms and early reptiles.
During the last period of the Paleozoic (the Permian),
there was a broad radiation of reptilian forms,
including a group called the therapsids, or mammal-
like reptiles (the reptile group that mammals are
hypothesized to be most closely related to). The
Mesozoic era began around 250 million years ago. By
the early Mesozoic, reptiles had undergone a broad
and dramatic adaptive radiation. Freed from the water
by two crucial adaptations—self-contained eggs and
skin that resists drying out—reptiles spread across the
land environments and adapted to a broad spectrum
of habitats. During this era the best-known reptile
group, the dinosaurs, make up a large portion of the
fossil remains. It is also during the Mesozoic that the
first mammals show up (Figure I.2). These mostly
small, probably nocturnal, insect-eating mammals are
found throughout the era, but do not make their grand
adaptive radiation until the Cenozoic. ■ FIGURE I.2 An
artist’s conception of an early mammal from 195
million years ago. The Mesozoic was the age of
reptiles. The Cenozoic, which began around 65 million
years ago, is the age of mammals and birds. After an
enormous extinction event at the Mesozoic-Cenozoic
boundary, mammals and birds began to diversify,
filling many of the niches left vacant by the extinctions
of reptiles and other types of animals. The Cenozoic
period is very important in the history of primates (and
therefore humans) and is covered in detail in chapter
6. 5 If Life on Our Planet Has Changed So Much Over
Time, What About the Planet Itself? During the time
that life on earth has been changing, so has the
surface of the planet. The process of plate tectonics
drives the phenomenon of continental drift. Plate
tectonics results from the continental plates floating
on a layer of mantle (magma, or molten rock, like lava)
(Figure I.3). Currents in the magma move the plates in
a number of different ways. Sometimes magma
pushes up between plates and solidifies, pushing
them apart (spreading). When plates meet, one can
overlap the other, driving it down into the magma
(subduction). Plates can move against one another,
pushing the earth up and creating mountain ranges
(collision). If we look at the model of continental
movement over just the last 200 million years, we can
see that the earth’s surface has changed dramatically
over time (Figure I.4). plate tectonics process by which
the earth’s crustal plates move independently of one
another, resulting in continental drift continental drift
theory that the present configuration of continents
results from the movement of the earth’s crust ■
FIGURE I.4 Continental drift. The continents took on
their present relative positions only about 35 million
years ago. The forces of plate tectonics continue to
reshape the crust. ©Science Source ■ FIGURE I.3
Model of the earth’s interior, showing the layers. This
demonstrates the earth’s crust “floating” on the liquid
mantle. Understanding that the earth and life on it
have changed over the last 4.5 billion years is an
important basic concept. You will notice throughout
this book that change over time is a recurring notion in
biological anthropology. Have Humans Changed? Yes,
absolutely, humans have changed. Change over time
in humans is pretty much the core of biological
anthropology. So, thinking about change on a slightly
smaller scale than 4.5 billion years, let’s turn to
another basic set of information that we’ll be
expanding upon throughout this book—the history of
humans and their immediate ancestors over the last 6
million years or so. Figure I.5 is a simplified time line of
human history over the last 6 million years. This time
line is just a brief outline to get you to start thinking
about names, places, and dates in human evolution.
