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 Encyclopedia of

Library and Information

Sciences, Fourth Edition
Volume 1

From: Academic Libraries To: Careers and Education

in Records and Information Management

Encyclopedia Edited By

John D. McDonald
and

Michael Levine-Clark

Boca Raton London New York

CRC Press is an imprint of the

Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
First published 2018 by CRC Press

Published 2019 by CRC Press

Taylor & Francis Group
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Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

© 2018 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

No claim to original U.S. Government works

ISBN-13: 978-1-4665-5259-3 (Set), 978-0-8153-8623-0 (Vol. 1) (hbk)

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 Encyclopedia of Library and Information Sciences,
Fourth Edition

Brief Contents

Volume I Volume I (cont’d.) Volume I (cont’d.)

Academic Libraries .......................................... 1 Association of College and Research Careers and Education in Information
Accessibility ................................................... 14 Libraries (ACRL) ................................ 338 Systems ................................................ 693
Accreditation of Library and Information Association of Library Trustees, Advocates, Careers and Education in Library and
Studies Programs in the United States Friends and Foundations (ALTAFF) .... 361 Information Science ............................ 706
and Canada ............................................ 18 Association of Research Libraries Careers and Education in Records and
Acquisitions Institute at Timberline Lodge ... 22 (ARL) .................................................. 364 Information Management .................... 715
African Librarianship ..................................... 33 Association of Specialized and Cooperative
Altmetrics ....................................................... 44 Library Agencies (ASCLA) ................ 376
American Association of Law Australia: Libraries, Archives, and
Libraries (AALL) .................................. 48 Museums ............................................. 379
American Association of Museums (AAM) .... 56 Australian Library and Information Volume II
American Association of School Association (ALIA) ............................. 396 Cataloging .................................................... 723
Librarians (AASL) ................................ 59 Authentication and Authorization ................ 401 Cataloging Cultural Objects (CCO) ............. 733
American Library Association (ALA) ........... 67 Automated Acquisitions ............................... 408 Catalogs and Cataloging: History
American Medical Informatics Automatic Abstracting and [ELIS Classic] ..................................... 743
Association (AMIA) .............................. 85 Summarization .................................... 418 Censorship and Content Regulation
American National Standards Automatic Discourse Generation ................. 430 of the Internet ...................................... 780
Institute (ANSI) ..................................... 87 Back-of-the-Book Indexing .......................... 440 Center for Research Libraries ...................... 789
American Society for Information Science Bibliographic Control [ELIS Classic] .......... 447 Charleston Conference ................................. 794
and Technology (ASIST) ...................... 90 Bibliographical Society (London) ................ 456 Chartered Institute of Library and
Approval Plans ............................................... 96 Bibliographical Society of Information Professionals (CILIP) ...... 806
Arab Federation for Libraries and America (BSA) .................................... 463 Chemistry Literature and Its Users
Information (AFLI) ............................. 100 Bibliography ................................................. 468 [ELIS Classic] ..................................... 814
Archival Appraisal and Acquisition ............. 105 Bibliometric Overview of Information Chemoinformatics ........................................ 830
Archival Arrangement and Description ....... 115 Science ................................................ 480 Children and Information Technology ......... 839
Archival Documentation .............................. 127 Bibliometric Research: History Children’s Literature .................................... 852
Archival Finding Aids .................................. 133 [ELIS Classic] ..................................... 492 Children’s Services in Libraries ................... 876
Archival Management and Administration .. 141 Bibliothèque Nationale de France ................ 531 China: Libraries, Archives, and Museums ... 886
Archival Reference and Access ................... 149 Binding [ELIS Classic] ................................ 538 Circulation Services ..................................... 916
Archival Science .......................................... 166 Biological Information and Its Users ........... 554 Citation Analysis .......................................... 923
Archives ........................................................ 179 Blind and Physically Disabled: Library Citation Indexes and the Web of Science ..... 940
Archivists and Collecting ............................. 195 Services ............................................... 563 Citer Motivations [ELIS Classic] ................. 951
Area and Interdisciplinary Studies Bliss Bibliographic Classification Classification Theory .................................... 958
Literatures and Their Users ................. 209 First Edition [ELIS Classic] ................ 573 Clinical Decision-Support Systems .............. 974
ARMA International, Inc. ............................ 221 Bliss Bibliographic Classification College Libraries .......................................... 983
Armenia: Libraries, Archives, and Second Edition .................................... 581 Communication and Communication
Museums ............................................. 228 Boolean Algebras [ELIS Classic] ................ 591 Studies ................................................. 994
Art Galleries ................................................. 241 Brazil: Library Science ................................ 597 Communication Policy: United States ....... 1007
Art Librarianship .......................................... 249 Brazil: Library Science—Distance Community Informatics ............................. 1027
Art Museums ................................................ 259 Education ............................................. 603 Complexity and Self-Organization ............ 1034
Artificial Intelligence ................................... 269 Brazil: Museums .......................................... 611 Computer-Mediated Communication
Artificial Neural Networks and Natural British Library .............................................. 616 (CMC) ............................................... 1044
Language Processing ........................... 279 Business Informatics .................................... 630 Computer-Supported Cooperative Work
Arts Literatures and Their Users .................. 293 Business Information and Its Users .............. 635 (CSCW) ............................................. 1053
ASLIB .......................................................... 301 Business Literature: History Conservation and Preservation of
Association for Information Science and [ELIS Classic] ..................................... 643 Museum Objects ................................ 1068
Technology .......................................... 311 Canada: Libraries and Archives ................... 654 Controlled Vocabularies for Art,
Association for Information Systems (AIS) ... 318 Canadian Heritage Information Architecture, and Material Culture ... 1076
Association for Library Collections and Network (CHIN) .................................. 675 Corporate Archives .................................... 1081
Technical Services .............................. 324 Canadian Library Association (CLA) .......... 681 Corporate Art Collections .......................... 1086
Association for Library Service to Careers and Education in Archives and Corporate Information Centers .................. 1094
Children (ALSC) ................................. 333 Records Management .......................... 685 Corporate Records Management ................ 1104

v
vi Brief Contents

Volume II (cont’d.) Volume III (cont’d.) Volume III (cont’d.)

Credibility and Cognitive Authority of Film and Broadcast Archives ..................... 1560 Information Policy: United States .............. 2147
Information ........................................ 1113 Film Archiving: History ............................. 1584 Information Practice ................................... 2162
Croatia: Libraries, Archives, and France: Archives, Museums, and Information Retrieval Experimentation
Museums ........................................... 1121 Libraries ............................................ 1589 [ELIS Classic] ................................... 2172
CrossRef Publisher Linking Network ........ 1132 Functional Requirements for Subject
Cultural Memory ........................................ 1139 Authority Data (FRSAD):
Curating Archaeological Artifacts ............. 1147 Conceptual Model ............................. 1606
Curating Natural History Collections ........ 1156 Fuzzy Set Theory ....................................... 1618 Volume IV
Custody and Chain of Custody .................. 1164 Games and Gaming .................................... 1636 Information Retrieval Protocols: Z39.50
Data and Data Quality ................................ 1171 Genealogical Literature and Its Users ........ 1644 and Search and Retrieve via URL ..... 2181
Deaf and Hearing Impaired: Genre Theory and Research ....................... 1662 Information Retrieval Support
Communication in Service Geographic Information Systems (GIS) ..... 1671 Systems .............................................. 2192
Contexts [ELIS Classic] .................... 1183 Geographical Literature: History Information Retrieval Systems ................... 2199
Decision Sciences ....................................... 1192 [ELIS Classic] ................................... 1683 Information Scattering ............................... 2210
Decision Support Systems .......................... 1200 Germany: Libraries, Archives, and Information Science ................................... 2216
Demand-Driven Acquisition/Patron-Driven Museums ........................................... 1693 Information Search Process (ISP)
Acquisition .......................................... 1209 Global Open Knowledgebase ..................... 1710 Model ................................................. 2232
Denmark: Libraries, Archives, and Government Documents: Collection and Information Searching and Search
Museums ........................................... 1215 Management ...................................... 1715 Models ............................................... 2239
Descriptive Cataloging Principles .............. 1229 Greece: Archives ........................................ 1728 Information Society .................................... 2253
Design Science in the Information Greece: Libraries ........................................ 1733 Information Systems .................................. 2272
Sciences ............................................. 1242 Greece: Museums ....................................... 1741 Information Systems Failure ...................... 2280
Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC) ....... 1256 Grey Literature [ELIS Classic] .................. 1746 Information Technology Adoption ............ 2290
Digital Content Licensing .......................... 1267 HathiTrust ................................................... 1757 Information Technology Literacy .............. 2303
Digital Divide and Inclusion ...................... 1279 Health Science Professional Literatures Information Technology Project
Digital Humanities ..................................... 1286 and Their Users ................................. 1763 Implementation in Developing
Digital Humanities and Academic Historical and Archaeological Sites: Countries [ELIS Classic] .................. 2312
Libraries ............................................ 1298 Development and Preservation ......... 1771 Information Technology Standards for
Digital Images ............................................ 1307 Historical Societies ..................................... 1779 Libraries [ELIS Classic] .................... 2341
Digital Millennium Copyright Historical Sources and Their Users ............ 1786 Information Theory .................................... 2350
Act of 1998 ........................................ 1316 History of Libraries .................................... 1796 Information Use for Decision Making ....... 2359
Digital Object Identifier (DOI®) System ... 1325 History of Museums ................................... 1812 Informetrics ................................................ 2367
Digital Preservation .................................... 1332 History of Paper ......................................... 1824 Institutional Records and Archives ............ 2377
Diplomatics ................................................ 1338 History of Public Libraries Intellectual Freedom and the American
Disaster Planning and Recovery for [ELIS Classic] ................................... 1836 Library Association (ALA): Historical
Cultural Institutions ........................... 1347 History of Records and Information Overview [ELIS Classic] ..................... 2387
Document Information Systems ................. 1360 Management ...................................... 1850 Intelligence and Security Informatics ........ 2398
Document Theory ....................................... 1372 History of the Book .................................... 1859 International and Comparative
Document Type Definition (DTD) ............. 1381 History: Three Basic Printing Processes ....... 1865 Librarianship ..................................... 2404
Dublin Core Metadata Initiative (DCMI): Hospital Libraries ....................................... 1870 International Association of Sound and
A Personal History ............................ 1390 Human–Computer Interaction Research Audiovisual Archives (IASA) ........... 2413
Economics Literature: History in Information Retrieval .................... 1895 International Association of Technological
[ELIS Classic] ................................... 1399 Humanities Literatures and Their Users .... 1909 University Libraries (IATUL) ............ 2418
Electronic Records Preservation ................ 1413 Hungary: Libraries, Archives, and International Communication Association
Electronic Resources & Libraries (ER&L) ... 1419 Museums ........................................... 1917 (ICA) ................................................. 2421
Encoded Archival Description ................... 1423 Hypertext and Hypercard: Early International Council of Museums
Engineering Literatures and Their Users Development [ELIS Classic] ............ 1935 (ICOM) .............................................. 2429
[ELIS Classic] ................................... 1433 Illumination [ELIS Classic] ....................... 1945 International Council on Archives (ICA) ... 2437
Impact Assessment of Cultural International Council on Knowledge
Institutions ......................................... 1958 Management (ICKM) ........................ 2445
Incunabula [ELIS Classic] ......................... 1966 International Federation of Library
Volume III Indexing: History and Theory .................... 1978 Associations and Institutions
Epistemology .............................................. 1455 India: Libraries, Archives and Museums ... 1992 (IFLA) ............................................... 2451
Ethical and Legal Aspects of Archival Indigenous Librarianship ............................ 2031 International Federation of Television
Services ............................................. 1463 Information ................................................. 2048 Archives (FIAT/IFTA) ...................... 2465
Ethical Aspects of Library and Information Arts ......................................... 2064 International Organization for
Information Science .......................... 1469 Information Behavior ................................. 2074 Standardization (ISO) ........................ 2470
Ethical Issues in Information Systems ....... 1484 Information Behavior Models .................... 2086 International Records Management
Ethiopia: Libraries, Archives, and Information Crises and Crisis Information ... 2094 Standards ISO 15489 and 23081 ....... 2481
Museums ........................................... 1494 Information Explosion ................................ 2101 International Records Management Trust ... 2487
Everyday Life Information Seeking ........... 1506 Information Management ........................... 2106 International Society for Knowledge
Evidence-Based Practice ............................ 1516 Information Needs ...................................... 2115 Organization (ISKO) ......................... 2494
Exhibition Design ....................................... 1523 Information Needs and Behaviors of Internet Genres ........................................... 2503
Facet Analysis [ELIS Classic] ................... 1534 Diasporic Populations ....................... 2122 Internet Search Tools: History to 2000 ...... 2516
Faceted Application of Subject Information Needs and Behaviors of InterPARES ................................................ 2526
Terminology (FAST) ......................... 1539 Populations in Less Developed iSchools ...................................................... 2536
Federal Electronic Information in the Regions .............................................. 2130 Israel: Libraries, Archives, and
United States ..................................... 1549 Information Policy: European Union ......... 2138 Museums ........................................... 2542
Brief Contents vii

