Odisha History

Odisha History
Odisha History
Contents:
Ancient History: Odisha
• Sources of Ancient History of Odisha

• Historical Geography: Kalinga, Utkala, Odra, Tosali, Kangoda and Kosala.
• Kalinga War
• The Mahameghavahanas: Career and achievements of Kharavela, Time of his rule.
• Rise of local dynasties: Matharas, Sailodbhavas and early eastern Ganga.
• The Bhaumakaras- Origin, Chronology and Administration.
• The Somavamsis- Early History- dynastic history and achievements of rulers: cultural
significance of the Somavamsi Rule.
• The Ganga- Sources, Political History,( Anantavarman Chodagangadeva, Anangabhimadeva
and Narasimhadeva I)
• Ganga Administration.
• Cultural significance of the Ganga rule
• Society and Economy- during the Bhaumakara, Somavamsis and the Ganga Period.
Medieval History: Odisha
• The Suryavamsi Gajapati Sources, Political history( Kapilendradeva, Purusattomadeva,

Prataprudradeva)
• Suryavamsi Administration.
• The Chalukya and Bhoi.
• Decline and disintegration of Medieval Odishan Kingdom.
• Sri Chaitanya faith in Odisha: its Impact.
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Odisha History
• Panchasakha and Bhakti Movements
• Muslim conquest of Odisha, Mughal -Afghan Conflict.
• Odisha under the Mughal rule: Akbar, Jahangir, Shahajahan and Aurangzeb.
• Odisha under the Naib-Nizams.
• Muslim Administration in Odisha.
• Muslim-Maratha Conflict, Maratha Occupation of Odisha.
• Maratha Administration in Odisha.
• Anglo-Maratha Conflicts
• Socio-Economic life in Medieval Odisha.
• Cultural Life: Religion, Art and Architecture and Literature.
• Influence of Islam on Odia language and literature.
Modern History: Odisha
• British Occupation of Odisha.

• British Administration of Odisha: Land Revenue Settlements, administration of Justice.
• Economic Development- Agriculture and Industry, Trade and Commerce.
• Resistance Movements in the 19th century- Khurda rising of 1804-05, Paik rebellion of 1817.
• Odisha during the revolt of 1857- role of Surendra Sai
• Tribal uprising- Ghumsar Rising under Dara Bisoi, Khond Rising under Chakra Bisoi, Bhuyan
Rising Under Ratna Naik and Dharani Dhar Naik.
• Growth of Modern Education, Growth of Press and Journalism.
• Natural Calamities in Odisha, Famine of 1866- its causes and effect.
• Social and Cultural changes in the 19th Century Odisha.
• Mahima Dharma.
• Odia Movement: Growth of Socio-Political Associations, Growth of Public Associations in the
19th Century, Role of Utkal Sammilini (1903-1920)
• Nationalist Movement in Odisha: Non-Cooperation and Civil Disobedience Movements in
Odisha.
• Creation of Separate province, Non-Congress and Congress Ministries( 1937-1947).
• Quit India Movement.
• British relation with Princely States of Odisha and Prajamandal Movement and Merger of the
States.

Odisha History
Ancient History: Odisha
Sources of Ancient History of Odisha:

The history of Odisha is derived from a variety of sources. These sources include Literary
Sources, Foreign Accounts, Inscriptions, Coins, Material Remains, and Madala Panji, which all
contribute to our understanding of Odisha's history. Literary sources, in particular, offer valuable
insights into the state's past, as literature is often seen as a reflection of society.
The Mahabharata, for example, makes early references to Kalinga and Odra. Jaina literature also
contains descriptions of Kalinga and Utkala, while Buddhist literature sheds light on ancient Odisha's
history. Additionally, legal texts such as the Smritis of Manu, Narada, Brhaspati, Katyayana,
Yajnavalkya, and Kamandaka have influenced Odisha's political systems.
Foreign accounts provide valuable knowledge about ancient Kalinga. One of the most significant
foreign accounts is that of the Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang, who visited Odisha in 638-39 AD.
Inscriptions also play a crucial role in shaping Odisha's history, with various inscriptions found
throughout the region. Coins, on the other hand, help reconstruct the economic life, trade and
commerce, religion, and metallurgy of the people.
Coins in Odisha can be categorized into punch-marked coins, the Puri-Kushana coins, Gupta gold
coins, Nala and Sarbhapuriya coins, Srinanda, Kalachuri and Nagas, the Ganga fanams, and probable
Gajapati Pagoda. Material remains provide a wealth of knowledge about the ancient history of
Odisha.
Some historians attribute significant importance to Madalapanji in shaping Odisha's history. As new
inscriptions, coins, and archaeological remains are discovered, the history of Odisha will continue to
evolve and gain new dimensions.
Historical Geography: Kalinga, Utkala, Odra,

Tosali, Kangoda and Kosala.
Kalinga held a significant position among the various political entities in ancient India.
Its boundaries were naturally defined by the fertile coastal plains that extended from the mouth of
the Ganges River to Godavari, encompassing mountains and forests.

Odisha History
In the 2nd century B.C., the region now known as Odisha was referred to as Kalinga, as
evidenced by the Hatigumpha Inscription at Udayagiri near Bhubaneswar, which describes Kharavela
as the ruler of Kalinga. The Mahabharata mentions Utkala in connection with the neighboring regions
of Odras, Mekala, Kalinga, Darsana, and Andhras. The present name of Odisha is derived from Odra
or Udra or Odraka. In the accounts of Muslim geographers from the 9th and 10th centuries A.D., it
appears as Urshin or Ursfin.
Odra is also mentioned in the Manusamhita, where it is associated with the

Paundrakas, Dravidas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Sakas, Paradas, Palhavas, Chinas, Kiratas, Daradas, and
Khasas. Tosala or Tosali was another important political entity in ancient Odisha. It is mentioned in
the 'Parisistha' of Atharva Veda, along with Kosala, and the Puranas connect the people of this region
with Kotalas, Nisadas, Traipuras, Tumuras, Valdisas, and others. Kongoda rose to prominence during
the Sailodbhava dynasty and can be interpreted as the "Land of Honey" as Kongu means honey in
Tamil. It was a Mandala state that thrived in the 6th-7th century A.D. The earliest depiction of Kosala
is found in the Parisistha of the Atharvaveda, and the Epics and Puranas shed light on its ancient
history. Thus, all these geographical units have played significant roles in shaping the political and
cultural history of Odisha.
Kalinga War:
The Kalinga War of 261 B.C. is considered as the sheet anchor of Odishan history. With
it begins the dated history of Odisha. Tile existence of Kalinga as a powerful neighbour on the border
of Magadha was definitely a threat to the power and potentiality of Magadha. Asoka's invasion of
Kalinga in 261 B.C. appears to have been actuated by his imperialistic designs. There were certain
economic factors which had created rivalry between Kalinga and Magadha. In trade and commerce,
Kalinga was a great competitor of Magadha. The Nagas stole away the jewels of Asoka, so in order to
take revenge, Asoka invaded Kalinga.
Asoka invaded Kalinga being infatuated by the beauty of Karuvaki, the daughter of a fisherman
and the fiancee of the crown prince of Kalinga. Religion was another potential factor for Asoka's
invasion of Kalinga. The much anticipated Kalinga War took place in 261 B.C. The Kalinga war had far
reaching results which made lasting impact on mankind. In this war 150,000 soldiers from the side of
Kalinga were taken as prisoners by Asoka and 100,000 were slain and many others got died out of
injuries and epidemic after the war.
With the victory of Asoka in the Kalinga war, Kalinga was annexed to Magadhan empire and it
constituted its fifth province. This war brought about a great transformation in the heart of Asoka. He
was changed from Chandasoka to Dharmasoka with a vow to conquer mankind by conquering the
heart of the people and not-to win over them by war.
After Kalinga War, he was converted to Buddhism by Upagupta, a Buddhist monk or Nigrodha, the
seven year old son of Asoka's elder brother Sumana whom he had killed or Mogaliputtatissa, the
president of the Third Buddhist Council.The transformation of Asoka helped in the spread of
Buddhism. Asoka adopted a paternalistic attitude towards his subjects after the Kalinga War. An
important aspect of the Kalinga War was that it led to the growth of art, architecture and literature
unprecedented in the land. Asoka appointed a well organised bureaucracy to assist the viceroy of
Kalinga.