We’ll be discussing each of the names and types of
human and humanlike organisms in detail in chapters
6 through 11. Notice, however, that during most of the
time that our species has been evolving, more than
one humanlike species existed side by side. While
trends and patterns are evident in the history of
human evolution, 6 there is not an inevitable
trajectory. Knowing this may help you realize that our
species is just one of many on this planet that evolved
by filling, modifying, and being modified by different
niches. ■ FIGURE I.5 An evolutionary time line of
human history. In this book we will explain what these
different organisms are and how they might be related
to us. Where Did Modern Science Come From? All of
the information we’ve just reviewed and much of what
we will be introducing in this book is the product of a
process we call science. The methods and philosophy
of what we call “science” today have deep roots but
developed their modern form over the last 5 or 6
centuries and is largely what Francis Bacon called for
in 1605: a collaboration 7 between inductive
methodologies (drawing conclusions from extant
facts) and experimental methodologies (testing
hypotheses and making observations). This contrasts
with the a priori methods wherein investigators go
from cause to effect, basing their reasoning on beliefs
or assumptions rather than experience or testable
observations. The hallmark of modern scientific
knowledge is its falsifiability, not its verifiability; that
is, science can prove things 100% false but not 100%
true. To be falsifiable, statements must be capable of
being subjected to tests that might result in their
refutation. So scientific information emerges from
series of observations, refutations, and hypotheses
supported by rigorous testing. In this book we focus on
scientific information and processes that relate to
understanding our bodies and our biological history. It
is important to realize that all our current knowledge
rests on past discoveries and collaborations. For
example, our understanding of the cells that make up
our bodies has developed over 350 years. It began in
1665, when Robert Hooke first described cells. In
1683, Anton van Leeuwenhoek used his early
microscopes to examine blood and sperm cells. In
1883, August Weismann recognized the role of
gametes (germ-cells, or egg and sperm). In 1902, Emil
Fischer proposed that proteins (the building blocks of
our cells) are made up of naturally occurring amino
acids, and in 1926, J. Haldane described the complex
internal structures of cells and their permeable
membranes. All of these elements laid the
groundwork for Erwin Chargaff’s 1950 discovery of the
composition of DNA, for Rosalind Franklin’s images of
DNA via X-ray crystallography, and finally James
Watson and Francis Crick’s 1953 model of the
structure of DNA. Similarly, our understandings of the
basic patterns in our solar system and galaxy started
with Johannes Kepler’s and Galileo Galilei’s
observations and proposals in the early 1600s. These
in turn supported Nicolaus Copernicus’s notions
about the motion of planets and the sun as the center
of the solar system. By 1704, Isaac Newton had
published accounts of his ideas on gravity, optics, and
particulate light; and approximately 200 years later,
Albert Einstein began publishing his ideas about the
energy source of the sun and the relationships among
matter, mass, and light. In 1929, Edwin Hubble
published his observations that all galaxies were
moving away from each other. Today all of their
proposals, plus many others, are integrated in our
understanding of the motion of the earth and all other
celestial bodies. Even such seemingly minor scientific
events as the discoveries that resulted in the
production of the first electric refrigerator and the
invention of the television tube (both in 1923) have had
a great impact on our ability to conduct laboratory
work and write it up. (Freezers and computers are now
ubiquitous in laboratories worldwide.) Modern
science comes from a specific set of methodologies
and a continuous history of investigation,
collaboration, and refutation. Understanding that our
knowledge is based on prior knowledge, and is subject
to change, is important for assessing the information
presented in this book. In chapter 1, you will see how
the theory of evolution developed out of investigations
carried out over several centuries by numerous
scientists in a number of different fields. Where Is
Uzbekistan? A major piece of any college student’s
baseline education (regardless of your major) is a
grasp of the geography of the planet. You are 1 of over
7 billion humans currently residing on earth; as a
citizen of this planet you need to know where you and
your neighbors live. Also, in this book you will be
learning about discoveries that have taken place all
over the world. Figure I.6 shows a current (as of the
time this book was written) world map identifying the
various countries. Figure I.7, however, is a map that
looks a bit different. It is a more accurate projection of
the actual size 8 of the landmasses. You will note that
it does not look like the maps you are used to seeing:
they all overstate the size of the north and downplay
the size of the south. Having accurate information is
critical as we seek to unravel human evolutionary
history. 9 ■ FIGURE I.6 The world today. Can you find
Uzbekistan? 10 11 ■ FIGURE I.7 This map reflects
Peters projection which offers a more accurate
representation of the relative sizes of the landmasses.