Volume IV (cont’d.) Volume V (cont’d.) Volume V (cont’d.)

Japan: Libraries, Archives, and Medical Literature: History Organizational Memory ............................. 3534
Museums ........................................... 2560 [ELIS Classic] ................................... 3041 Pacific Islands Association of Libraries
Kazakhstan: Libraries, Archives, and Metadata and Digital Information and Archives (PIALA) ...................... 3541
Museums ........................................... 2578 [ELIS Classic] ................................... 3058 Papyrology .................................................. 3552
Kenya: Libraries, Museums, and Metamarkup Languages: SGML and Patents and Patent Searching ..................... 3560
Archives ............................................. 2592 XML .................................................. 3072 People with Disabilities .............................. 3573
Knowledge .................................................. 2610 Mexico: Libraries, Archives, and Personal Information Management ............ 3584
Knowledge Creation and Use in Museums ........................................... 3082 Peru: Libraries and Library Science ........... 3606
Organizations .................................... 2618 Modeling Documents in Their Context ..... 3105 Philosophy and the Information Sciences .... 3610
Knowledge Discovery in Data Streams ..... 2626 Moldova: Archives, Museums, and Philosophy of Science [ELIS Classic] ....... 3623
Knowledge Management ............................ 2640 Libraries ............................................ 3117
Knowledge Management Systems ............. 2649 Moving Image Indexing ............................. 3129
Knowledge Management: Early Multilingual Information Access ............... 3140
Development ..................................... 2657 Museum Accreditation Program ................ 3146 Volume VI
Knowledge Organization System Museum Architecture and Gallery Design ... 3148 Physical Sciences and Mathematics
Standards ........................................... 2665 Museum Collecting and Collections .......... 3161 Literatures and Their Users ............... 3637
Knowledge: Tacit and Explicit .................. 2677 Museum Computer Network (MCN) ......... 3170 Piracy in Digital Media .............................. 3649
Latent Semantic Indexing .......................... 2688 Museum Informatics .................................. 3176 Plagiarism of Print and Electronic
Latinos and U.S. Libraries: History ........... 2698 Museum Management ................................ 3185 Resources ........................................... 3664
Law Firm Librarianship ............................. 2705 Museum Registration and Documentation ... 3199 Poland: Libraries and Archives .................. 3674
Law Librarianship ...................................... 2710 Museum Studies ......................................... 3214 Politics of Representation in Museums ...... 3688
Law Literature and Its Users ...................... 2733 Museum Web Sites and Digital Popular Literature Genres .......................... 3700
Learning and Information Seeking ............ 2751 Collections ......................................... 3222 Precision and Recall [ELIS Classic] .......... 3708
Libraries ..................................................... 2762 Museums .................................................... 3233 Presidential Libraries ................................. 3714
Library and Information Science ............... 2768 Museums and Community ......................... 3243 Primary Records: Future Prospects
Library and Information Technology Museums and Their Visitors: Historic [ELIS Classic] ................................... 3719
Association (LITA) ........................... 2775 Relationship ....................................... 3251 Print on Demand ......................................... 3733
Library Anxiety .......................................... 2782 Museums as Place ...................................... 3258 Private Presses and Fine Printing
Library Architecture and Design ................ 2788 Music Information Retrieval ...................... 3267 [ELIS Classic] ................................... 3738
Library Architecture: History ..................... 2797 Music Librarianship ................................... 3275 Provenance of Archival Materials .............. 3746
Library Automation: History ...................... 2810 Name Authority Control ............................ 3288 Provenance of Museum Objects ................. 3756
Library Consortia in Europe ....................... 2822 National Archives ....................................... 3298 Provenance of Rare Books ......................... 3766
Library Fundraising and Development ...... 2832 National Biological Information Public Librarianship [ELIS Classic] .......... 3774
Library Leadership and Management Infrastructure (NBII) ......................... 3306 Public Libraries [ELIS Classic] ................. 3781
Association (LLAMA) ...................... 2841 National Historical Publications and Public Library Association (PLA) ............. 3801
Library of Congress Classification (LCC) .... 2847 Records Commission (NHPRC) ........ 3315 Qualitative Research Methods in Library
Library of Congress Genre/Form Terms National Libraries ....................................... 3320 and Information Science
for Library and Archival Materials ... 2856 National Library of Medicine .................... 3334 [ELIS Classic] ................................... 3806
Library of Congress Subject Headings Natural Language Processing for Rare Book Collections ............................... 3820
(LCSH) .............................................. 2866 Information Retrieval ........................ 3346 Reading and Reading Acquisition .............. 3830
Library of Congress: History ..................... 2879 Network Management ................................ 3356 Reading Disorders ...................................... 3841
Library Portals and Gateways .................... 2892 Network of European Museum Reading Interests ........................................ 3850
Library Publishing Initiatives: Organisations (NEMO) ..................... 3365 Recommender Systems and Expert
North America ................................... 2901 Networked Knowledge Organization Locators ............................................. 3860
Systems/Services (NKOS) ................ 3366 Records Compliance and Risk
New Zealand Aotearoa: Libraries .............. 3371 Management ...................................... 3869
Non-governmental Organizations and Records Continuum Model ........................ 3874
Volume V Information ........................................ 3380 Records Organization and Access .............. 3887
Library Science in the United States: North American Serials Interest Group ..... 3388 Records Retention Schedules ..................... 3892
Early History ..................................... 2909 OCLC: A Worldwide Library Reference and Informational Genres ......... 3897
Library Technical Services ........................ 2918 Cooperative ....................................... 3392 Reference and User Services Association
Linguistics and the Information Sciences ..... 2927 Older Adults’ Information: Needs and (RUSA) .............................................. 3908
Linked Data ................................................ 2938 Behavior ............................................ 3406 Reference Services ..................................... 3912
Lithuania: Libraries and Librarianship ...... 2943 One-Person Libraries .................................. 3413 Regional Library Networks:
Louvre ........................................................ 2958 Online Catalog Subject Searching ............. 3422 United States ..................................... 3920
Machine Readable Cataloging (MARC): Online Library Instruction .......................... 3432 Relevance in Theory .................................. 3926
1961–1974 [ELIS Classic] ................ 2963 Online Public Access Catalogs (OPACs) Relevance Judgments and Measurements .... 3940
Machine Readable Cataloging (MARC): [ELIS Classic] ................................... 3450 Renaissance Libraries [ELIS Classic] ........ 3948
1975–2007 ......................................... 2980 Ontologies and Their Definition ................. 3455 Resource Description Framework (RDF) ..... 3961
Makerspaces in Libraries ........................... 2990 Open Access Scholarship and Publishing .... 3465 Saudi Arabia: Libraries, Archives, and
Management of Very Large Distributed Open Archival Information System (OAIS) Museums ........................................... 3970
Shared Collections [ELIS Classic] .... 2997 Reference Model .................................. 3477 Scholarly and Trade Publishing
Managing an Information Business ........... 3004 Open Source Software ................................ 3488 [ELIS Classic] ................................... 3982
Marketing Library and Information Oral History in Libraries and Archives ...... 3494 School Librarianship .................................. 3991
Services ............................................. 3011 ORCID ........................................................ 3505 School Libraries ......................................... 4000
Mathematics Literature: History Organization Theories ................................ 3510 Science and Engineering Librarianship ..... 4008
[ELIS Classic] ................................... 3019 Organizational Culture ............................... 3520 Science and Technology Studies ................ 4020
Medical Library Association (MLA) ......... 3033 Organizational Learning ............................. 3526 Search Engine Optimization ...................... 4029
viii Brief Contents

Volume VI (cont’d.) Volume VII (cont’d.) Volume VII (cont’d.)