Odisha History
The Mahameghavahanas: Career and

achievements of Kharavela, Time of his rule.
The Hatigumpha inscription at Udaygiri hill near Bhubaneswar describes in details
about the career and achievement of Kharavela, the mighty ruler of Mahameghvahana family. The
Hatigumpha inscription also mentions that Kharavela belonged to the Mahameghavahana family of
the Chedi clan.
As young prince he acquired knowledge in different branches of learning, which were

essential for discharging royal duty, such as writing or correspondence (Lekha), finance, currency
(Rupa), arithmetic (Ganana) and law (Vldhl and Vyvahara). As a prince, Kharavela underwent training
in the art of warfare (Dhanuryidya), music and dance (Gandharva vidya) and religion. In the fifteenth
year he became the crown prince and started probation in the practical field of administration. At the
age of twenty four, he was crowned king by assuming the title Kalingadhipati and gave his subjects a
sound administration.
In his first regnal year, he involved himself in the renovation work by repairing the gates
and buildings of his capital Kalinganagara. Having made adequate preparation, he undertook
expedition against the powerful Satavahan king, Satakarni-I in the second year. After the southern
campaign, Kharavela provided entertainment to his subjects in the third year. In the fourth regnal
year, Kharavela marched towards the territory of the Rathikas and Bhojakas and defeated them.
In 5th year, Kharavela extended the canal from the Tansulia road up to Kalinganagari. In the
sixth year of his reign, Kharavela remitted taxes . In the seventh year of his rule, Kharavela attained
fatherhood. In the eighth year of his reign, Kharavela led an expedition to the north. In the ninth year
of his rule, he built the 'Great Victory Palace.In the 10th year, Kharavela, who was the embodiment
of the principles of politics, diplomacy and peace directed the army towards North India for conquest
but the result was obscure.
In the eleventh year, he defeated a confederacy of southern powers. In the twelfth regnal
year, Kharavela led campaign against Bruhaspati Mitra, the Sunga ruler of Magadha with a vast army
and inflicted a crushing defeat on the Magadhan king. In the thirteenth year of his reign, Kharavela
probably gave up military activities and turned his attention towards religious pursuits. He built 117
caves at Kumari Parvata (Udayagiri) for Jaina monks, monks of other religion, sheers and Arhats. The
date of Kharavela is a highly controversial one. we may conclude that Kharavela could not be earlier
than second century B.C. and later than first century B.C. Most probably he belonged to first century
B.C.
However, N. K. Sahu has fixed up the chronology of Kharavela's reign, as follows:

(1)Establishment of Chedi rule in Kalinga -73 B.C.,(2) Birth of Kharavela-64 B.C,(3) Coronation-40 B.C.,
(4) Rule as Heir-apparent- 49-40 B.C. Thus, Kharavela was undoubtedly a great conqueror and empire
builder in the early phase of the Indian history.
Rise of local dynasties: Matharas, Sailodbhavas

and early eastern Ganga.
Odisha History
After Samundragupta's invasion many local dynasties rose to prominence in Odisha. The
history of Kalinga region underwent great change about the middle of the fourth century AD. after
the South India campaign of Sarnudragupta. The political situation of the period contributed to the
rise of a new ruling dynasty named Mathara.
About the middle of the fourth century, Vishakha Varman of the Mathara family succeeded in
organising a small principality in Kalinga region with its headquarters at Sripura identified with the
modern village Batiasripua near Paralakhemundi in Ganjam district. Maharaja Visakhavannan was
succeeded by Umavarman who was very likely his son. Maharja Saktivarman was an ambitious and
warlike ruler and succeeded in unifying the Northern and Southern Kalinga.
The Matharas ruled for one hundred and fifty years. Politically independent of the Gupta suzerainty,
the Mathara monarchs styled themselves as Maharajas, and Lords of Kalinga (Kalingadhipati). Their
rule provided a sound administrative set-up to the Kalinga region. In the political scenario of Odisha,
the Sailodbhavas emerged as a mighty power extending their sway from the Mahanadi in the north
to Mahendragiri in the south.
They ruled over Kongoda Mandala, roughly comprising the undivided Ganjam and Puri districts. The
Ekamra Purana. Kapila Samhita, Svarnadri Mahodaya and Hiuen Tsang's Si-yu-ki help a lot in
constructing the history of the Sailodbhavas. The origin of the Sailodbhavas is shrouded in mystery.
The Sailodbhava rule cannot be considered to be of much importance from the political point of
view.
They were feudatories, ruling over a small territory and asserted their independence at
opportune moments. Their historical significance lies in the fact that from them onwards we get a
regular dynastic history of Odisha. The Gangas of Kalinga are known in history as the Eastern Gangas
in analogy of the Gangas of Mysore who are known as the Western Gangas.63
The first historical ruler of the Eastern Ganga dynasty known from reliable record is Indravarman I
whose Jirjingi copperplate grant was issued in the Ganga year 39, i.e., 537 A.D. All these Ganga kings
ruled over a narrowly circumscribed region which they called Kalinga. They were hemmed by the
Eastern Chalukyas in the south and by the Sailodbhavas in the north.
About the middle of the eighth century A.D. king Harshadeva of Kamarupa claimed victory over
them. At the beginning of the 9th century A.D. the Pratihara king Nagabhata overran Kalinga and
Andhra. About the middle of the 9th century the Eastern Gangas were for sometime under the
Bhaurna Karas and the Eastern Chalukyas claim supremacy over Kalinga in the second half or that
century.
Thus, political condition of Odisha underwent a great change during this period. The Matharas ruled
for one hundred and fifty years. The Sailodbhavas ruled over Kongoda nearly about 200 years. During
their period, Brahmanism arose as a great religion over Kongoda. On the other hand, the early
Eastern Gangas ruled for more than five hundred years. At last, the Bhauma-Karas brought an end to
the Sailodbhava dynasty