You will note that it does not look like the maps you
are used to seeing which overstate the size of the
north and downplay the size of the south. ©Michael
Schmeling/Alamy Stock Photo 12 13 With these few
basic bits of information under your belt, you are now
ready to move on to the study of biological
anthropology. CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Evolutionary
Fact and Theory ©Eduardo Rivero/Shutterstock.com
14 This chapter addresses these questions: What is
anthropology, and what areas does it cover? What is
the scientific method, and how does it work? How is
evolution a fact and a theory? Where do our ideas
about evolution come from? Why is the theory of
evolution important, and why is it so misunderstood? I
n 1925 the theory of evolution went on trial in the
United States. A Tennessee court case—the famous
Scopes “Monkey Trial”—was the arena for a debate
about whether evolution could be taught in the public
schools. The case had all the elements of high drama,
including great speakers, impassioned arguments,
and a county courthouse packed with spectators and
journalists in 100-degree heat (Figure 1.1). On trial
was John T. Scopes, a 24-year-old science teacher
who admitted teaching evolution in the local high
school, in violation of state law. The American Civil
Liberties Union wanted to test the constitutionality of
that law, and Scopes agreed to be their test case. ■
FIGURE 1.1 The Scopes trial. Clarence Darrow, the
lead defense attorney, is leaning on the desk at the
center of this photo; William Jennings Bryan is behind
him (light jacket). The high-stakes nature of this trial is
palpable. ©Pictorial Press Ltd/Alamy Stock Photo
Tennessee, like many states of that time, had passed
a law against teaching evolution—specifically, against
teaching “any theory that denies the story of divine
creation of man as taught in the bible”—because it
was viewed as a threat to the American way of life. The
theory of evolution was popularly, and wrongly,
believed to suggest that humans were descended
from monkeys, a notion considered both ridiculous
and blasphemous. The prosecuting attorney, William
Jennings Bryan, even called the case “a contest
between evolution and Christianity” and portrayed the
defense lawyer, Clarence Darrow, as “the greatest
atheist … in the United States.” Bryan had had a
career in national politics, having served as secretary
of state under Woodrow Wilson and having run for the
presidency himself three times. In recent years he had
joined the “tent revival” movement, touring the
country as a fiery evangelical preacher. Darrow, the
nation’s 15 most prominent defense attorney, wanted
to challenge what he saw as provincial resistance to
progress and scientific ideas. He also wanted to show
that the theory of evolution did not inherently conflict
with the teachings of Christianity. Darrow had several
experts lined up to explain evolution and show how it
was compatible with the Christian faith, but the judge
would not allow him to put them on the stand.
Undeterred, Darrow asked Bryan himself to take the
stand. Darrow then asked Bryan a series of questions
aimed at exploring how a literal interpretation of the
Bible could be reconciled with the laws of nature and
with known facts about the earth and its peoples.