Search Engines ........................................... 4046 Specialty Museums .................................... 4379 United Kingdom: Museums and
Self-Publishing Online ............................... 4054 State Archives ............................................ 4384 Museology ......................................... 4723
Semantic Interoperability ........................... 4062 State Libraries and State Library United States: Archives and
Semantic Web ............................................ 4080 Agencies ............................................ 4392 Archival Science ............................... 4740
Semiotics .................................................... 4094 State-Sponsored Destruction of Books United States: Libraries and
Senegal: Libraries, Archives, and and Libraries ...................................... 4400 Librarianship in the 21st Century ...... 4766
Museums ........................................... 4104 Still Image Indexing ................................... 4407 United States: Museums ............................. 4776
Sense-Making ............................................. 4113 Still Image Search and Retrieval ................ 4417 Universal Decimal Classification
Serbia: Libraries, Archives, and Storytelling ................................................. 4437 (UDC) ................................................ 4783
Museums ........................................... 4125 Strategic Planning in Academic Libraries .... 4447 University Archives .................................... 4791
Serials Collection and Management Students’ Information: Needs and Usability Testing of User Interfaces in
[ELIS Classic] ................................... 4139 Behavior ............................................ 4459 Libraries ............................................ 4797
Serials Vendors [ELIS Classic] .................. 4150 Subject Cataloging Principles and User-Centered Design of Information
Shared Libraries ......................................... 4158 Systems .............................................. 4466 Systems .............................................. 4803
Site Museums and Monuments .................. 4164 Subscription Libraries [ELIS Classic] ....... 4478 User-Centered Revolution: 1970–1995
Slovakia: Libraries, Archives, and Switzerland: Libraries, Archives, and [ELIS Classic] ................................... 4812
Museums .......................................... 4173 Museums ........................................... 4487 User-Centered Revolution: 1995–2008 ...... 4847
Smithsonian Institution .............................. 4188 Tanzania: Libraries, Archives, Museums, User-Oriented and Cognitive Models of
Social Epistemology ................................... 4197 and Information Systems ................... 4497 Information Retrieval ........................ 4872
Social Influences on Classification ............. 4204 Task-Based Information Searching: Venezuela: Libraries and Librarianship ..... 4886
Social Informatics ...................................... 4212 Research Methods ............................. 4526 Version Control .......................................... 4896
Social Justice in Library and Information Taxonomy ................................................... 4537 Vietnam: Libraries, Archives, and
Science .............................................. 4218 Technical Writing ....................................... 4547 Museums ........................................... 4902
Social Networks and Information Test Collections .......................................... 4554 Visitor Studies ............................................ 4917
Transfer ............................................. 4235 Text Encoding Initiative (TEI) ................... 4559 Visual and Performing Arts Archives ........ 4925
Social Science Literatures and Their Text REtrieval Conference (TREC) ........... 4569 Visual Resources Association (VRA) ........ 4933
Users [ELIS Classic] ......................... 4246 Theft, Vandalism, and Security in Visual Resources Management in
Social Science Professional Literatures Libraries and Archives ...................... 4576 Cultural Institutions ........................... 4940
and Their Users ................................. 4255 Theft, Vandalism, and Security in Volunteer Services in Cultural
Society for Scholarly Publishing (SSP) ..... 4262 Museums ........................................... 4593 Institutions ......................................... 4951
Society for the History of Authorship, Theological Librarianship .......................... 4604 Wayfinding and Signage ............................ 4958
Reading and Publishing (SHARP) .... 4268 Topic Maps ................................................. 4611 Web Scale Discovery Services ................... 4978
Society of American Archivists (SAA) ...... 4271 Tunisia: Libraries, Archives, and Webometrics ............................................... 4983
Sociology of Reading ................................. 4279 Museums ........................................... 4624 Word Processing: Early History
Sociology of the Information Disciplines ..... 4286 Ukraine: Libraries ...................................... 4642 [ELIS Classic] ................................... 4993
Software and Information Industry Undergraduate Library Collections World Intellectual Property Organization
Association (SIIA) ............................. 4297 [ELIS Classic] ................................... 4649 (WIPO) .............................................. 5000
Sound and Audio Archives ........................ 4299 UNESCO: Communication and World Summit on the Information
South Korea: Archives and Libraries ......... 4307 Information Sector ................................ 4656 Society (WSIS) .................................. 5012
Spain: Libraries, Archives, and Museums .... 4314 Unicode Standard ....................................... 4662 World Wide Web (WWW) ........................ 5019
Special Collections ..................................... 4335 Unified Medical Language System® World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) ....... 5034
Special Collections and Manuscripts ......... 4343 (UMLS®) Project ............................... 4672 XML Information Retrieval ....................... 5039
Special Librarianship ................................. 4351 Uniform Computer Information Young Adult Library Services Association
Transactions Act (UCITA) ................ 4680 (YALSA) ........................................... 5052
Unions in Public and Academic Libraries .... 4689 Young Adult Services in Libraries ............. 5058
United Kingdom: Archives and Youth Information: Needs and
Volume VII Archival Science ............................... 4699 Behavior ............................................ 5067
Special Libraries ......................................... 4361 United Kingdom: Libraries and Zoological Park and Aquarium Libraries
Special Libraries Association (SLA) ......... 4370 Librarianship ..................................... 4707 and Archives ...................................... 5077
 Encyclopedia of Library and Information Sciences,
Fourth Edition

Editors-in-Chief
John D. McDonald
Analytics and Assessment, EBSCO Information Services
Michael Levine-Clark
University of Denver Libraries, Denver, Colorado

Editorial Advisory Board

Rick AmRhein Kalervo Järvelin
Valparaiso University of Tampere
Rick Anderson Robert Kieft
Reno Occidental College
Beth Bernhardt Jesús Lau
Greensboro University of Veracruz
Char Booth Greg Leazer
Claremont UCLA
Paul Bracke Elena Macevičiūtė
Purdue University College of Borås
Chris Brown John Myers
Denver Union
Todd Carpenter Gerald Perry
NISO University of Colorado Denver
Jill Emery Jason Price
Portland Claremont
John Feather Nancy Roderer
Loughborough University Johns Hopkins University
Barbara Ford Jonathan Rose
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Drew University
Rachel Frick Adam Schiff
Digital Library Federation Washington
Martin Garner Sanna Talja
Regis Uppsala University
Rich Gazan Bonnie Tijerina
University of Hawaii Claremont
Jason Griffey Virginia Walter
Tennessee Chattanooga University of California at Los Angeles
Frances Harris Kelvin White
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign University of Oklahoma

ix
 Contributors

June Abbas / School of Library and Information Studies, University of Oklahoma, Norman,
Oklahoma, U.S.A.
Richard Abel / Portland, Oregon, U.S.A.
Eileen G. Abels / College of Information Science and Technology, Drexel University,
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.
Tia Abner / American Medical Informatics Association (AMIA), Bethesda, Maryland, U.S.A.
Donald C. Adcock / Dominican University, River Forest, Illinois, U.S.A.
Kendra S. Albright / School of Library and Information Science, University of South
Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina, U.S.A.
Mikael Alexandersson / University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
Joan M. Aliprand / Cupertino, California, U.S.A.
Jacqueline Allen / Dallas Museum of Art, Dallas, Texas, U.S.A.
Romano Stephen Almagno / International College of St. Bonaventure, Rome, Italy
Connie J. Anderson-Cahoon / Southern Oregon University Library, Ashland, Oregon, U.S.A.
Karen Anderson / Archives and Information Science, Mid Sweden University, ITM,
Härnösand, Sweden
Rick Anderson / University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah, U.S.A.
Silviu Andrieş-Tabac / Institute of Cultural Heritage, Moldova Academy of Sciences,
ˇ Republic of Moldova
Chișinau,
Peng Hwa Ang / Wee Kim Wee School of Communication and Information, Nanyang
Technological University, Singapore
Hermina G.B. Anghelescu / School of Library and Information Science, Wayne State
University, Detroit, Michigan, U.S.A.
Leah Arroyo / American Association of Museums, Washington, District of Columbia, U.S.A.
Terry Asla / Senior Lifestyles Researcher, Seattle, U.S.A.
Shiferaw Assefa / University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas, U.S.A.
Ilse Assmann / Radio Broadcast Facilities, SABC, Johannesburg, South Africa
Maija-Leena Aulikki Huotari / University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland
Henriette D. Avram / Library of Congress, Washington, District of Columbia, U.S.A.
Sven Axsäter / Department of Industrial Management and Logistics, Lund University, Lund,
Sweden
Murtha Baca / Getty Research Institute, Los Angeles, California, U.S.A.
Roger S. Bagnall / Institute for the Study of the Ancient World, New York University, New
York, New York, U.S.A.
Nestor Bamidis / GSA-Archives of Macedonia, Thessaloniki, Greece
Franz Barachini / Business Innovation Consulting—Austria, Langenzersdorf, Austria
Rebecca O. Barclay / Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York, U.S.A.
Judit Bar-Ilan / Department of Information Science, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel
Alex W. Barker / Museum of Art and Archaeology, University of Missouri, Columbia,
Missouri, U.S.A.
John A. Bateman / University of Bremen, Bremen, Germany

xi
xii Contributors

Marcia J. Bates / Department of Information Studies, Graduate School of Education and

Information Studies, University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), Los Angeles,
California, U.S.A.
Philippe Baumard / School of Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California, U.S.A.,
and University Paul Ce´zanne, Aix-en-Provence, France
David Bawden / City, University of London, London, U.K.
Jennifer Bawden / Museum Studies Program, Faculty of Information Studies, University of
Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
David Bearman / Archives & Museum Informatics, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
William K. Beatty / Northwestern University Medical School, Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A.
A.R. Bednarek / University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, U.S.A.
Clare Beghtol / Faculty of Information Studies, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Lori Bell / Alliance Library System, East Peoria, Illinois, U.S.A.
Danna Bell-Russel / Library of Congress, Washington, District of Columbia, U.S.A.
William Benedon / Benedon & Associates, Encino, California, U.S.A.
Anna Bergaliyeva / Kazakhstan Institute of Management, Economics and Strategic Research
(KIMEP), Almaty, Kazakhstan
Sidney E. Berger / Phillips Library, Peabody Essex Museum, Salem, Massachusetts, U.S.A.
Andrew J. Berner / University Club of New York, New York, New York, U.S.A.
Sean F. Berrigan / Policy, Library and Archives Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
John W. Berry / NILRC: Network of Illinois Learning Resources in Community Colleges,
Dominican University, River Forest, Illinois, U.S.A.
Michael W. Berry / Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University
of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee, U.S.A.
Suresh K. Bhavnani / Center for Computational Medicine and Bioinformatics, University of
Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, U.S.A.
Tamara Biggs / Chicago History Museum, Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A.
Frank Birkebæk / Roskilde Museum, Roskilde, Denmark
Ann P. Bishop / Graduate School of Library and Information Science, University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, U.S.A.
Julia Blixrud / Association of Research Libraries, Washington, District of Columbia, U.S.A.
Gloria Bordogna / Italian National Research Council, Institute for the Dynamics of
Environmental Processes, Dalmine, Italy
Steve Bosch / Administration Department, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, U.S.A.
Kimberly S. Bostwick / Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Cornell University Museum of
Vertebrates, Ithaca, New York, U.S.A.
Natalia T. Bowdoin / University of South Carolina Aiken, Aiken, South Carolina, U.S.A.
Patrick J. Boylan / Department of Cultural Policy and Management, City University, London,
U.K.
Amy E. Brand / CrossRef, Lynnfield, Massachusetts, U.S.A.
Judy Brooker / Australian Library and Information Association, Deakin, Australian Capital
Territory, Australia
Terrence Brooks / iSchool, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, U.S.A.
Vanda Broughton / School of Library, Archive and Information Studies, University College
London, London, U.K.
Cecelia Brown / School of Library and Information Studies, University of Oklahoma, Norman,
Oklahoma, U.S.A.
Contributors xiii

Jos de Bruijn / Digital Enterprise Research Institute, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck,