Odisha History
The Bhaumakaras- Origin, Chronology and

Administration.
In the first, half, of the eighth century A. D. a dynasty called Bhauma or Kar (also known as
Bhaumakara) established its rule over the coastal belt of Odisha. The capital of this dynasty, called
Guhadevapataka or Guhesvarapataka was situated near modern Jajpur town of the Jajpur district.
The main literary source for constructing the history of the Bhauma-Karas are the Vishnu Purana,
Brahmanda Purana, Harivamsa Purana, Dathavamsa, Gandavyuha and Hududal-Alam etc. The
scholars have not been able to settle conclusively the origin and chronology of Bhaumas. After due
analysis, Biswarup Das has accepted the view of S. N. Rajguru who fixes it in 736 A.D. and most of the
scholars incline to accept this view.
Kshemankaradeva was the founder of the Bhauma-Kara dynasty in Odisha. Before him
anarchy had destoyed the social structure in this land.79 Kshemankaradeva was succeeded by his
worthy son Sivakaradeva I alias Unmattasimha or Unmatta Kesari. He was a mighty ruler and
followed the principle of extensive aggrandisement in the north-east and south-west. Subhakaradeva
I succeeded to his father Sivakaradeva I who had bequeathed a vast kindgom for his son. With the
accession of Sivakaradeva II, an inglorious chapter began in the history of the Bhauma-Karas.
The manner in which Shantikaradeva I succeeded his elder brother, proved to be a turning
point in the Bhauma history. To strengthen the Bhauma power, he cemented matrimonial alliance
with the Western Ganga king Rajamalla. The reign period of Subhakaradeva II is completely barren as
nothing glorious had been attained during his reign period.
Subhakaradeva was succeeded by his cousin Subhakaradeva III. His reign period, though short
marked a change in the Bhauma ruling family. The political history of Bhauma-Karas took a new turn
with the accession of Tribhuvana Mahadevi I. Shantikaradeva II succeeded Tribhuvana Mahadevl I
alias Gosvamini Devi. Shantikaradeva II was succeeded by his eldest son Subhakaradeva IV alias
Kusumahara II.
He has been praised highly in the contemporary records which depict him as a man
devoted to noble human virtues like magnanimity, gentleness royal behaviour and veracity. After
Sivakaradeva III, Prithivi Mahadevi alias Tribhuvana Mahadevi II ascended the throne.
Shantikaradeva III and Subhakaradeva V, the son of Sivakaradeva III succeeded Tribhuvana
Mahadevi III one after another. After Subhakaradeva V, the last male ruler of the Bhauma-Kara
dynasty, four female rulers like Gauri Mahadevi, Dandi Mahadevi, Vakula Mahadevi, Dharma
Mahadevi occupied the Bhauma throne one after another.80
The Bhauma-Karas gave a stable administration to the people of this land. The kings used
high sounding titles like 'Paramabhattaraka', 'Maharajadhiraja', 'Paramesvara etc. The form of
government was obviously monarchical and the Bhauma-Karas follow the law to primogeniture.
The Bhauma-Kara kings were the patrons of Buddhism. During their reign the Mahayana
Buddhism reached the pinnacle of celebrity in Odisha. The Buddhist art, architecture and sculpture
reached their perfection in Odisha during the Bhauma-Kara period. Thus, the Bhauma-Kara rule was
a landmark in the socio-cultural life of Odisha. It brought a stable administration with full control
over the feudatories.

Odisha History
The Somavamsis- Early History- dynastic history

and achievements of rulers: cultural significance
of the Somavamsi Rule.
The reign of the Somavamsis for two hundred years forms a glorious epoch in history of
Odisha. The Somavamsis, other wise known as Panduvamsis, ruled over Odisha from the middle of
the ninth century A.D. to the early part of the twelfth century A.D.
For the first time Kalinga, Utkala, Kongoda and Kosala were unified and brought under
one political authority. we get some information from the inscriptions like Banda Copper plates of
Tivaradeva, Adhavara plates of Mahanannararaja Banda plates of Mahasivagupta etc. Janmejaya I
was a powerful ruler of the Somavamsi dynasty who assumed high sounding titles like' Paramesvara',
'Paramabhattaraka,' 'Trikalingadhipati' etc. Yayati I was a brave warrior. Not only he crossed sword
with the Kalachuris but subdued the Bhanjas and held his sway over the Bhauma kingdom of Tosali.
After Yayati I, his son Bhimaratha ascended Somavamsi throne and his rule contributed in the
consolidation of the Somavamsi Empire and brought peace and tranquility in the country.
Dharmaratha who succeeded Bhimaratha was definitely a powerful ruler. As Dharmaratha died
issueless, his brother, Nahusa succeeded him to the throne of Kosala. Indraratha had been appointed
by Dharmaratha as the governor of Kalinga. Chandihara Yayati II was a mighty ruler of the Somavamsi
dynasty. Yayati II was a patron of Brahmanism.
Tradition credits him of inviting 10,000 Brahmins from Kanyakubja (Kanauj) to perform
Dasasvamedha sacrifice at Jajpur. Udyotakesari, who succeeded Yayati II, was a worthy son of an
illustrious father. With the accession of Janmejaya II, the son of Udyotakesari, disintegration of the
Somavamsi dynasty started. Janmejaya II was succeeded by his son Puranjaya I. Karnadeva was the
last known ruler of the Somavamsi dynasty who was the brother of Puranjaya.At last the Somavamsi
Kingdom fell a prey to the Gangas who established their sway over Utkala. The political unification of
Odisha under the Somavamsis brought with it an efficient administration.
The king was assisted by many important ministers and officers. The cultural contribution of
the Somavamsis is significant in many ways. The Somavamsi rulers were ardent Saivites. They helped
the growth and spread of Saivism by the construction of Siva temples and offer of liberal land grants
to the Saiva temples, priests and ascetics. They also tolerated other sects such as Jainism,
Vaishnavism and Saktism.
The Somavamsis left their imperishable legacy in the field of art and architecture. The Odishan
temple architecture which began in the Sailodbhava period reached the height of perfection towards
the close of the Somavamsi period.
The Odishan temple reached its complete form towards the close of the Somavamsi period. Out
of the numerous temples, built by the Somavamsis four are most magnificent Lingaraj, Brahmeswar,
Mukteswar and Rajarani (all in Bhubaneswar).
There was a phenomenal development in the field of Sanskrit learning and literature during
the Somavamsi period. The inscriptions of the period speak of the proficiency of the scholars in

Odisha History
Vedas, Vedanga, Smtitis, Puranas, medical sciences, Astrologgy, Arthasastra, Grammar, Poetry,
History, Political Science and Logic.
The land grants to the learned Brahmanas facilitated the study of Sanskritic literature. Thus,
the Somavamsi rule undoubtedly ushered a new era in the history of medieval Odisha
The Ganga- Sources, Political History,(

Anantavarman Chodagangadeva,
Anangabhimadeva and Narasimhadeva I)
The rise of the Imperial Gangas is a remarkable event in the history of Odisha. The
period of Ganga rule is considered as an era of vigorous imperial wars and conquests, hectic political
activities, sound administration and great cultural attainments. In fact, the Gangas as a rulling
dynasty appeared in the Odishan history towards the end of the fifth century A.D. and in the
eleventh century A.D., they emerged as a paramount power. The Draksaram temple inscription,
Kenduli plate, Korni copper plate, Nagari plate, Kendupatana plate, Jagannath temple inscription,etc.
form the main inscriptional scources of the imperial Gangas.
Among literary works, the Madala Panji, Tabaqat-i-Nasiri, Tarikh-i-Firoze Shahi, Ramacharita
and Kalingattuparani etc. which throw considerable light on the career and achievements of the
Ganga kings. The Ganga imperialism brought political stabilisation to Odisha in the medieval age. The
competent rulers of this dynasty like Chodagangadeva, Anangabhimadeva III and Narasimhadeva I
were great warriors and men of exceptional ability.
With the accession of Anantavarman Vajrahasta V in 1038 A.D. , the Gangas got freed
from the clutches of the Somavamsi kings. Vajrahasta V was succeeded by his son Devendra Varman
Rajarajadeva in 1070 AD. Anantavarman Chodagangadeva was a prominent king of the Ganga
dynasty. In the early years of his succession to power, Chodagangadeva had to face Chola threat.
Karnadeva or Karnakesari, the last ruler of the Somavamsi dynasty was defeated by Chodagangadeva.
By his extensive conquests, Chodagangadeva became the master of a vast kingdom

stretching from the river Ganges in the north to that of Godavari in the south. Though Kalinganagara
was the capital of his empire, but he made Sarangagarah another political head-quarter of the
empire.He also built several strong forts at Jajpur Kataka, Amaravati Kataka (near Chhatia) Choudwar
Kataka, Sarangagarh Kataka etc.
In order to give stabilisation and consolidation to the vast empire, Chodagangadeva introduced a
well organised administration. He was a great patron of literature and learning. His inscriptions bore
brilliant testimony of the fair knowledge of Sanskrit, Odia and Telegu literature that he possessed. His
construction of the temple of Jagannath at Puri and the endeavour to bring all religious faiths into
the fold of a single cult. i.e. the Jagannath cult was a landmark in the religious history of Odisha.
The next important king was Anangabhimadeva-III who ascended the throne in 1211 AD. The
greatest achievement of Anangabhimadeva III as a conqueror was his victory over the Kalachuris. The

