PLANT LEAVES

When botanists group plants, they use flower parts as their primary guide because the flower is the least affected by growing
conditions. In this lab we will be looking at leaf characteristics using SPOT CHARACTERS to help us identify plants because they
are more likely to be available and easily observed.

Spot characters are features that occur in relatively few families, thus rendering their identification simpler than tracing them
through the actual key. However, it does not mean that all members of that family show that particular feature (Cullen, 2006).

At the end of the activity, you should be able to:

1. You should be able to identify plants using gross morphological characteristics of leaves.

The Leaf is a usually flattened, rarely semi-centric, or centric-lateral expanse developed by the stem or by branches and in
whose axil one or more branches arise. Leaves seldom develop buds over their surface or along their margin and in
connection therewith roots. The capacity of bud development is restricted to three families, Crassulaceae, Begoniaceae and
Gesneraceae.

Part One – PARTS OF THE LEAF

The leaf is composed of three (3) main parts, the leaf base, petiole and the lamina. The leaf base
serves as the point of attachment of the leaf to the stem. The petiole on the other hand, is the part
of the leaf that connects the lamina to the branch of the leaf. Lastly, the lamina is the broad and
flattened part of the leaf. The lamina has different variations in shape that you will encounter as you
go on reading.

Internal Structure of Leaves

The epidermis is a single layer of cells in the upper and

lower surface of the leaf; with no intercellular spaces.
The epidermal cells protect the inner tissues from
desiccation, injury and parasitic infection, secrete
cutin. The guard cells are crescent-shaped, with
chloroplast, have thick inner walls and thin outer walls.
The guard cells regulate the opening of the stomata (if
the guard cells are turgid the stoma is open; if the
guard cells are flaccid, the stoma is closed)

The mesophyll is in between two epidermal layers;

where photosynthesis takes place. It has two regions:
>Palisade mesophyll is in the uppermost layer. It is composed of compactly stacked, barrel-shaped parenchyma in two
rows. The palisade mesophyll comprises 80% of the leaf’s chloroplasts.
>Spongy mesophyll is in the lower region. It is composed of loosely arranged parenchyma cells in variable form with
abundant air spaces between them (diffusion of gases). The cells also contain numerous chloroplast.
For monocots, there is no differentiation between the palisade and spongy layer

The veins (vascular bundles) are scattered throughout the mesophyll. The xylem and phloem are surrounded by bundle
sheath with thick-walled parenchyma cells, and thus; give the leaves its “skeleton”. The phloem which transports
manufactured sugar and other carbohydrates is located in the lower part; the xylem which conducts water is located in the
upper part.

Part Two – GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF LEAVES

Types of Leaves
There are different types of leaves developed in angiosperms. The first type of leaves to appear upon the ascending axis and
are single in monocots, double in dicots are the cotyledons. The most common type of leaf are the foliate leaves. They are
usually green and primarily involved in photosynthesis. The reduced form of foliage leaves is known as the scale leaves and
usually seen as protective scales of scaly buds. Bracts are modified leaves appearing on inflorescence axes like the purple
leaves of Buogainvillea. Sepal and petals are types of leaves commonly referred to as floral leaves.

Compiled by: MC Cariño-Magalong, RPh, MS and ML Fiangaan, RPh, MS

2021 |Department of Pharmacy
Leaf Duration
Some leaves disappear at a certain period of time or season. Some shed during fall season, marking the beginning of winter.
This is attributed to the fact that leaves only have a certain duration. Evergreens or the persistent leaves are leaves that are
found in all seasons and do not shed like pine trees. Deciduous leaves shed at the same time while caduceous leaves fall
after the appearance or opening of a bud such as in rose.

Deciduous Leaves The genus Opuntia has the

caduceous type of duration
Leaf Insertions
Leaf insertion talks about the point of attachment of the leaf to the stem. A leaf is radical, when inserted upon an underground
stem. Leaves are cauline when upon an aerial stem and ramal when attached directly to the branch.