Austria
Steve Bryant / BFI National Archive, Herts, U.K.
Alan Bryden / International Organization for Standardization, Geneva, Switzerland
Jeff E. Bullard / Free Library of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.
Kathleen Burns / Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University, New Haven,
Connecticut, U.S.A.
Brenda A. Burton / Library, Kirkland & Ellis LLP, Chicago, IL, U.S.A.
E. Burton Swanson / Anderson School of Management, University of California, Los Angeles,
Los Angeles, California, U.S.A.
Donald I. Butcher / Canadian Library Association, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
Kevin Butterfeld / Wolf Law Library, College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Virginia,
U.S.A.
Alex Byrne / University of Technology, Sydney—Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
Brian Byrne / Discipline of Psychology, School of Behavioural, Cognitive and Social
Sciences, University of New England, Armidale, New South Wales, Australia, Australian
Research Council Centre of Excellence in Cognition and its Disorder, Australia, and
National Health and Medical Research Council Centre of Research Excellence in Twin
Research, Australia
Bernadette G. Callery / School of Information Sciences, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania, U.S.A.
Paul D. Callister / Leon E. Bloch Law Library, University of Missouri-Kansas City School of
Law, Kansas City, Missouri, U.S.A.
Perrine Canavaggio / International Council on Archives, Paris, France
Sarah R. Canino / Dickinson Music Library, Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, New York,
U.S.A.
Robert Capra / School of Information and Library Science, University of North Carolina,
Chapel Hill, North Carolina, U.S.A.
Nicholas Carroll / Hastings Research, Inc., Las Vegas, Nevada, U.S.A.
Ben Carterette / Department of Computer and Information Sciences, University of Delaware,
Newark, Delaware, U.S.A.
Vittorio Castelli / T.J. Watson Research Center, IBM, Yorktown Heights, New York, U.S.A.
Jane Rosetta Virginia Caulton / Library of Congress, Washington, District of Columbia,
U.S.A.
Richard Cave / Formerly at the Public Library of Science, San Francisco, California, U.S.A.
Roderick Cave / Loughborough University, Loughborough, U.K.
Marcel Caya / Department of History, University of Quebec at Montreal (UQAM), Montreal,
Quebec, Canada
Frank Cervone / Purdue University Calumet, Hammond, Indiana, U.S.A.
Leslie Champeny / Alaska Resources Library and Information Services (ARLIS), Anchorage,
Alaska, U.S.A.
Lois Mai Chan / School of Library and Information Science, University of Kentucky,
Lexington, Kentucky, U.S.A.
Sergio Chaparro-Univazo / Graduate School of Library and Information Science, Simmons
College, Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.A.
Mary K. Chelton / Graduate School of Library and Information Studies, Queens College
Flushing, New York, U.S.A.
Another random document with
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whatever words he might deem stronger and more to the
191
purpose.” Armed with this card, Temple set to work to whittle down
the Fox-North majority. His success was startling and complete. The
golden glint of the spoils of the Indies paled under the thunder-cloud
of the royal displeasure. The fear of losing all chance of advancement
at home, whether titular or material, sent place-hunters and trimmers
trooping over to the Opposition; and a measure, the success of which
seemed assured, was thrown out on 17th December by a majority of
nineteen. On the next day the King ordered Lord North and Fox to
send in their Seals of office by their Under-Secretaries, “as a personal
interview on the occasion would be disagreeable to him.” He entrusted
the Seals at once to Temple, who on the day following signified to the
other Ministers their dismissal from office. On the same day, 19th
December, the King sent for Pitt and appointed him First Lord of the
Treasury and Chancellor of the Exchequer.

* * * * *
Thus it was that Pitt became Prime Minister before he attained his
twenty-fifth year. His acceptance of office after the recent use of the
royal prerogative is an action that stands in need of defence. There
can be no doubt that George III abused his power by seeking in an
underhand way to influence the votes of the Peers. The assertion of
Earl Stanhope that his action did not involve the infraction of any
specific rule of the constitution will not pass muster. As was ably
pointed out in the debate in the Commons on 17th December, the
three parts of the constitution, King, Lords, and Commons, exist
independently; and, just as the interference of one branch of the
Legislature in the debates and actions of the other is most properly
resented, so too the intervention of the Crown during the debates is
undoubtedly an infraction of the liberties of Parliament. While not
forbidden by any specific rule of the constitution, such action
contravenes the spirit of the ninth clause of the Bill of Rights, which
stipulates for complete freedom of debate and speech in Parliament.
The attitude of Pitt towards this question during the debate of
17th December in the Commons is noteworthy. He did not attempt to
defend such a use of the royal prerogative as was then first reported:
he asserted, no doubt with perfect sincerity, that the report was an
idle rumour, of which the House could take no cognizance. The House
did not share his opinion. Swayed by a vehement speech of Fox, who
declaimed against the “infernal spirit of intrigue” ever present in the
King’s counsels, and charged Pitt with an underhand attempt to gain
power, members decided by a majority of nearly two to one that to
report the opinion, or pretended opinion, of the King on any Bill under
discussion in Parliament, was a high crime and misdemeanour,
192
subversive of the constitution.
It was in face of these resolutions that Pitt, on 19th December,
took office. If he looked solely to Parliament, his position was
hopeless. Confronting him was a hostile majority, smarting under a
great disappointment, and threatening him, and still more his relative,
Earl Temple, with the penalties of the constitution. On hearing the
news of his acceptance of office, the members of the Coalition burst
into loud laughter, and gleefully trooped over to the Opposition
benches. Scarcely could they conceal their mirth during the ensuing
debates; and on 22nd December the House resolved itself into a
Committee to consider the state of the nation. Certainly Pitt’s position
was trying enough; for his triumph seemed to be the result of a
backstairs intrigue, unworthy of the son of Chatham, and fatal to the
influence of Parliament. He figured as the King’s Minister, carried to
office by the votes of nineteen Peers, against the will of the Commons.
One can therefore understand the persistence of the Whig tradition, in
which his action appeared the great betrayal of the liberties of
Parliament.
Nevertheless, if we carry the question to the highest Court of
Appeal, the action of Pitt is justifiable. The prerogatives of Parliament
are subservient to the interests of the nation. And when the majority
of the House of Commons acts in a way strongly reprobated by public
opinion, its authority undergoes an immediate eclipse. In a not
dissimilar case, Chatham dared to appeal from a discredited House to
the people at large; and his son was justified in taking a step which
involved a reference to the people’s will at the first favourable
opportunity. Pitt always looked on the Coalition as an unprincipled
intrigue, in which the forms of the constitution were used in order to
violate its spirit. He knew that the country condemned what Romilly
termed “that scandalous alliance.” The original crime of the Coalition
seemed more than ever heinous when Ministers appointed solely their
own nominees to regulate Indian affairs. This very fact damned the
India Bill in the eyes of the public, which cared not a jot for
parliamentary majorities held together by hopes of booty. Men who
had formerly inveighed against George III now began to revise their
judgements and to pronounce even his last device justifiable when
directed against Ministers who were about to perpetrate the most
gigantic job of the century. In looking away from the votes of a corrupt
Parliament to the will of the nation, Pitt was but following in the
footsteps of his father, who had more than once made a similar
appeal, and never in vain.
Finally we must remember that Pitt did not take office as a “King’s
Friend.” He had consistently refused to bind himself down to the
conditions which George III sought to impose. The King knew full well
that he had to deal with a man of sternly independent nature. He had
failed to bend Pitt’s will in the summer, when conditions favoured his
own “cause.” Now, when he was accused of violating the constitution,
and a hostile majority in the Commons held most threatening
language, he could not but uphold a Minister who stood forth in his
defence. If in July Pitt refused to bow before the royal behests, surely
he might expect to dictate his own terms in December. The King’s
difficulty was Pitt’s opportunity; and, as events were to prove, George
III had, at least for a time, to give up his attempts at personal rule
and to acquiesce in the rule of a Prime Minister who gave unity and
strength to the administration. While freeing himself from the loathed
yoke of the Whig oligarchy, the King unwittingly accepted the control
of a man who personified the nation.
The importance of the events of 17th-22nd December 1783 can
scarcely be overrated. In a personal sense they exerted an incalculable
influence on the fortunes of George III, Pitt, Fox, Burke, and many
lesser men. In constitutional history, as will afterwards appear, they
brought about the development of the Cabinet and the reconstruction
of the two chief political parties in their modern forms. The happy
ending of the crisis enabled the ship of State to reach smoother waters
and make harbour, though many of her crew and all foreign beholders
looked on her as wellnigh a castaway. All this, and more, depended on
Pitt’s action in those days. He knew the serious nature of the
emergency; and at such a time it behoves the one able steersman to
take the helm, regardless of all cries as to his youth and his
forwardness. Pitt had the proud confidence of Chatham, that he and
he alone could save the kingdom, and the verdict of mankind has
applauded the resolve of the father in the crisis of 1756, and the
determination of his youthful son in the equally dark days at the close
of 1783. Conduct, which in a weak and pliable man would have been a
crime, is one of the many titles to fame of William Pitt the Younger.
 CHAPTER VII
THE STRUGGLE WITH FOX

Let me lament,
With tears as sovereign as the blood of hearts,
That thou, my brother, my competitor
In top of all design, my mate in empire,
Friend and companion in the front of war,
The arm of mine own body, and the heart
Where mine his thoughts did kindle—that our stars,
Unreconciliable, should divide
Our equalness to this.
Shakespeare, Antony and Cleopatra.

T HE first difficulty which confronted the young Prime Minister was of

a personal nature. On or about 23rd December, his cousin, Earl
Temple, threw up the Seals and forthwith retired to his domain of
Stowe in Buckinghamshire. This event seemed to presage the death of
the infant administration, which the action of the Earl had largely
helped to call to being. So assured was Fox of victory that he ascribed
Temple’s resignation to cowardice, and expressed regret at it because
the inevitable fall of the new Ministry would be explained away by the
193
action of the Earl. Undoubtedly it was a severe blow to Pitt. Bishop
Tomline states that, on visiting him early on the next morning, he
found he had not had a moment’s sleep, an occurrence without
194
parallel in time of health. For Pitt, like Napoleon, Wellington, and
other hard workers, enjoyed the priceless boon of sound and restful
slumber.
 The reasons for Temple’s retirement cannot fully be fathomed
owing to the loss of his letters in these important weeks; but we know
from the Buckingham Papers that he was disgusted with political life
and had claimed the award of some honour as a sign of the King’s
approval of his services in Ireland, after his abrupt dismissal by Fox
and North. The proud and sensitive nobleman doubtless entered into
the plan for the overthrow of those enemies, in the hope of benefiting
the State and setting the crown on his own career. Rumour had
already assigned to him the Dukedom of Buckingham, and in this case
195
that lying jade truthfully voiced his desires.
The prominent part which he had played in the late intrigue
doubtless led him to insist on some high honour. As to the nature of
the claim and its reception by Pitt we know nothing; for he loyally
maintained silence as to the cause of the rupture; but the Earl’s letter
of 29th December to Pitt breathes suppressed resentment in every
line. It is the peevish outpouring of a disappointed man, who saw his
196
protégés in Ireland neglected, and his own wishes slighted.
The question arises—why did not Pitt press the claims of his
cousin? His services in Ireland had been valuable; and to him the
Prime Minister very largely owed his present position. The answer
would seem to be that Pitt soon found out the truth as to his
objectionable use of the King’s name. At first he rejected the rumour
to that effect, and it is consonant with his character to suppose that,
after probing the matter to the bottom, he declined to press on the
King Earl Temple’s claims. The rupture was sharp and sudden. It is
even possible that high words passed between them. In any case, it is
certain that Pitt did not raise the question of a reward for the Earl’s
services until ten months later. Good taste may also have determined
his conduct in this matter. How could he at once confer a high dignity
on the very man whose politic whisperings had helped to raise him to
power? Time must elapse before Temple could gain the reward for his
services in Ireland; and it was not until early in October 1784 that Pitt
mooted the question of the Marquisate of Buckingham or the Order of
197
the Garter. The following new letter from Pitt to his cousin,
preserved in the Chevening archives, contains the official notification
of the former of these honours.