Odisha History
Allalanatha temple inscription of Kanchipuram shows that Anangabhimadeva III transferred his
capital from Kalinganagar to Abhinava Varanasi Kataka (Cuttack) on the bank of river Mahanadi.
Anangabhimadeva III was a great warrior, administrator, diplomat, pious man, lover of scholars,
protector of all religious faiths, preserver of historical monuments etc. With the succession of
Narasimhadeva I to the Ganga throne in 1238 A.D. , the Ganga empire reached its zenith. After his
accession in 1238 A.D., Narasimha I followed the policy of aggressive imperialism. Narasimhadeva's
achievement as a builder was unparallel. The outstanding Sun temple at Konarka bears the testimony
in the field of art, architecture and sculpture.
He was a great patron of Sanskrit literature. Vidyadhara, his court poet composed his famous
Alankara work Ekavali which describes the achievements of Narasimhadeva I. Bhanudeva IV, the last
Ganga king, ascended the throne after the death of Narasimhadeva IV in 1414 till 1435 A.D.When he
was busy in his southern campaign against the Reddis, Kapilesvara Routraya, his trusted minister
betrayed him and by the help of the Brahmins usurped the throne in 1435 A.D. Thus, the Ganga
dynasty came to an end to the glorious reign of the Gangas.
Ganga Administration
In order to give stabilisation and consolidation to the vast empire, the Gangas introduced a
well organised administrative system. The Gangas devoted themselves for the material prosperity of
his subjects by executing various humanitarian and welfare projects. The four hundred years
unbroken rule of the Gangas gave a good opportunity for them to give good administration to the
subjects of the Ganga dynasty.
They had a superior conception of kingship. They intended at realising the Kautilyan idea
of providing Yogakshema to their subjects. They sought to work out the principle that the king must
be learned, ideal, efficient and capable of upholding justice and promoting the welfare of the people.
As the records of the Ganga rule show, kings like Vajrahasta-I, Anantavarman Chodagangadeva,
Ananqabhirnadeva-lll, Narasimhadeva-I, and Bhanudeva-I were wise, benevolent and accomplished
rulers.
The king was the pivot of the government. Among the powers of the king, appointment of
ministers, imposition of taxes, exemption of the subjects from taxes, building of temples, declaration
of war and conclusion of peace, grant of lands to Brahmins, etc. were prominent. Though the king
was the supreme head of the government, during the Ganga period, he exercised his authority in
consultation with the council of ministers. The Ganga kings were assisted by several officials like
Mantri, Purohita, Yuvaraja, Sandhivigrahika, Senapati, Dauvarika etc. For the administrative
convenience the Gangas divided the empire into a number of Mahamandalas (greater provinces).
The Ganga emperors maintained their rule over an extensive territory with the help of a powerful
army. The army men could be recruited from all the four varnas - Brahmana, Kshatriya , Vaishya and
Shudra. The army consisted of three wings elephantry, cavalry and infantry. During the Ganga period
the revenue system was sound. A variety of taxes like bheta, Voda, Paika, Ohour, Paridarsana etc.
were being collected as is gleaned from the Ganga inscriptions. One-sixth of the production of the
land was collected as the land revenue. According to the land settlement, undertaken by
Anangabhimadeva-1I1 of the Ganga dynasty had 9,49,60,000 acres of cultivable land in Odisha

Odisha History
during his rule. Besides land revenue other sources of income for the state were duties on exports,
imports and forest products and fines, court fees, salt tax etc.
Cultural significance of the Ganga rule

The cultural efflorescence of Odisha during the Ganga period was undoubtedly the
outcome of the able leadership, political stability, strong administration and economic prosperity.
In order to understand the cultural significance of Ganga dynasty, it is essential to know about
the society and condition of people during the Ganga period, the religion, art and architecture,
music, dance, language and literature, trade and commerce etc. During the Ganga period the
traditional Varna system(Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Sudra) was prevailed. During the Ganga
period women were held in esteem in the society specially in case of royal women.
In many of the donative records the donors state the names of their mothers. Royal ladies
were noted for their pious disposition and devotion to husbands. It appears that the royal ladies had
access to education and specialised forms of art like music and dance. The early Ganga rulers were
devout Saivites. But after capturing Odisha, the Gangas accepted Vaishnavism. They showed great
devotion to Purushottam-Jagannath who was regarded as a manifestation of Vishnu.
Chodagangadeva built the present gigantic temple of Lord Jagannath.

AnangabhimadevaIII declared that he ruled the empire as the Routa or deputy of Lord Jagannath.
The art and architecture of Odisha reached the zenith of glory in the constant and strenuous building
activities of the great Ganga monarchs like Chodaqanqadeva, Anangabhimadeva-III and
Narasimhadeva-1. The Gangas built two unrivaled and beautiful monuments - the Jagannath temple
of Puri and the Sun temple of Konark.
Being learned and cultured themselves, the Ganga monarchs extended their patronage
to the promotion of learning. They offered land grants to the learned Brahmins, temples and maths
(monasteries). During this era there were a number of intellectual luminaries in Odisha. Pandit
Vidyadhar ( Ekavali ), Jayadeva (Gita Govinda), Shridhar Acharya and Nilambar Acharya (the Smriti
writers), Viswanath Kaviraj (Sahitya Darpan), and Satyananda (the astronomer who wrote Surya
Siddhanta) belong to Ganga period.
During this period some stone and copper plate inscriptions of the Ganga period clearly
indicate that Odia language and script took a definite shape. The Ganga monarchs were great patron
of music and dance. The Natamandapas (Dancing Halls) of the temples were the places where the
Devadasis (the maidens dedicated to the temples) were performing dances to the tune of
compositions and musical instruments. The Ganga temples, particularly the Natamandapas are full of
singing and dancing girls in ecstatic postures with musical instruments found in the panels.The
development of cultural activities of Odisha during the Ganga period was possible due to her
economic prosperity. During this period Odisha continued her ancient commercial relation with
South East Asian countries.
Thus, the four hundred years of glorious rule of the Gangas is unique in many sense in the
history of medieval Odisha. The overall socio-economic-political and cultural pictures of this period
testify to the fact that peace and tranquility prevailed all over the empire during the period of the
mighty rulers of the Ganga dynasty.