Bryan started off gamely but soon became entangled
in inconsistencies and absurdities; ultimately, he was
revealed to be a man who had given little thought to
any ideas that differed from what he had been taught
as a child. The cause he represented was similarly
tarnished. The trial ended with Scopes being
convicted of breaking the law against teaching
evolution and fined $100. The verdict was overturned a
year later, but only on a technicality, so the law
remained on the books. The Tennessee law was finally
repealed in 1967, and in 1968 the U.S. Supreme Court
declared such state laws unconstitutional. The
Scopes trial was dramatized (and partly fictionalized)
in the mid-1950s in the play Inherit the Wind, by
Jerome Lawrence and Robert E. Lee. Since then, the
play has been performed innumerable times in
countries around the world and has appeared as both
a Hollywood film and a television movie. With the
Scopes trial more than 90 years in the past, the theory
of evolution—an extremely well supported theory
accepted by virtually all scientists in every country of
the world—now enjoys a secure place in public school
curricula, right? Wrong! In 2000, Kansas revised its
statewide science standards to exclude all mention of
evolution or any matters relating to the age of the
earth or the universe, and in 2005 the Kansas board of
education rewrote the definition of science. By 2007,
state courts had overturned the board of education’s
revisions, and in 2013 Kansas adopted standards that
inserted some evolution back into the classroom, but
the battle continues in Kansas even today. In 2004,
Ohio moved to label the discussion of evolution as
only one theory among many in 16 explaining life on
this planet. As of 2017, some states continue to revise
their standards to include topics related to biological
and geological change over time without mentioning
the word evolution. Still other states place disclaimer
stickers on all science textbooks that deal with
evolution, stating that evolution is a “controversial
theory” presented by “some scientists,” while others
have statements in their education guidelines that
state teaching about biological evolution can “cause
controversy.” A 2014 survey by the Pew Research
Center revealed that 62% of adults say humans have
evolved over time, 33% say this change is due solely to
natural processes, and 25% think evolution is guided
by a supreme being. So a slight majority do
understand that life on earth is changing over time,
but this still leaves 38% of the United States denying a
central biological fact. And as of January 20, 2017, the
United States has a vice president who does not
accept the theory of evolution—not a good sign. STOP
& THINK Do you know what the laws on teaching
evolution are in your home state? Did you get any
coursework on evolution in elementary or high
school? What is it about the theory of evolution that
makes its detractors so angry and uncomfortable?
Does it claim that people are descended from apes or
monkeys? Does it try to disprove the Bible or make it
impossible for people to hold religious beliefs? Is
there an irreconcilable conflict between evolutionary
perspectives and religious views and values? As you
will see in this chapter, the answer to these last three
questions is no. Evolution is a core principal of the
sciences and is at the heart of anthropology. It is also
one of the most widely misunderstood sets of ideas in
our culture today. This chapter will help you
understand what the theory of evolution is how it
emerged from the thinking of many scientists over
time, and what skills and methods are required in
order to understand and investigate scientific issues.
But first, a brief overview of anthropology is in order.
Anthropology is the study of human and nonhuman
primates The word anthropology comes from two
Greek roots: anthropos, meaning “human,” and logia,
meaning “study”—thus, “the study of humans.” We
can expand this definition by looking at the mission
statement of the American Anthropological
Association. The society’s mission is to “advance
anthropology as the discipline that studies humans
and nonhuman primates in all their aspects, through
archaeological, biological, ethnological and linguistic
research, and to foster the use of anthropological
knowledge in addressing human problems.” From this
mission statement we can see, then, that
anthropology is the study of humans (us) and our
closest biological relatives (other members of the
order Primates— monkeys, apes, and prosimians).
anthropology the study of all aspects of the human
experience Primates mammalian order to which
humans belong Anthropology is often described as
being divided into four traditional areas of
investigation: archaeology, biological anthropology,
cultural anthropology, and linguistic anthropology. In
practice these areas overlap extensively, and the best
anthropology emerges through collaboration across
them. Anthropologists are committed to ensuring that
the knowledge they acquire is made available to
nonanthropologists and is applied to issues facing
humanity. What areas of study are included in
anthropology? An archaeological anthropology
involves the study of the material past of humans:
what the people of the past made, how they lived, and
how they modified their environment, as evidenced by
the material clues they left behind. Biological
anthropology (which used to be called physical
anthropology) focuses on the biological facets of the
human species, past and present, along with those of
our closest relatives, the nonhuman primates
(monkeys, apes, and prosimians). Cultural
anthropology is the study of that extremely complex
entity we call human culture: the patterns of behavior
we exhibit in our families, relationships, religions,
laws, moral codes, songs, art, business, and everyday
interactions. The main tools of cultural
anthropological approaches are ethnography—a
study of a specific culture—and ethnology—the
comparative study of cultures around the world.
Linguistic anthropology approaches focus on
language use, meaning, patterns, structure, and
evolution and how it shapes and is shaped by the
human experience.

Find The Original Textbook (PDF) in The Link Below

CLICK HERE