Downing St.
Nov. 23, 1784.
My dear Lord,
Your Lordship will receive from Lord Sydney the official
notification of His Majesty’s having given orders for preparing a
Patent giving your Lordship the rank of Marquis. In addition to this
mark of His Majesty’s favour, I have great satisfaction in being
authorized to assure your Lordship that, if His Majesty should
depart from His present determination, of not giving the rank of
Duke out of His Royal Family, it is His gracious intention to include
your Lordship in any such promotion. I need not add how happy I
am in obeying H.M.’s commands on this occasion, nor how truly I
am at all times,
My dear Lord,
Your most affectionate and faithful servant,
W. Pitt.

Turning from this personal matter, which brought friction for a time
between the Pitt and Grenville families, we notice other difficulties
confronting the young Premier, which might have daunted an
experienced statesman. The frivolous looked on with amusement at
his efforts.—“Well, Mr. Pitt may do what he likes during the holidays;
but it will only be a mince-pie administration, depend upon it.” So
spake that truest of true blues, Mrs. Crewe, to Wilberforce on 22nd
December; and she voiced the general opinion. Yet Pitt never faltered.
On the next day Wilberforce noted in his journal: “Pitt nobly firm.
Evening [at] Pitt’s. Cabinet formed.” On one topic alone did the young
chief show any anxiety. “What am I to do,” he asked, “if they stop the
supplies?” “They will not stop them,” replied his brother-in-law, Lord
198
Mahon, “it is the very thing they will not venture to do.” The
surmise of this vivacious young nobleman (afterwards Earl Stanhope)
was for a time correct; but Pitt had rightly foreseen the chief difficulty
in his path. For the present, on the receipt of a message from the King
that no dissolution or prorogation would take place, Parliament
separated quietly for the vacation (26th December).
For Pitt that Christmastide brought little but disappointment and
anxiety. His cares were not lessened by the conduct which he found it
desirable to pursue towards the Earl of Shelburne, long the official
leader of the Chathamites. He did not include him in his Ministry,
partly, perhaps, from a feeling of delicacy at asking his former chief to
serve under him, but mainly from a conviction that his unpopularity
would needlessly burden the labouring ship of State. To Orde he
expressed his deep obligations to the Earl, but lamented his inability to
leave out of count “the absolute influence of prejudice” against him.
He did not even consult Shelburne as to the choice of coadjutors; and
the Earl let it be known that he would have no connection with the
199
new men, “lest he should injure them.” Pitt also sustained several
direct rebuffs. Though, on 19th December, he sent an obsequious
request to the Duke of Grafton to strengthen his hands by accepting
200
the Privy Seal, that nobleman declined. Camden was equally coy;
and, strangest of all, his own brother-in-law, Mahon, would not come
forward. We can detect a note of anxiety in the following letter of Pitt
to Lord Sackville, formerly Germain, which I have discovered in the Pitt
Papers (No. 102):

Dec. 29, 1783.

My Lord,
In the arduous situation in which His Majesty has
condescended to command my services at this important juncture,
I am necessarily anxious to obtain the honor of a support and
assistance so important as your Lordship’s. I flatter myself Mr.
Herbert will have had the goodness to express my sense of the
honor your Lordship did me by your obliging expressions towards
me. Permit me to add how much mortification I received in being
disappointed of his assistance at the Board of the Admiralty, which
 I took the liberty of proposing to him, in consequence of the
conversation Lord Temple had had with your Lordship. I should
sincerely lament if any change of arrangements produced by Lord
Temple’s resignation should deprive the King and country in any
degree of a support which the present crisis renders so highly
material to both. If your Lordship would still allow us to hope that
you might be induced to mark by Mr. Herbert’s acceptance your
disposition in favour of the King’s Government, the opening may
be made with the greatest ease at any moment, and Your
Lordship’s commands on the subject would give me particular
satisfaction.

201
From Wraxall’s Memoirs we learn that the writer undertook to
pave the way for the receipt of Pitt’s letter; but all was in vain. Lord
Sackville refused to take office, though he promised a general support.
The most serious refusal was that of the Lord-Lieutenancy of
Ireland by Earl Cornwallis. George III highly approved of Pitt’s proposal
of that nobleman, whose tact and forbearance would have proved of
202
infinite service in so troublous a time. Who knows whether the
rebellion and savage reprisals of 1798 might not have been averted by
the adoption of wiser methods at Dublin Castle in the eighties? As it
was, the most difficult administrative duty in the Empire was soon to
devolve upon a young nobleman, the Duke of Rutland, whose chief
qualifications seem to have been his showy parts, his splendid
hospitality, and his early patronage of Pitt.
The Cabinet as finally formed comprised the following seven
members: Pitt, First Lord of the Treasury and Chancellor of the
Exchequer; the Marquis of Carmarthen (son of the Duke of Leeds), an
amiable but unenterprising Secretary for Foreign Affairs; Lord Sydney
(T. Townshend), Home Secretary; Earl Gower, President of the Council
(up to December 1784, when Earl Camden succeeded him); the Duke
of Rutland, Lord Privy Seal (up to November 1784, when Earl Gower
succeeded him, the Duke taking the Viceroyalty of Ireland); Lord
Howe, First Lord of the Admiralty; Lord Thurlow, Lord Chancellor. In
debating power this Cabinet was deficient. Apart from Pitt and
Thurlow, not one of the Ministers could make a tolerable speech, or
possessed the strength of character which makes up for oratorical
deficiencies.
Thurlow might have been a tower of strength in the Lords, but for
his duplicity, bad temper, and domineering ways. For the present, Pitt
had to put up with him as a disagreeable necessity. There was
something so threatening in his aspect as to elicit Thelwall’s
picturesque description of him as a man with the Norman Conquest in
his eyebrow and the Feudal System in every feature of his face. Add to
these formidable gifts a sonorous voice, his powers of crushing retort,
above all, his secret connection with George III, and his influence in
the Upper House can be imagined. Yet his reputation rested on a slight
basis; his knowledge of law was narrow, his culture slight, and his
private character contemptible. He was known to bully his mistress
and his illegitimate daughters, just as he browbeat juries and
203
Whigs. On the whole his reputation is hard to explain save on the
ground that the majority of mankind is apt to be imposed on by
externals, and is too uncritical or too lazy to sound the depths of
character.
For the present Pitt tolerated Thurlow just as the commander of an
untried warship might tolerate the presence of an imposing gun of
uncertain power, in the midst of light weapons. The boom of his voice
was worth something to a Ministry in which the posts not of Cabinet
rank were filled as follows: The Duke of Richmond, Master-General of
204
the Ordnance; Kenyon, Attorney-General; Pepper Arden, Solicitor-
General; William Grenville (afterwards Lord Grenville) and Lord
Mulgrave, joint Paymasters of the Forces; Henry Dundas (afterwards
Lord Melville), Treasurer of the Navy; Sir George Yonge, Secretary at
War; George Rose and Thomas Steele, Secretaries of the Treasury;
Thomas Orde, Secretary to the Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland. Of these
the Duke of Richmond had great private influence, but was personally
unpopular. Grenville and Rose were useful, hard-working men, but
uninteresting in personality and speech. Their characters and that of
Dundas will concern us in Chapter XII. Here we may note that the bold
and jovial nature of Dundas made him popular as a man; but his
defection from Lord North, and his capacity for intrigue impaired his
influence in the House. Nevertheless his fighting powers, his legal
training, his knowledge of men and affairs, and his skill in parrying the
blows of the Opposition made him an effective lieutenant in the House.
By degrees, as we shall see, he acquired great influence over Pitt; and
after his entry to the Cabinet as Home Secretary in 1791, he, together
with Grenville, came to form around Pitt what may almost be termed
an inner Cabinet. For the present, however, the distrust with which the
“Caledonian thane” was regarded permitted him to be no more than
the chief among Pitt’s subordinates; and the ingenious poetaster of the
“Rolliad” maliciously aimed these lines at his weakest point, his
inconsistency:

His ready tongue with sophistries at will

Can say, unsay, and be consistent still;
This day can censure, and the next retract,
In speech extol, and stigmatize in act.

The other subordinates claim only the briefest notice. Sir George
Yonge was a nonentity, under whom the British army sank to the nadir
of efficiency. Kenyon and Pepper Arden were very young men; the
latter was one of Pitt’s Cambridge friends, lively and amiable, but
having little influence in debate. The House could not take Pepper
seriously. On the whole the Ministry aroused little confidence among
friends and much derision among opponents. The general opinion was
expressed by Sir Gilbert Elliot (first Earl of Minto) that Pitt’s colleagues
were “a set of children playing at Ministers, and must be sent back to
school, and in a few days all will have returned to its former
205
course.” On the other hand Daniel Pulteney, writing to the Duke of
Rutland, said that people approved the appointments and were glad
that Pitt, in showing attention to existing interests, proved himself to
206
be not “too virtuous and speculative for a Minister.”
Such were the predictions concerning a premiership which was to
last nearly eighteen years. In one respect the mediocrity of his
colleagues made Pitt’s task easier. His commanding temper would
never have brooked the superior airs of the earls, Temple and
Shelburne. From the outset he could carry out his plan of moulding the
Cabinet to his will and enforcing its discipline, without hindrance
except from Thurlow; and the final ejection of that cross-grained
egoist marked not only the triumph of Pitt, but also the consolidation
of the Cabinet in what seems to be its permanent form, a body
moulded by, and largely responsible to, the Prime Minister.
All this was hidden from the gaze of the most discerning amidst
the gloom and uncertainties of the first days of the year 1784. Shortly
before Parliament re-assembled events occurred which helped to
strengthen a confessedly weak administration. At the request of Pitt,
George III created four new peerages. Thomas Pitt received the title
of Lord Camelford; Edward Eliot (father of Pitt’s brother-in-law)
became Lord Eliot; Henry Thynne was created Lord Carteret; and a
barony was conferred on the second son of the Duke of
Northumberland. Thus the sources of nobility, which had remained
hermetically sealed during the previous administration, were now
opened with a highly suggestive readiness.
Another incident, which it is more pleasing to relate, concerned
Pitt alone. On 11th January the Clerkship of the Pells, a sinecure worth
£3,000 a year for life, fell vacant by the death of Sir Edward Walpole, a
younger son of the Whig statesman. According to precedent, it would
have been not only justifiable, but usual for Pitt to take this post.
Despite the advice of his friends to this effect, Pitt refused to increase
his very slender private income at the public expense, and prevailed on
Colonel Barré to accept the sinecure in place of the pension of £3,200
a year generously voted to him by the economical Rockingham. This
most unexpected conduct, which of course saved the public funds the
amount of that pension, was loudly praised by Barré himself and by all
who were not inveterate partisans. These last decried Pitt’s action as
resulting either from love of applause or from priggishness. The taunt
has been echoed in later times, even by those who laud to the skies
Chatham’s self-abnegation in the matter of official perquisites. Nothing
better illustrates the malice which has dogged the footsteps of the son
than that sneers should be his reward for an action similar in all
respects to that which has elicited praise for his father. Both of them,
surely, desired at the outset to emphasize their resolve to put down
financial jobbery in the public service. Their actions were prompted
solely by patriotism.
On 12th January, when Parliament met, Pitt had to bear the brunt
of reiterated attacks from Fox, Erskine, and General Conway, under
cover of motions for resuming a Committee to consider the state of
the nation. The young Minister parried their blows by stating his
resolve to bring in very soon an India Bill. Then, flinging back their
taunts, that he had crept into office by the backstairs, he uttered these
memorable words: “The integrity of my own heart and the probity of
the public, as well as my private principles, shall always be my sources
of action. I will never condescend to be the instrument of any secret
advisers whatever; nor in any one instance, while I have the honour to
act as Minister of the Crown in this House, will I be responsible for
measures not my own, or at least in which my heart and judgement
do not cordially acquiesce.” The glance of contempt which he flung at
Lord North (the unwilling tool of George III in the American War) gave
point to this declaration. In truth, it sounded the keynote of Pitt’s
career. He came into office to save the country from the Coalition, but
he came in untrammelled by royal control; and his action in resigning
in 1801 evinced the proud consistency of his convictions.
Beaten in the first division in the House of Commons by a majority
of thirty-nine, and on the next day by even larger numbers, he held on
207
his way unmoved. In consonance with the traditions of Chatham,
he cared little for Parliament provided that the country was with him;
and of this there were unmistakable proofs. The East India Company,
acting through a sub-committee which sat permanently for the
defence of its interests, was arousing all the chartered bodies of the
land against a policy that seemed to threaten other vested interests.
“Our property and charter are forcibly invaded: look to your own.” This
was the battle-cry, unscrupulous but effective, which made aldermen,
freemen, wardens, and liverymen of venerable companies bestir
themselves. A little later the City of London sent an address of thanks
to the King for his action in saving the country from the evils of Fox’s
India Bill.