Odisha History
Society and Economy- during the Bhaumakara,

Somavamsis and the Ganga Period.
Change and continuity has been the way of social life in ancient and
medieval Odisha along with the rise and fall of empires in Odisha. The glorious rule of the Bhauma-
Karas, the Somavamsis, and the Gangas, contributed a lot to preserve the social and economic
structure of this land. Although the Bhauma rulers were Buddhists, they accepted the Brahmanical
socioreligious order. They tried to enforce the Varnashrama, i.e., division of society into four Varnas
(Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra). The Neulpur charter of Subhakaradeva I states that
Kshemankardeva put Varnas in their proper places. The Terundia charter of Subhakaradeva II states
that he established the Varnashrama system in accordance with the scriptures. In the Varna system,
the Brahmins enjoyed the highest position in the society of and belonged to the first order.
It is known from many inscriptions of the Bhauma-Karas that Brahmins belonging to

several gotras like Bharadwaja, Kausika, Visvamitra, Sandilya, Kashyapa, Atreya, etc. settled in Odisha.
The Kshatriyas occupied their position in the society next to the Brahmins. They were warrior class
and shouldered the responsibility to protect the country from internal rebellion and external
aggression. Besides fighting they administered the country. The Vaisyas belonged to trading class
who resorted to cultivation, cowherdship, trade and commerce. Generally, prosperity of the land
depended largely upon the people of this community. In the traditional class structure, the Sudras
occupied the lowest position. The Sudras were drawn from the community that consisted of artisans,
craftsmen, petty agriculturists, servants etc.
Sanskrit language was used in the inscriptions and literature of the Bhaumakara period. The Buddhist
manuscript, Gandavyuha was written in Sanskrit. The Bhauma rulers were learned and cultured who
extended their patronage to the institutions of learning.
Women enjoyed high position in the society during the Bhaumakara period. A striking
feature of the Bhauma rule was that it provided a number of female rulers. The women of Bhauma
period were fond of various hair styles, cosmetics, perfumes and ornaments. The Bhauma rulers
collected moderate tax from their subjects. Land grants were also given to the religious institutions
like monasteries and temples and Brahmins.
An established social structure and sound economic condition helped the rulers of the Somavamsi
and Ganga period to construct beautiful temples in Odisha and to look after the welfare of the
subjects. The Somavamsis had adopted the Varnashrama dharma i.e., traditional division of the
society into four Varnas (Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Sudra), and gave the highest status to the
Brahmanas. On the other hand the traditional Varna system prevailed during the Ganga period.The
Kayasthas or the Karanas were a hereditary class of writers.
The Ganga inscriptions narrate how rice, ghee, curd, milk, pulse, curries and payasa (rice
cooked with milk) etc. were offered as bhoga (offerings) to the deities in the temples. There was a
phenomenal development in the field of Sanskrit learning and literature during the Somavamsi
period. Some stone and copper plate inscriptions of the Ganga period clearly indicate that Odia
language and script took a definite shape during this period. The Ganga monarchs extended
patronage to the development of music and dance. Women enjoyed respectable status in the
Somavamsi society.

Odisha History
The economy of the Somavamsi and the Ganga rulers was based upon various types of
revenue collected from land, agriculture, industry, products, trade and commerce etc. Land revenue
was the major source of income for the Somavamsi and Ganga government. One-sixth of the
production of the land was collected as the land revenue. Along with agriculture, several industries
also grew during the Somavamsi and Ganga period. Besides agricultures, industries also helped a lot
for the enhancement of economy.
Medieval History: Odisha
The Suryavamsi Gajapati : Sources, Political

history( Kapilendradeva, Purusattomadeva,
Prataprudradeva)
The Ganga dynasty was followed by the establishment of the rule of another glorious
dynasty known as the Suryavamsi Gajapatis. For personal glorification, the rulers of this dynasty
claimed their descent from the mythical solar dynasty to which Lord Ramachandra belonged. As they
possessed large elephantry in their army, they were popularly known as Gajapatis, i.e. the lords of
the elephants. The history of Suryavamsi Gajapatis of Odisha is based on (1) Literary sources , and (2)
Inscriptions.
The political history of the Suryavamsi Gajapatis started with Kapilendradeva who
ascended the throne in 1435 A.D. Just after his accession in 1435 AD., he found the throne of Odisha
as full of problems. In the South, the Reddi rulers of Rajahmumdry were extending their frontiers
further north. Form the North, the country was threatened by the Sultan of Bengal. The distant
Malwa also tried to take advantage of the revolution of local chiefs and feudatories to acknowledge
the suzerainty of Kapilendradeva. Kapilendradeva introduced 'Kapilabda' in the 7th year of his rule.
Kapilendra had won victory over Bengal or Gauda, Rajahmundry, Kondavidu, etc. He breathed his last
most probably in 1466-67 A.D. He was a great military genious, an accomplished scholar, patron of
learning and literature and a great builder.
Purusottamadeva was a unique personality among the Suryavamsi Gajapati kings of Odisha.
His assumption of power in 1467 A.D. by the 'Will of God Jagannath' as Kapilendradeva had pointed
out, marked a fratricidal war with Hamvira, his older brother. Taking an opportunity of the civil war
that took place between Purusottamadeva and Hamvira, Saluva Narasimha had occupied a large slice
of Odishan territory extending his sway as far as Masulipatam, in the north sometimes before 1476

Odisha History
A.D. Taking advantage of the Mal-administration of Bahamani, Purusottama fished in that troubled
water and easily conquered Rajahmundry and Kondavidu early in 1484 A.D.
Purusottama, with his army, marched to Udayagiri, defeated and imprisoned Saluva Narasimha
who purchased his freedom by surrendering Udayagiri and offering his daughter to Purusottama who
is associated with 'Kanchi-Kaveri legend'. It can be stated that the task was accomplished sometimes
before 1489-90 A.D. Prataparudradeva ascended the throne after the death his father
Purusottarnadeva He was the last Gajapati ruler in the realm. The Anantavaram and Rajavolu plates
together testify to the fact that by 1500- 1501 A.D. Prataparudra had encamped on the banks of river
Krishna.
When Prataparudra was encamping in the distant South, Hussain Shah was trying to cross the
border. A clash between the Odishan army and that of Bengal took place. Krishnadevaraya first
attacked Udayagiri in 1512 A. D. He besieged the fort with his strong army.
When Prataparudradeva became weak after the reverses at the hands of Krishnadevaraya,
Quli Qutb Shah, a general of Sultan Mahmud Shah of Baharnani kingdom who hadcarved out an
independent kingdom at Golkunda, invaded the southern province of Odisha. Prataparudradeva led a
painful life till his death in 1540 A.D. No doubt, Prataparudradeva paved the way for the decline of
medieval Odisha, but his reign period was maked with a tremendous growth of both Sanskrit and
Odia literature and progress of Vaisnavism in Odisha
Suryavamsi Administration
The Vast empire of the Suryavamsi Gajapatis extended from the river bank of the
Ganges to that of Godavari. In order to give stability to the vast empire, the Gajapati rulers had given
a good administration. The Suravamsi Gajapatis had given a benevolent administration to their
subjects. The Gajapati rulers were benevolent in nature. The Suryavamsis mainly based their
administration on that of the Gangas and introduced a few innovations. The king enjoyed the
supreme power in the state, but his powers were to some extent, checked by the ministers and
generals and the priestly class who, as observed earliar, were the custodians of Lord Jagannatha.
The Suryavamsi rulers also subscribed to the theocratic conception that Lord Jagannatha
was the real king of Odisha and they were their deputies. Kapilendra, Purushottama and
Prataparudra in the beginning of their reigns paid homage to this great deity and presented certain
objects to him and recognized him as their overlord. From the reign of Kapilendra the Suryavamsi
kings assumed high-sounding titles such as Maharajadhiraja, Paramesvara, Gajapati, Gaudesvara,
Navakoti Karnataka Kalavargesvara etc.
The king was assisted by a good number of ministers and officers in discharging his duty. The land
revenue system of the Gajapati period was well developed. The Gajapati kings like that of the Gangas
were famous for their military organisation. The Suryavamsi records however enable us to form a
clear picture of their military organisations.
Sarala Dasa's Mahabharata also gives us an idea about the different divisions of the Gajapati
army on march. Sarala Dasa also gives us a picture of an army on the move, in which flags and other