Shapes of the Lamina

Leaves are diverse. They often take many forms, sizes and shapes. The lamina can sometimes provide a distinction on what
the plant is by just looking at their shape. Ready your imagination, perhaps, even a pen and draw them to easily remember.
Refer to the image below to guide you.
1. The first one is the acicular shape where the lamina is long and pointed or, needle like. Think of the pine tree where
the pine needles are actually long, pointed and needle like.
2. A leaf that is pointed or narrower at the ends while broader in the middle has a lanceolate laminar shape. An example
of this are the bamboo leaves, they are lanceolate or lance-shaped.
3. The next shape is commonly found in grass, called linear. In linear-shaped leaves, the lamina is long and narrow
having parallel margins.
4. An egg-like leaf having a broad base with slight narrow top has an ovate shape.
5. The betel is a plant that has a heart-shaped leaf and the lamina shape is called cordate (Lat. cordis,- heart).
6. Banana leaves are long and broad because of their oblong-shaped lamina.
7. Sagittate lamina belong to those leaves that are triangular in shape or arrow head-shaped like the sagittaria.
8. A spoon-shaped leaf has a spathulate lamina.
9. An orbicular or rotund lamina belongs to those leaves that are spherical as seen in Lotus.
10. The next shape is elliptical or oval. Guava leaves belong to this shape where the middle part of the lamina is broad
while the ends are narrow and oval.
11. The last shape on our list is the oblique shape. In this type, the midrib divides the lamina into two unequal halves like
what we see in bignonia and in neem tree.

Compiled by: MC Cariño-Magalong, RPh, MS and ML Fiangaan, RPh, MS

2021 |Department of Pharmacy
Stipules
Stipules are lateral leafy or membranous outgrowths from the base of the petiole at its junction with the stem. If present, the
plant is stipulated and if absent the plant is exstipulated. There are various types of stipules beginning with free lateral stipules.
Free lateral stipules are independently present on both sides of the leaf base. When two leaves meet oppositely at the node
and the nearest stipule of each leaf join with each other, the stipule is said to be interpetiolar. The intrapetiolar type is seen
when both stipule of a single leaf join with each other to form a single stipule. When the stipules form a leaf-like structure, the
foliaceous type is observed.

Compiled by: MC Cariño-Magalong, RPh, MS and ML Fiangaan, RPh, MS

2021 |Department of Pharmacy
Other types of stipules vary in appearance. Stipules that are dry and paper-like, the stipule is called scaly. Some other stipules
have spines as seen in spiny stipules. The ochreate type occurs when both stipules of a leaf combine and form a tube-like
structure and when both stipules are attached with the petiole, it is called adnate. Stipules with tendril-like structure are called
tendrillar and lastly, stipules that serve to protect a young bud is known as a bud scale.

(Spiny) (Free Lateral) (Ochreate) (Foliaceous) (Tendrillar)

Part Three - PHYLLOTAXY

Introduction
Phyllotaxy is the study of leaf arrangement
upon the stem or branch, and this may be
either alternate, opposite, whorled, or
verticillate, or fascicled. It is a general law in
the arrangement of leaves and of all other
plant appendages that they are spirally
disposed, or on a line which winds around
the axis like the thread of a screw. The spiral
line is formed by the union of two motions,
circular and the longitudinal, and its most
common modification is the circle.

Types of Phyllotaxy
In Alternate or Spiral, there is one leaf produced at each node
seen in aconites and magnolias. When a pair of leaves is
developed at each node, on opposite sides of a stem, the
arrangement is said to be opposite. Plant examples with this
kind of leaf arrangement are mints and lilac. There are
generally two types of Opposite leaf arrangement namely,
decussate and superposed. When the leaves are arranged in
pairs successively along the stem, as in decussate, at right
angles to each other. Thoroughwort plant has a decussate leaf
arrangement. On the other hand, superposed arrangement is
seen in plant where successive pairs of leaves are directly over
a pair in the same plane. Whorled, or verticillate arrangement
occurs when three or more leaves form a circle about the stem
as in Canada Lily and Culver’s root. The last known class of leaf
arrangement is the fascicled, or tufted arrangement, where a
cluster of leaves is borne from a single node like larch and pines.