* * * * *
Thus Pitt, wafted onwards by the breath of popular favour, could
confidently expose his India Bill to the contrary gusts that eddied in
the House of Commons (14th January 1784). The methods used in its
preparation were in signal contrast to those employed by Fox. The
Whig leader, far from consulting the East India Company, had drawn
up his Bill in concert with Burke and others hostile to its interests and
ill-informed as to its working. Pitt, on the contrary, took care to find
out the views entertained in Leadenhall Street. The Pitt Papers show
that the Company manifested a desire to meet him more than half
way, and that their representative officials conferred with him on 5th
January 1784. Indeed, his Bill was in large measure the outcome of
resolutions which seem to have been framed at that conference and
which gained the assent of five-sixths of those present at a General
Court of the Company held on 10th January. The resolutions were to
this effect:—That the Company, confiding in the justice of Government
for the relief of some of its most pressing claims, consented that the
following powers should be vested in the Crown: (1) All despatches to
or from India to be communicated to one of the King’s Ministers, and
the Directors must conform to the King’s pleasure. The controlling
power to be vested in the Minister and other responsible persons
delegated to attend to the affairs of the Company. (2) Despatches
relating to commercial affairs must likewise be submitted to the
Minister, who may negative them if they bear on civil or military
Government, or on the revenues of the Company. In case of dispute,
the decision of His Majesty in Council shall be final. (3) The General
Court of the Company shall be restrained from rescinding any act of
the Court of Directors only after the King’s pleasure shall have been
signified on the same. (4) The Government in India to be carried on in
the name of the Company by a Governor and three councillors in each
of the Presidencies, the Governor and the Commander-in-Chief (who
shall be next in Council to the Governor) being appointed and recalled
by the Crown, while the Company appointed the two other councillors,
subject to His Majesty’s approbation. They could be recalled either by
208
the Crown or by the Company.
When the Company agreed to sacrifice so much of its powers, the
battle was half won; but, for the present, the chief difficulty lay in the
House of Commons. In introducing his India Bill on 14th January, Pitt
sought to forestall the criticisms of the hostile majority by reminding
the House that the government of territories so remote and so
different from our own must be in a sense irrational—“inconvenient to
the mother and supreme power, oppressive and inadequate to the
necessities of the governed.” In such a case any scheme of
government must be a choice between inconveniences. He then stated
the principles on which he based his proposals. Firstly, the Indian
dominion must not be in the hands of the Company of merchants in
Leadenhall Street. Nevertheless, any change should be made not
violently, but with the concurrence of that Company, its commercial
affairs being left as far as possible to its supervision, wherever they
were not mixed up with questions of policy and revenue. Where these
questions were involved, obviously Government must have a voice.
Having laid down these guiding principles, he proceeded to fill in
details. He claimed that his proposals were such as not to interfere
arbitrarily with the privileges of the Company; and that his new Board
of Control would be found to be, not the organ of a party, but an
adjunct of the governmental machinery. It was to consist of at least
two of the Ministers of the Crown, namely, the Secretary for Home
Affairs and the Chancellor of the Exchequer, along with a certain
number of Privy Councillors named by the King. These last were to
attend regularly, and were not to be paid. All the despatches of the
Company, except those of a completely commercial nature, were to be
submitted to the new India Board and countersigned by it. While not
controlling the patronage of the Company, the Board would have the
right to negative their chief appointments. The three Presidencies were
henceforth to be administered, each by a Governor (a Governor-
General in the case of Bengal), a Commander-in-Chief, and a Council.
The Crown would appoint these three Commanders-in-Chief, and
would have the right of recalling the Governors and their councillors—a
clause calculated to prevent such a fiasco as that of the attempted
recall of Warren Hastings. Finally, in order to curb the abuses in the
Company’s service, Pitt proposed to institute at Westminster a tribunal
for the trial of offences committed in India, and he suggested that
parts of the second India Bill of Fox might be adopted for the
prevention of abuses in India.
There can be no doubt that this measure excelled that of Fox in
many respects. It left the actual details of administration to Governors
and councillors who were on the spot and could act therefore with
promptitude; but, by subjecting them in all matters other than
commercial to what was in effect a special committee of the Privy
Council, it associated the Government of India with the British
constitution in a way that answered the needs of the time and the
developments of the future.
But the House of Commons was in no mood to gauge the
excellences of the scheme. It was swayed rather by the vehement
criticisms of Fox, who declared that the Bill gave far too much
influence to the Crown, and that, if passed, it must inevitably lead to
the loss of India. The Fox-North Coalition still voted solidly for their
chiefs, and on 23rd January the measure was thrown out on the
second reading by 222 votes to 214.
Scenes of great excitement ensued. Fox and his followers loudly
called on the Ministry to resign. Pitt sat still, vouchsafing no reply to
the clamour, except when General Conway accused him of sending
agents over the land to corrupt the voters. Then he started to his feet,
defying Conway to substantiate the charge, but, for the rest, declaring
his indifference to the slanders of opponents, and his determination to
work for the welfare of the State.
Three days later, when Fox charged him with acting as the
unconstitutional Minister of the Crown and overriding the powers of
Parliament, he replied that such was not his act and intention. His
conduct was unusual because the occasion was unprecedented. To
have resigned after the recent vote would have brought to power
Ministers who, he believed, had not the confidence of the nation; and
he further pointed to the recent diminution of the votes of the
Opposition. The argument was telling, for the hostile majority had
dwindled from one hundred and six on 3rd December, to thirty-nine on
12th January, and now to eight. These facts clinched his contention
that the feeling of the House was inclining to the favourable verdict
which the country had begun to declare. A shrewd observer like
Wraxall came to see that Pitt was vindicating the constitution even in
209
his seeming breach of it.
Nevertheless, everything was at hazard. Though the majority
against him lessened, it was still a clear majority; and to appeal from
an indisputable fact to what was at most a surmise, seemed a defiance
of the House. As such it met with severe handling at the hands of Fox
and his sturdy henchman, Coke of Norfolk. They, however, finally
agreed to adjourn the whole question for three days. Why Fox did not
at once press his advantage to the utmost is hard to say. Perhaps he
feared to let loose the passions of the House upon the country at large
when Consols were down at 54 and national ruin seemed imminent.
He may have desired to gain time in order to watch the trend of public
opinion, and to appear as a peace-restoring Neptune rather than an
inconsiderate Aeolus.
An influential minority of the House longed for calm. On that very
day fifty-three of its members met privately at the St. Albans Tavern to
urge a union of parties on a more natural and less unpopular basis
than the Fox-North Coalition. Appointing a committee of five, they
besought the Duke of Portland to use his influence to bring about a
connection between Fox and Pitt. As we have seen, the hostility of
these statesmen had arisen, not from difference of principles, but from
the divergent interests of party groups. It had, however, been inflamed
by Pitt’s acceptance of office in circumstances that were especially
odious to Fox; and the Whig leader, in his speech of 26th January,
pointedly declared that, while admitting the urgent need of union and
conciliation, he must insist on the vindication of the honour of the
House by the resignation of the present unconstitutional Ministry. A
similar declaration was sent on the same day by the Duke of Portland
to the committee of the St. Albans Tavern meeting.
 Such a beginning was far from promising. Clearly an
understanding existed between the nominal and real chiefs of the
Whig party with a view to forcing on a dissolution. This implied that
the conciliators were appealing to party-leaders to act as arbiters, and
that they at once passed judgement against the Pitt Ministry. Matters
were not improved during a debate in the House on the need of
forming an extended Administration (2nd February). Fox, while
disclaiming any personal hostility to Pitt, insisted on the resignation of
Ministers as the first step towards the formation of a wider
Administration. On his side Pitt once more declared that any union
between them must be formed in an honourable way, and that it
would be paltry for him to resign merely in order to treat for re-
admission to office. The original motion having passed unanimously, a
hostile resolution was then brought forward substantiating Fox’s
declaration. Whereupon Pitt, nettled by these insidious tactics,
declared that he would never change his armour and beg to be
received as a volunteer among the forces of the enemy. Never, he
exclaimed, would he consent to resign before the terms of such a
union were arranged. If the House desired to drive the Ministry from
office there were two ways open—either to petition the King for their
removal, or to impeach them. At present their remaining in office was
not unconstitutional. The hostile motion, however, passed by a
majority of nineteen; and by a slightly larger majority the House
resolved to lay its decision before the King.
That day was perhaps the most critical of Pitt’s parliamentary
career. The feeling of the House seemed to be turning against him;
and the negotiations at the St. Albans Tavern (which went on
intermittently until 1st March) were far from favourable to his
interests. Both sides agreed as to the goal to be reached, but each
threw on the other the responsibility of taking the first step, which that
other declined on points of honour. At the outset the Duke of Portland
declined to see Pitt with respect to a union until he had resigned.
Then, on 31st January, he hinted, obscurely enough, that the Minister
might find a middle way; and when Pitt requested an explanation, he
referred him to recent precedents, which were in effect resignations.
 The good sense which rarely deserts the House of Commons for
long reappeared on 11th February. Fox then professed not only his
readiness to serve with Pitt, when he had complied with the terms of
the constitution, but also his desire to meet him half-way as to the
details of a new India Bill of which he had given notice. Pitt replied in a
similar spirit, but declared that there were some men with whom he
could not serve. Thereupon Lord North, at whom this shaft was
levelled, declared his willingness to stand aside if the voice of the
country demanded it. No act in his career did him more credit, and the
incident aroused a general hope that Pitt would now feel himself able
with honour to resign.
He refused, however, to take that step, probably because of the
continued obduracy of the Duke of Portland. The St. Albans Tavern
Committee had besought the King to intervene in order to facilitate an
interview between Pitt and the Duke. Accordingly on Sunday, 16th
February, the King rather reluctantly urged the Duke to meet the Prime
Minister, but signified privately to Pitt his resolve never to apply to His
210
Grace again if he still declined. Nevertheless the Duke refused to
unbend.
The last stage of the negotiations illustrates the niggling methods
of partisanship prevalent in those times. In answer to a final appeal
from the committee, Pitt and his colleagues urged the King to make
one more effort to bring the Duke of Portland to an accommodation.
The reply of the King on 26th February shows that, in spite of his
strong objections, he made that effort, but with the stipulation that the
Duke should have “no right to anything above an equal share to others
in the new administration, not to be the head of it, whatever
employment he may hold.” Pitt amplified this statement by declaring
that the new Ministry would be formed “on a wide basis, and on fair
and equal terms.” Obviously this implied the entry of the followers of
Portland and Fox on equal terms with those of Pitt; but the Duke,
while approving the word “fair,” required to know the meaning of the
word “equal”; and when Pitt replied that this could be best explained
in their interview, the Duke refused to come unless the meaning of the
211
word were first made clear. This straining at gnats put an end to
the negotiations. It is now abundantly clear that Pitt went as far as
could be expected, and that the continuation of the deadlock resulted
from the captiousness of the Duke of Portland.
Ten years were to elapse before the Portland Whigs came in to
strengthen Pitt’s hands, and their accession amid the storms of the
French Revolution involved the break up of the Whig party. In February
1784 there was a chance that the whole party would form a working
alliance with Pitt and the Chathamites. Such a union would have
formed a phalanx strong enough to renovate the life of Great Britain
and to prepare her better to stand the strain of the coming crises. It
was not to be. Obviously no union could be lasting where the party
knocking for admission insisted on dictating its terms and gaining
admission to the citadel.
There is, indeed, an air of unreality about these negotiations,
probably due to the fact that each party was intent on the state of
public opinion and the chances of a dissolution. The same fact
probably explains the action of Fox in the House. Time after time he
carried motions of censure against Pitt, though by wavering majorities.
He and his followers hindered the apportionment of the supplies,
threatened to block the annual Mutiny Bill, and went so far as to hold
the menace of impeachment over the heads of Ministers. When the
Lords by a large majority reprobated the actions of the Commons and
begged the King to continue his Ministers in office, the intervention of
212
the Upper House was strongly resented by the Coalition majority.
Yet Fox never pressed his attacks home. The threats of
impeachment remained mere stage thunder, probably because he
doubted his power to launch the bolt. There was, indeed, much truth
in Pitt’s description of him as “the champion of a small majority of this
House against the loud and decided voice of this people.” Hatred of
the unnatural Coalition, far from declining, was intensified by Pitt’s
manly and consistent conduct. The popular imagination thrilled at the
sight of the young Premier braving the clamour of Foxites and
Northites in reliance upon the final verdict of the nation. According to
all the constitutional text-books, the Whig leader spoke sound doctrine
when he declaimed against Pitt’s tenure of office in the teeth of the
repeated censures of the House; but men discerned the weakness of
the Opposition; they weighed it rather than counted heads; and in the
balances of common sense the Fox-North majority kicked the beam.
Westminster and Banbury, the very places which had returned Fox and
North, now sent up addresses of thanks to the King for dismissing
them from office. Middlesex, Edinburgh, York, Worcester, Exeter, and
Southwark, besides many smaller places, sent in addresses to the
same effect, thereby in some cases dishonouring the parliamentary
drafts of their members. The City of London, the home of blatant
Whiggism at the time of the Wilkes affair, now thanked Pitt for his
services and voted him its freedom, with the accompaniment of a gold
box. His ride into the city on 28th February to receive this honour
resembled a royal progress, and Wilkes was the man who welcomed
him to the Hall of the Grocers’ Company, where he was entertained at
a great banquet.
Nor was his popularity lessened by an incident that attended his
return to his brother’s residence in Berkeley Square. His carriage,
drawn along by a cheering crowd, was passing the chief social centre
of the Foxites, Brooks’s Club, when a sudden rush was made at it by a
body of stalwart ruffians armed with sticks and the broken poles of
sedan-chairs. So fierce was the onset that the carriage doors crashed
in, and Lord Chatham with difficulty parried the blows aimed at his
brother. For some moments they were in serious danger, but, aided by
their partisans, they succeeded in escaping to White’s Club, hard by.
Fox was loudly accused of being the author of this outrage. But, of
course, it would be foolish to lay this brutal attack to his charge. It
seems probable, however, that hangers-on of the party paid some
scoundrels to incapacitate Pitt for the rest of the parliamentary strifes.
He, and he alone, could make headway against the storm; and his
removal even for a week would have led to the triumph of Fox and
North. We may note here that Pitt did not resign his membership of
Brooks’s Club on account of this outrage—a proof that he was far
above all thoughts of revenge or rancour.
The prospects of the Opposition were somewhat marred by the
events of 28th February. Everything tended to hamper the actions of
that ill-assorted couple, North and Fox. True, on 1st March they carried
by twelve votes an address to the King for the removal of Ministers;
but George III acted not only with firmness but with dignity. He
replied, as he had before replied to a similar address, that he deplored
the failure of the efforts to form an extended Administration on fair
and equal terms, but saw in that failure no reason for dismissing
Ministers who appeared to have the confidence of the country, and
against whom no specific charges were urged. These skilful retorts
struck home; and a long and reproachful representation to the King,
said to have been drawn up by Burke, was carried by a majority of
only one. Pitt looked on this as tantamount to a triumph; for two days
later he wrote to the Duke of Rutland that he was “tired to death even
213
with victory; for I think our present state is entitled to that name.”
His forecast was correct. In face of these dwindling numbers, Fox and
North did not venture to oppose the passing of the Mutiny Bill, which,
since the beginning of William III’s reign, has year by year legalized
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the existence of a standing army.
To allow this measure to pass, after threatening to obstruct the
work of Government, was a virtual confession of failure; and not only
the House but the country took it as such. The inner weakness of the
Coalition now became daily more evident. Discontents that were
hidden during the months of seeming triumph broke forth as the
prospect of defeat loomed large ahead. The tension of the past two
months now gave way to a strange slackness, resulting doubtless from
the uncertainties of the situation. Fox relapsed into silence. Pitt rarely
spoke and scarcely vouchsafed a reply to the smaller men who kept up
the aimless strife. In truth, the heavy-laden air at St. Stephen’s gave
premonitory signs of that portent in nature when songsters become
mute and animals creep about with anxious restlessness under the
shadow of an oncoming eclipse.