Odisha History
decorative devices were used and the musical instruments such as Damalu, Dadama Tamaka,
Bijighosa, Daundi, Ghumura, Bheri, Turi, Ranasinga etc. were sounded. Coming to the judicial system
of the time, it was quite effcient in discharging its function. The provincial administration under the
Gajapati kings was quite efficient. The empire was divided into several provinces known as
Dandapata or Rajya. The governors of such provinces were designated Parikhas or Rajas.
The Gajapati empire was also divided into fragments, each under a Samanta or feudal lord. It is
clear that feudalism was at its blooming phase during the Gajapati rule. The forts played a vital role
in the military system of the Gajapatis. The Odishan kings occupied the old forts or established new
ones in the entire stretch of
their empire.
The Chalukya and Bhoi

The dynasty established by Mukundadeva has been described as the Chalukya dynasty.
It is usual for the ruling dynasties of Odisha to associate their origin with the famous ruling dynasties
of India. Mukundadeva might have done the same after ascending the Gajapati throne.
Mukundadeva is considered as the last Hindu king of Odisha. In Odishan traditions Mukundadeva is
known as Telinga Mukundadeva. Mukundadeva's inscription of Draksharama, referred to above,
clearly indicates that he was in possession of the southern part of the Gajapati kingdom upto the
river Godavari.
In A.D. 1568 when Sultan of Bengal invaded Odisha Akbar was engaged in the seige of
Chitor and he did not extend any help to the Odishan king probably with the object that Odisha
should become a part of Bengal, so that he would ultimately annex Bengal with Odisha. Placed in this
predicament, Mukundadeva was attacked by Sulaiman Karrani in A.D. 1568 who sent an expedition
under the comand of his son Bayazid assisted by Sikandar Uzbeg and Kalapahara. Thus,
Mukundadeva ruled for only eight years and during this short time he showed great abilities.
He again became the master of the Gajapati kingdom stretching from the Ganges in the north
to the Godavari in the south. Govinda Vidyadhara ascended the throne of Odisha when the land was
passing through political upheavel. With his assumption of power, he wanted to exert his influence
upon the people of Odisha by adopting the title 'Suvarna Kesari' as gleaned from the Narasimha
temple inscriptions at Simhachalam. Chakrapratapa succeeded his father Govinda Vidyadhara in or
about 1549 A.D. Narasimha Jena ascended the throne in 1557 A.D. Raghurama Chhotaraya
succeeded his elder brother Narasimha Jena to the throne of Bhoi dynasty.
The accession of Ramachandradeva to the throne of Bhoi dynasty at Khurda marks a

glorious epoch for that dynasty. The Madala Panji describes him belonging to the Yadu Vamsa. After
his accession, Rarnachandradeva wanted to extend his boundary in every directionnorth, south, east
and west. Purusottamadeva succeeded his father Ramachandradeva in 1607 A.D. After the death of
Purusottamadeva, his son Narasimhadeva ascended the throne of Khurda in 1622 A.D. The death of
Narasimhadeva enabled Gangadharadeva, a nephew of the deceased king by the help of Mutquad
Khan, the Governor of Odisha. This led to a great resentment among the subjects and some officials
of the king. By taking their help, Balabhadradeva, the elder brother of Narasimhadeva, killed
Gangadhara and ascended the throne in 1648 A.D.

Odisha History
With the death of Balabhadradeva, his son Mukundadeva I succeeded him to the throne of
Khurda in 1659 A.D. Divyasinghadeva I, who succeeded his father in 1688 A.D. With the death of
Divyasinghadeva, his younger brother Harekrishnadeva succeeded him. The accession of
Gopinathadeva gave a halt to the conflict with the Mughals which was a regular feature of the Bhoi
dynasty.
With Ramachandradeva II, another turbulent phase began in the history of Bhoi dynasty. The
death of Ramachandredeva II created a vacuum in the political history of the Bhoi dynasty for some
time. To put an end to this malady, Padmanavadeva, the king of Patia was appointed as king of
Khurda by Mir Habib. Birakishoradeva was the right choice of Raja Ramachandradeva II to the throne
of Khurda.
The reign period of Divyasimhadeva II, though short, was marked with achievements.
Mukundadeva II became the king of Khurda in 1798 A.D. The Bhois maintained an efficient
administration. King was at the apex of the administrative set up. The succession to the throne was
in conformity with law of primogeniture. Like the Gajapati age, the Bhoi period also witnessed
tremendous progress in Odia literature.
Decline and disintegration of Medieval Odishan

Kingdom.
Different factors contributed a lot for the decline of medieval Odishan empire.
The law of nature i.e. each dynasty has its own birth, growth and decline was also applicable in case
of the Gajapati empire in medieval Odisha. With the death of Prataparudradeva, the Gajapati empire
did not get a good successor. The great fratricidal war between Hamvira and Purusottamadeva, the
two sons of Kapilendradeva, sowed the seeds of dissension in the Gajapati empire.
The Muslim rulers posed great menace to the policy of territorial expansion of the
Gajapati rulers. Krishnadevaraya of the Vijayanagara empire became a potent threat to the very
existence of the Gajapati kingdom. Prataparudradeva was encompassed with insurmountable
problems that broke his mental strength.The treachery of Govinda Vidyadhara was a potent factor
for the decline of medieval Odisha. The medeval Odishan army which was instrumental in building
the vast empire of the Gajapati's, became weak during the period of Prataparudradeva.
Vaishnavism in Odisha under Sri Chaitanya was a great factor for the downfall of
medieval Odisha. The period that followed the death of Prataparudradeva was one of the situations,
full with anarchy and confusion. Undoubtedly, by conducting several, war and undertaking various
military campaigns, the treasury of the Gajapati kings became empty. When peace was to be
restored, it was the apathy of the feudatory chiefs towards Mukundadeva that prepared the way for
the downfall of medieval Odisha. Lack of unity and solidarity among the chieftains after the fall of the
Gajapati empire, pave the way for the Muslim invasion. Taking the anarchy and confusion of Odisha
into consideration, Sulaiman Karrani, the Afghan ruler of Bengal, dispatched an army under the
leadership of his son, Bayazid and General, Kalaphahad. Thus, the above causes were responsible for
the decline of medieval Odisha.