Part Four – LEAF VENATION

Introduction
The arrangement of veins and veinlets in leaves (lamina) is known as venation. There are two types of venation, reticulate
and parallel. Dicots are known to have the reticulate type of venation where the main vein is divided into smaller branches
(veinlets) and form a net like structure. Unlike reticulate, the parallel type is seen on monocots where all veins run parallel to
each other and they do not form a network. Both reticulate and parallel venations have 2 other types each.

As a general rule, reticulate venation is found in dicots except Calophyllum and Eryngium. Parallel venation is found in
monocots except Smilax, Dioscorea, Alocasia, and Colocasia

Compiled by: MC Cariño-Magalong, RPh, MS and ML Fiangaan, RPh, MS

2021 |Department of Pharmacy
RETICULATE VENATION

Types of Reticulate Venation

The unicostate or pinnate venation have only one principal vein or midrib that give off many lateral veins which proceed
toward margin and apex of lamina and form a network. This type of reticulate venation is seen on mangoes and guavas.

The multicostate or palmate, is another type of reticulate venation wherein the veins arise from the tip of the petiole and
proceed towards the tip of lamina. This again, has two other types.

Types of Multicostate or Palmate Reticulate Venation

When many principal veins arise from the tip of the petiole, and diverge from another toward the margin of the leaf blade, it
is said to be multicostate divergent. A multicostate convergent type of venation occurs when many principal veins arise from
the petiole and are closely arranged but diverge from one another in the middle part and converge towards the apex of the
leaf. This again, has two other types.

The image below will show you what reticulate venation look like.

PARALLEL VENATION

Types of Parallel Venation

Take note that monocots have this type venation. The unicostate or pinnate parallel venation have only one principal vein
that gives off many lateral veins, which proceed toward the margin of the lamina in a parallel manner but do not have
veinlets. Furcate venation on the other hand are seen when the veins branch dichotomously but the reticulum is not formed
by the finer branches. The last type is the multicostate or palmate venation wherein many principal veins arise from the tip of
the petiole and proceed upwards. There are two types of multicostate venation, divergent and convergent like the reticulate
venation.
MULTICOSTATE
UNICOSTATE DICHOTOMOUS
CONVERGENT

Types of Multicostate or Palmate

Parallel Venation
When principal veins arise from the
tip of the petiole and diverge toward
the leaf margin, the venation is
referred to as multicostate divergent.
They do not divide into veinlets and
do not form into networks. On the
other hand, when principal veins
arise from the tip of petiole and run in
a curved manner in the lamina and
converge towards the apex of the
leaf blade, the venation is
multicostate convergent. In
dichotomous venation, the veins
branch dichotomously but the
reticulum is not formed by the finer
branches.
MULTICOSTATE Compiled by: MC Cariño-Magalong, RPh, MS and ML Fiangaan, RPh, MS
DIVERGENT 2021 |Department of Pharmacy
Part Five – PINNATION (LEAF FORMATION ON PETIOLE)

Introduction
A leaf or leaflets may be arranged on a petiole in a variety of manner. If a single leaf is borne on a petiole, it is simple. If
leaflets are borne on a petiole, the arrangement of the leaflets is compound. Compound formation can be pinnately
compound or palmately compound. If the arrangement is pinnately compound, it could be unipinnate (which could be
paripinnate or even pinnate, or imparipinnate or odd pinnate) bipinnate, tripinnate, or decompound. If the arrangement is
palmately compound, it could be unifoliate, bifoliate, trifoliate, tetrafoliate, or multifoliate.

UNIFOLIATE BIFOLIATE TRIFOLIATE TETRAFOLIATE MULTIFOLIATE

Part Six - HUMAN AND ECOLOGICAL RELEVANCE OF LEAVES

> Shade and landscaping > Fibers for ropes and twines > Insecticides
> Food > Fuel > Wax
> Spices and flavorings > Drugs
> Dyes > Teas

Compiled by: MC Cariño-Magalong, RPh, MS and ML Fiangaan, RPh, MS

2021 |Department of Pharmacy