* * * * *
The nation was now to give its verdict. On 24th March the King
dissolved Parliament. The Great Seal disappeared from the house of
the Lord Chancellor on that very morning; but by great efforts another
was ready by noon of the 25th. For some weeks the land had
simmered with suspense. “Even ladies,” wrote Horace Walpole on 12th
March, “talk of nothing but politics.” In truth, a time of new political
fashions was at hand. The old having been discarded, very much
depended on a decided lead given by some of the leading
constituencies.
For various reasons men looked eagerly to the example set by
Yorkshire and Westminster. Both had recently led the way in the
agitation for Economic and Parliamentary Reform and were
strongholds of Whiggism; yet both the county and the city had
recently acclaimed the conduct of Pitt. Canon Mason, a well-known
poet of those days, who, with the reforming parson, Wyvill, had
fathered the Yorkshire Reform Association, was now working hard on
behalf of George III and Pitt—a fact which spoke volumes. Yet, despite
the strength of the Association, and the ardent Toryism of most of the
clothing towns of the West Riding, the influence of the great Whig
Houses, especially the Cavendishes in Wharfedale, the Fitzwilliams at
Wentworth, and the Earl of Carlisle at Castle Howard, was so strong as
to make the issue doubtful.
The feeling of the county was tested first at a great meeting of its
freeholders held in the yard of the Castle at York on Lady Day. Despite
driving hail-storms and a bitter wind, thousands of sturdy yeomen,
together with throngs of clothiers from the towns of the West Riding,
poured into that historic space. Then came the magnates of the
county, driving up in their coaches-and-six. In good old English style
the two sides of the case were set forth on the hustings in fair and
open rivalry by the best speakers of both parties. The large towns and
the yeomen evidently favoured the royal prerogative upheld by Pitt,
while the claims of the Whigs and of North’s followers were
championed by the great lords and their tenantry, by sticklers for
constitutional precedents, and all who hoped to benefit by a change of
Ministry. The issues at stake being as obscure as the cleavage between
parties was zigzag, the speeches for the most part fell ineffectively.
What with the sleet and the confusion of parties the meeting seemed
about to break up in disorder, when there appeared on the daïs a
figure so slim and weak as to quail before the blasts. But the first few
sentences of that silvery voice penetrated the storm and dominated
the swaying crowd. It was the voice of Wilberforce, who once more
showed the influence of clearness of thought and beauty of utterance
over a confused throng. Boswell, describing the whole incident to
Dundas, said: “I saw what seemed a mere shrimp mount upon the
table; but, as I listened he grew and grew until the shrimp became a
whale.”
The victory of mind over matter was decisive. His arraignment of
the Coalition and defence of Pitt carried the meeting with him; and a
great shout arose: “We’ll have this man as our county member.” The
instinct of the meeting was sound. The tact of Wilberforce in uniting all
Whigs and Tories who were not committed to the Coalition or bound
by the magnates greatly furthered his cause; so that finally an election
which had of late always been decided by the three great Houses
named above, resulted in the triumphant return of Wilberforce and
Duncombe. The show of hands was so overwhelmingly in their favour
that the Whigs accepted the verdict and did not demand a poll. The
victory was not only a severe blow to the county families and an
assertion of the growing independence of the middle classes and
yeomen; it was also a gain for the cause of purity, the total expenses
of the successful candidates being less than £5,000.
The example set in Yorkshire was followed in most parts of Great
Britain. The supporters of the Coalition were smitten hip and thigh; as
many as 160 members of the Opposition were thrown out, and by a
very obvious joke they were termed Fox’s Martyrs, the details of their
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deaths being recorded with tragi-comic solemnity. The strength
216
and universality of the popular impulse surprised even Pitt. He was
carried in triumphantly by 334 votes for the University of Cambridge,
his friend, Lord Euston, gaining 288, while their opponents,
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Townshend and Mansfield, polled only 267 and 181 respectively.
Wilkes swept Middlesex by a large majority—for the Crown. Skilful
speakers like Erskine, county magnates like Earl Verney and Thomas
Grenville, were thrust aside for the crime of supporting the Coalition;
and in certain boroughs, where no one had been sent down to oppose
that hated union, travellers who declaimed against it were forcibly
detained and returned as members of Parliament. Never, we are
assured by Wraxall, was there less bribery used in the interests of the
Crown; for, as he naively asserts, “corruption for once became almost
218
unnecessary.”
The reasons of this extraordinary overthrow of the Coalition are
not far to seek. Tories felt far more regard for the royal prerogative
than for Lord North, now that he had gone over to the King’s enemies;
and independent Whigs refused to follow Fox in his ex-centric march
towards the Northites. Thus the Coalition was in reality defeated by—
the Coalition. That jaundiced old Whig, Horace Walpole, might abjure
his friendship with Mason for heading “the pert and ignorant cabal at
York”; he might declare that the nation must be intoxicated to applaud
the use of the royal prerogative against “the Palladium of the people”
(the House of Commons). “Junius” might raise his once dreaded voice
to assure his countrymen that the victory of Pitt would put an end to
their boasted liberties. It was useless. The nation’s instinct bade it
break with the past and start afresh on a path that promised steady
progress. That instinct now swept aside the old party lines and
organizations in a way that had not been seen since the advent of the
Georges.
Only at one place was the rout of the Whigs stayed; and the
doubtful issue of the conflict at Westminster attested the wondrous
personal powers of Fox. A union of strength with geniality, of
eloquence with frankness, which appeals to Englishmen, was seen in
him in all its potency. The “magician” (to use Pitt’s phrase about his
rival) waved his wand with startling effect. A few days of platform
speaking sufficed to restore his earlier popularity. Despite the utmost
efforts of the Court and Government on behalf of their candidates,
Admiral Hood and Sir Cecil Wray, the Whig totals crept up day by day,
so as to threaten the seat of the latter, which at one time seemed
219
assured. George III followed the course of the Westminster
election with an eager interest that reveals his hatred of the Whig
leader. This is seen in his suggestion on 13th April to Pitt that bad
votes should be fabricated at Westminster to counterbalance those
which must have been trumped up for Fox; or again (1st May) that the
Quackers [sic] might perhaps be induced to come to the poll in the
interests of the Government.
All was of no avail. The arts of Windsor were foiled by the charms
of Devonshire House. Georgiana, the beauteous duchess, used her
allurements to rally voters to the Whig cause, and is said to have
carried her complaisance so far as to kiss a butcher for a promise of
his vote. Certain it is that she and her sister, the Viscountess
Duncannon, conveyed artisans from the outlying districts to the poll in
their own chariots. The Countesses of Carlisle and Derby, Lady
Beauchamp, and Mrs. Crewe, also used their charms on behalf of the
Whig cause, so that a favouring rhymester could write:

Sure Heaven approves of Fox’s cause

(Though slaves at Court abhor him),
To vote for Fox, then, who can pause
220
Since Angels canvass for him?

In vain did the Court put forward the Countess of Salisbury to keep
waverers steadfast. The Countess possessed beauty, but tempered by
age and discretion. Thanks to the exertions of Georgiana, and to the
influence of the Prince of Wales and of the Dukes of Portland and
Devonshire, Fox, at the end of an exciting contest of forty days,
headed Sir Cecil Wray by 236 votes, though he still fell 460 votes
below Lord Hood. The Prince of Wales celebrated this triumph by a
great reception in the grounds of Carlton House at the very time when
the King was passing outside to open Parliament.
But the local success of the Whigs was not yet complete. Many
suspicious facts during the election seemed to discredit the result; and
when Sir Cecil Wray demanded a scrutiny, the High Bailiff of
Westminster not only granted the request, but refused to make any
return for Westminster, thus invalidating the election of Fox and even
221
of Hood until an inquiry was held. Fox entered Parliament, but it
was through the kindness and foresight of Sir Thomas Dundas, who
had procured his election for the Orkney and Shetland Islands. At once
he attacked the High Bailiff as well as the Government, which he
accused of influencing the action of that official. The matter is too
involved and technical to enter upon here. Its chief interest lies in the
manly and massive oration which Fox flung against Pitt on 8th June.
The Prime Minister evaded the missile with much dexterity; and a large
majority insisted on the scrutiny. After nine months of inquiry the
position of the candidates was virtually unchanged. The Government’s
following strongly desired to end this expensive and fruitless inquiry;
but Pitt opposed the motions to this effect, and early in the session of
1785 found himself abandoned by his majority.
The motives which prompted his action on this affair will be
considered in Chapter XII; but we may here note that it certainly
lessened his personal influence in the critical session of 1785. His own
position had hitherto been so well assured that generous behaviour
towards one of the most affable and open-handed men of his time
would have been both natural and becoming. As it was, many of his
friends were disgusted, and some thought his conduct would fatally
prejudice his future. Thus, on 10th February 1785 Daniel Pulteney
wrote as follows: “Contrary to the wish of all his real friends, and only
supported by Dundas, Lord Mulgrave, and Bearcroft, Pitt persevered in
this cursed business.... The consequence of this will be trifling if Pitt
will now recede and agree to order the return, but ... many will form a
very different idea of the Administration if such an odious business is
222
forced down by a small majority.” Fortunately Pitt’s own friends
abandoned him before matters went too far. The affair unsteadied his
followers for a time; and the impression was spread abroad that he
had all the qualifications for winning a decisive victory, but none of the
graces that add lustre to its laurels. Apart from this personal detail,
which influenced public opinion more than far wider questions, Pitt’s
triumph in and after 1784 was so complete as to usher in a new era in
British politics. We may therefore pause to review both its causes and
its significance.

* * * * *
 Besides the irremediable blunder committed by Fox in framing the
Coalition with Lord North, he made several mistakes during the early
weeks of 1784. It was in the highest degree unwise to stake
everything on the cohesion of his majority in the Commons, and to
seek to avert a dissolution. Judging by his motions in the House, it was
the worst of crimes for Pitt to advise the King to appeal to the nation.
But surely that was the natural and almost inevitable step, seeing that
Parliament had sat for four years, and the opponents were very nearly
matched. Yet, while hindering the course of public business by the
postponement of votes for the public service, Fox claimed to be acting
with a single eye to the public welfare. Such conduct evinced no
insight into the essentials of the problem before him. For surely, if
Ministers were acting as illegally as he averred, it was his duty to
impeach them. If their offence was more venial, the verdict of the
people would suffice. The question could be decided only in one of two
ways—either by an impeachment or a dissolution. He decided in
neither way, but allowed the tangle to grow worse, until men came to
believe that his sole aims were to shirk any appeal, either to the laws
of England or to the hustings, and to force his way once more to
power along with Lord North by means of their large but unstable
majority. This was the suspicion which thinned their following at St.
Stephen’s and ruined them at the polls.
Pitt, on the other hand, showed great tactical skill in working his
way out from an apparently hopeless position. Admitting that his
tenure of office was irregular, he justified it by the unanswerable retort
that the Opposition could not govern. Accepting their decision, that
supplies should be postponed so as to prevent a dissolution, he made
it clear whose was the responsibility for the resulting disorganization.
Finally, when the inability of his opponents to block the Mutiny Bill had
set free the administrative machine, he appealed to the country. Men
were quick to see which side had best consulted the interests of the
State. Over against the impotently factious conduct of Fox stood the
patriotic good sense of his rival in disregarding the wavering censures
of a discredited House in order on the fitting occasion to consult the
will of the nation.
 So soon as the essential facts of that unparalleled situation are
fully grasped, the diatribes against Pitt for making an illegal use of the
royal prerogative for selfish purposes are seen to be mere verbiage.
Equally futile is it to inquire, with Lord John Russell, why the
constitution was not afterwards altered in favour of the Crown, and
why the Court did not gain more advantage by its triumph in the
223
General Election of 1784. The fact is that Pitt had never intended
to govern as a Court minion, or to subject the constitution to the royal
will. It was not merely that his pride revolted against any such
degradation; but his principles, no less than the tough consistency of
his nature, forbade it. Because he insisted on maintaining the King’s
prerogative at one point, namely, that Ministers were dismissed by him
and not by the House of Commons, he was far from supporting it at all
points. Even in that particular, he admitted that Government could not
be carried on by Ministers who had not the confidence of the House of
Commons, but he asserted, and triumphantly proved, that that House
had not the confidence of the nation. For the long delay in putting the
matter to the test, Fox, not he, was responsible.
In reality, then, there was no violation of the constitution, and no
change in Pitt’s relations to the Crown. True, he had sought to
reconcile its prerogatives with the functions of Parliament; but his
attitude towards George III was still marked by a proud independence,
224
which often caused annoyance. He brought forward measures
which the King disapproved; and in all important matters he had his
way down to the spring of 1801, when George III demurred on
conscientious grounds. The shelving of the cause of Parliamentary
Reform by Pitt after the year 1785 resulted from the utter indifference
of the nation, not from any bargain that he had corruptly struck with
the King.
But if the memorable contest of 1784 has not the significance
sometimes ascribed to it in partisan narratives, it is of great moment in
regard to the monarchy, the Cabinet, and the course of events at St.
Stephen’s. George III came forth victorious from his long struggle with
the Whig Houses; but the magnitude of the peril had taught him
prudence and self-restraint; and, while keeping a tight hand on
patronage, he was thenceforth content, in the more important sphere
of legislation, to leave a free hand to the Minister who had saved him
from the open conflict with the Commons which Fox had sought to
precipitate. The relations between the King and Prime Minister
therefore came to resemble those which had subsisted between the
first two Georges and Walpole.
Consequently, the growth in the powers of the Cabinet, which had
been interrupted since the fall of that Minister, now proceeded
normally. During the seventeen years of Pitt’s supremacy the principle
became firmly established that the chief Minister of the Crown was the
centre of authority, and that, while holding that authority nominally
from the King, he exercised it by virtue of a mandate from the people.
George, therefore, had escaped from the thraldom of the Coalition
only in order to bow before an authority which was at once
constitutional and irresistible. He no longer had to do with the
nominee of a dozen great families, but with a man who had the clearly
expressed confidence of the nation. The same fact tended to make the
Cabinet of the future more and more a homogeneous and well
disciplined Council, obeying the impulsion of the first Minister, and
adding force to his declarations of policy. No longer was it possible, as
in Lord North’s decade of office, for the Ministers to act singly and at
the behests of the sovereign. George III’s policy of divide et impera
might succeed with North; it could not but fail before the iron
resolution of Pitt. The King’s acquiescence in the new order of things
enabled him to regain much of the ground which he had earlier lost by
his masterful efforts to govern as well as reign. Well was it for the
British monarchy that those disputes were settled before the storms of
the French Revolution beat upon that ancient fabric.
Finally, we may note that Pitt was far more than a second Walpole.
The sturdy Norfolk squire wielded power, as a nominee of the Whig
Houses; but Pitt was established in office by a wider and grander
mandate. The General Election of 1784 ended the existing party
system and shattered the rule of the Whig families who had hitherto
dominated the Georgian Era. The somnolent acquiescence of the
populace in that headship now gave way to a more critical spirit, to a
sense that the traditional parties must readjust themselves under a