Odisha History
Sri Chaitanya faith in Odisha: its Impact
The coming of Sri Chaitanya to Odisha opened a new chapter in the religious
history of Odisha. The Vaishanavite religion which was already in existence had a deep impact in the
mind of the people of Odisha. Sri Chaitanya faith in Odisha has a deep impact on the life and culture
of the people of this land. He was born in a Brahmin family in 1486 A.D. which had migrated from
Jaipur to Navadvipa. As a boy, Visvambhara was handsome, prodigious and naughty. He was also
known as Gouranga for his fair complexion. He lost his father at the age of eighteen. Soon after his
father's death, he married a girl, named Lakshmidevi. Lakshmidevi died of snake bite within a short
time after the marriage. Thereafter Visvambhara took a second wife, named Vishnupriya. After the
second marriage, he went to Gaya to offer pinda to his ancestors. At this stage he was initiated into
the cult of Bhakti by a Vaishnava saint, named Isvara Purl. The religious atmosphere of the Vishnu
temple of Gaya, where Viswambhara offered panda.
In 1509 A.D., at the age of twenty four, he left home, and taking the vow of Sanyasa from
Keshav Bharati and the name, Sri Krishna Chaitanya, he proceeded to Puri with some of his
associates. In Odisha Sri Chaitanya roused a great deal of religious devotion and enthusiasm. His
Sankirtan parties attracted a large number of people at Puri. On his arrival at Purl, he had a religious
discussion with the great Vedantic scholar, Vasudeva Sarbabhauma, who enjoyed the patronage of
the Gajapati Prataparudra. Defeated in the discussion and impressed by the religious personality of
Sri Chaitanya Sarbabhauma embraced Vaishnavism.
From Puri, Sri Chaitanya proceeded to south, and in June 1509 A.D., met Roy Ramananda, the
governor of Rajamahendri. His faith roused religious devotion among all sections of society,
undermined the rigours of caste distinctions and reinforced the Vaishnavism of Odisha. Sri Chaitanya
died at Puri before the image of Jagannath on 29th June 1533 A,D. All the Panchasakha poets were
the contemporaries of Sri Chaitanya and were initiated by him. Nevertheless the Panchasakha,
instead of blindly following Chaitanya faith maintained their distinctiveness by sticking to the concept
of void and identifying the same with Lord Krishna. Thus, Sri Chaitanya and Vaishnvaism had a long
march in the religious and cultural history of Odisha.
Panchasakha and Bhakti Movements
The famous five Saints or five Friends of medieval Odisha were collectively known as Pancha
Sakhas. They were Balarama Das, Jagannatha Das, Achyutananda Das, Yasobanta Das and Sisu
Ananta Das. They started their own Sampradaya, preaching Bhakti for Radha and Krishna in Odisha
before the arrival of Chaitanya, following a tradition that had been established by Jayadeva‟s Gita
Govinda. The Pancha Sakha have played a great role in the religious and socio-cultural history of
Odisha. Balaram Das was born between 1472 and 1482 in Erabanga village at Gop (near Konarak). His
father was Somanatha Mahapatra and his mother was Mahamaya Devi. He is sometimes called
Matta Balarama, because of his disregard for social conventions in favor of ecstatic Bhakti. He used to
participate to the discussions on Vedanta in the Mukti Mandapa in the Jagannatha temple (inspite of

Odisha History
the resentment of the Brahmins), and it is said that anyone who touched his head would become
instantly able to explain the philosophy of Vedanta.
Balarama Das wrote the famous Jagamohana or Dandi Ramayana. He had also written Gita
Abakasa, Bhava samudra, Gupta Gita, Vedanta Sara, Mriguni Stuti, Saptanga yogasara tika, Vedanta
sara or Brahma tika, Baula gai gita, Kamala locana chotisa, Kanta koili, Bedha parikrama, Brahma gita,
Brahmanda bhugola, Vajra kavaca, Jnana chudamani, Virat gita, Ganesh vibhuti, Amarakosha Gita,
Lakshmi Purana (which is very popular in Odisha).
Achyutananda Das was born in Tilakana near Nemala, Cuttack, in 1485; his father was
Dinabandhu Khuntia and his mother‟s name was Padmavati. Achyutananda also translated into Odia
and commented Harivamsa, Tattva bodhini, Sunya samhita, Jyoti samhita, Gopala Ujjvala, Baranasi
Gita, Anakara Brahma Samhita, Abhayada Kavacha, Astagujari, Sarana panjara stotra, Vipra chalaka,
Mana mahima.
Jagannath Das was born in Kapilesvarapur or Kapilesvar grama (one of the 16

traditional Sasana villages) at 14 kms from Puri towards Brahmagiri, on the day of Radhastami of
1487 (some say in 1490). Jagannatha Das wrote also Gupta Bhagavat, Tula vina, Sola chapadi, Chari
chapadi, Tola bena, Daru brahma gita, Diksa samyad, Artha koili, Muguni stuti, Annamaya kundali,
Goloka sarodhara, Bhakti chandrika, Kali malika, Indra malika, Niladri vilasa, Nitya gupta chintamani,
Sri Krishna bhakti kalpa lata and other books.His main disciples were Uddhava, Ramachandra,
Gopinatha, Hari Das, Nandani Acharya, Vamani Mahapatra, Srimati Gaura, Gopala Das, Akhandala
Mekapa, Janardana Pati, Krishna Das, Vanamali Das, Govardhana Das, Kanai Khuntia, Jagannatha Das
and Madhusudana Das.
Yashobanta Das was born in 1482 near Aranga Nandi village, district of Cuttack, in a kshatriya
family. He wrote Govinda chandra, Shiva sarodaya, Sasti mala, Prema bhakti, Brahma gita, Atma
pariche gita, a Malika and several bhajans. Sisu Ananta Das was born in Balipatna village, near
Bhubaneswara, in 1488. His father‟s name was Kapila, and his mother‟s Gaura Devi. He wrote the
Bhakti mukti daya gita, one of the oldest and most important popular scriptures of Odisha, and other
texts like Sisu Deva gita, Artha tarani, Udebhakara, Tirabhakana, a Malika and several bhajan songs.
Bhakti movements had played a significant role in the religious history of ancient and
medieval Odisha. The five Friends all came in contact with Chaitanya, who arrived in Sri Kshetra in
1510, and often associated with him and his followers. The liberality of the Pancha sakhas
antagonized the Brahmins, who disparaged the Oryia translations of the Mahabharata, Ramayana,
Bhagavata and Harivamsa compiled by Sarala, Balarama, Jagannatha and Achyutananda. The five
Friends preached the Vaishnava dharma or ninefold process of Bhakti and chanting the Holy Names
(Harinama), giving more importance to the realization of the soul rather than worship of the Deities.
The most important aspect of their preaching was the abolition of all discriminations
among Vaishnavas, no matter from which caste or background they came. Achyutananda, Yasovanta,
Balarama and Ananta met a strong opposition from the casteconscious Brahmins. The Pancha Sakhas
preached that Lord Krishna/Jagannatha could be worshiped as Sunya, “void”, a particular “non-
shape” that transcended the Deity in the temple and therefore could be accessible by everyone at all
times. Thus, the Panchasakhas and Bhakti movement had a great impact on the socio-religious and
cultural life of the people of Odisha.

Odisha History
Muslim conquest of Odisha, Mughal -Afghan

Conflict
The Muslim conquest of Odisha created a new chapter in the medieval history of
Odisha. Mukundadeva, the last independent Hindu king of Odisha was killed by the Afghans in 1568
A.D. With this the independence of medieval Odisha came to an end. After that the local rulers
became mere puppets in the hands of the Afghan Governors of Bengal. The invasion of Bayazid and
Kalapahada in 1568 A.D. established Muslim rule over Odisha for the first time under the Afghans
and then under the Mughals. With the arrival of Akbar, Daud left Bihar and returned to Bengal.Patna
fell in the clutch of the Mughals. Munim Khan pursued Daud upto Bengal and occupied it. Daud fled
again to Cuttack and remained unsubdued in Odisha. Under the leadership of Todarmal, the Mughal
army followed Daud and did not halt on the way until they reached Kaikalghati (Bhadrak) which is
described the Ain-i-Akbari. In the mean while, Daud and other Afghans gathered inside the fort of
Barabati at Cuttack.
The surrender of Daud Karrani was a mere eye-wash. He was in search of an opportunity to launch a
war against the Mughals. The chance came to him with the death of Munim Khan on 23 October,
1575 A.D. The Mughal officers and army returned to Bhagalpur en route to Delhi at the approach of
Daud. Now, Daud consolidated his position over Bengal and Odisha. Having heard this news, Akbar
appointed Husain Quli Beg entitled Khen-i-Jenen, to lead an expedition against the Afghans assisted
by Todarmal. From 1576 A.D. to 1605 AD., nearly thirty years were spent by the Mughal officers of
Bengal to drive away the Afghans from Odisha but they were very much unsuccessful in their
mission.
After the fall of Daud, Odisha was annexed to Akbar's empire. After regularizing the administration of
Odisha, Todarmal returned to Delhi in 1582 AD. The Mughals had their sway over Bengal but Odisha
remained the stronghold of the Afghan Chiefs until it was finally conquered by Man Singh in 1593
A.D.
The treaty between the Afghans and Mughals was signed on 15 August, 1590 A.D. Being hard
pressed by the Mughal army, the Afghans could not maintain their stand at Cuttack. Their stronghold,
Cuttack fell into the hands of the Mughals. The Afghans fled away to the fort of Sarangagarh. After a
weak resistance, the Afghans surrendered and Sarangagarh fell. Man Singh besieged Khurda
Ramachandradeva showed his loyalty at Akbar and made peace with Man Singh in 1593. With the
surrender of Ramachandradeva in 1593, the Mughal conquest of Odisha was complete and that put
an end to the Afghan rule in Odisha. Hence, Odisha permanently formed a part of the Mughal empire
till it was conquered by the Marathas.
Odisha under the Mughal rule: Akbar, Jahangir,

Shahajahan and Aurangzeb.

Odisha History
The Mughals established their rule in Odisha in 1593 A.D. Prior to it, Akbar had
taken steps to implement Mughal administration in Odisha.With the death of Daud Karrani, Raja
Todarmal had arranged peaceful administration in Odisha. By the will of Akbar, peace with
Ramachandradeva was made. With the death of Akbar, Jahangir ascended the throne in 1605 A.D.
He did not follow the liberal policy pursued by Akbar. He intervened in the internal administration of
Khurda and the temple of God Jagannath. Odisha became a separate Suba. At the time of Car
festival, when the images of God Jagannath, Balabhadra and Subhadra were in the Gundicha house,
Keso Das Maru entered into the Jagannath temple with his Rajput soldiers having a plea to visit the
temple. He tortured the priests of the temple and seized property estimated more than two crores of
rupees. With the termination of the governorship of Hasim Khan, Raja Kalyanmal was appointed by
Jahangir as the Governor of Odisha in 1611 A.D. After kalyanmal, Mukarram Khan was appointed by
Jahangir as Governor of Odisha in 1617 A.D. After the assumption of charges, he was grossly indulged
in iconoclastic activities. By this time Prince Khurram (Shah Jahan) revolted against Jahangir and from
the Deccan he came to Odisha via Golkunda.
After the acession of Shah Jahan to the Mughal throne in 1628 AD. Muhmmad Baqar
Khan was appointed as the Governor of Odisha. Baqar Khan was succeeded by Mutaqad Khan as
Governor of Odisha in 1632 AD. Baqar Khan was succeeded by Mutaqad Khan as Governor of Odisha
in 1632 AD. He granted permission to Captain Ralph Cartwright to establish English factory at
Hariharpur where there was a colony of weavers.
From the accounts of William Burton, it is known that the British East India Company had
its factories in Balasore and undivided Cuttack districts during this time. Mutaqad Khan constructed
Lalbagh palace at Cuttack. After him, there were seven Governors of Odisha among whom' the rule
of Muhammad Zaman Teherani from 1642-1645 A.D. was significant. The chaos and confusion that
prevailed in Odisha during the rule of Prince Shujah, came to drastic end with the accession of
Aurangzeb in 1658 A.D.
During his initial years of administration, Mir Jumal established law and order in Bengal
and sent Ihtishan Khan to assume the authority of Odisha. After taking over the charge as the
Subahdar of Odisha, he issued a proclamation that Khutba should be read in the name or Aurangzeb
in all the mosques of Odisha. Khan-i-Dauran breathed his last in September 1667 A.D. He was
succeeded by Tarbiyat Khan who remained in this charge till 1669 A.D.
He was succeeded by Safi Khan known as 'Ruffee Ckanna Naboob,' of Odisha by the
English writers. Aurangzeb was a staunch Sunni Musim and a religious bigot out and out. He
appointed Junaid as the Muhtasib for the propagation of Islam in Odisha. Several Hindu temples
including goddess Sarala at Jhankada in the present Jagatsinghpur district and a good number of
temples at Jajpur were demolished by his order. In 1662 A.D., Aurangzab issued order for the
destruction of Jagannath temple at Puri. However, Raja Divyasimhadeva of Khurda bribed the
Subahdar who not only reported a pretended destruction of the Jagannath temple at Puri before
Aurangzeb but also sent a fake image of Lord Jagannath to him. Lastly, the Naib Nizams of Bengal
played a dominant role in discharging the administration of Odisha.
Odisha under the Naib-Nizams

Odisha History
During Aurangzeb's reign period, the Mughal Empire passed through
many threatening circumstances caused by the Qutb Shahis and Adil Shah is of Deccan, Sikhs,
Rajputs and several other local chiefs. So, it was not possible on his part to sent Governors from
Delhi to maintain the administration in Odisha. When Murshid Quli Khan took over the charge of the
administration of Odisha, virtually, passed into the hands of the Naib Nizams of Bengal until the
Marathas established their sway over it. Emperor Aurangzeb was quite aware of the ability of
Murshid Quli Khan. The former had appointed the latter as the Diwan of Bengal and Odisha.
The Subahdar of Bengal by that time, was Prince Muhammad Azim-us-Shah (son of Bahadur
Shah-I and grandson of Aurangzeb). The long cherished desire of Murshid Quli Khan was fulfilled. In
1717 AD., another feather to the crowned cap of Murshid Quli was added when he was declared as
the Subahdar of Bengal in addition to his usual charge of Odisha. With the death of Murshid Quli
Khan, the throne of Bengal was occupied by his son in law Suja-ud-din Muhammad Khan. As he was
very apt in dealing with the Mughals, immediately after his accession to the throne of Bengal in 1727
AD. It has been stated that Suja-ud-din remained busy in the affairs of Bengal and sent Taqi Khan, his
son to look after the administration of Odisha. Taqi Khan became the deputy Governor of Odisha and
he dealt with Raja Ramachandradeva of Khurda scorn and contempt. During his deputy
governorship, Raja Ramachandradeva was converted to Islam faith and was also kept captive in the
fort' of Barabati.His longing towards God Jagannath and desire to perform the festivals of the God,
led Taqi Khan to invade Khurda. At the death of Taqi Khan in 1735 A.D., Murshid Quli Khan II was sent
immediately by Suja-ud-din as deputy Subahdar to look after the administration of Odisha. With the
victory at Phulwari, Odisha was virtually under the grip of Alivardi. Without following Murshid Quli
Khan II, Alivardi proceeded towards Cuttack to capture the family of Murshid Quli.
However, that family had been rescued by the Raja of Khurda. The fort of Barabati and the wealth
abandoned by the family or Murshid Quli fell in his hands. Alivardi appointed Sayyid Ahmad as the
Governor of Odisha and left Gujar Khan, one of his trusted generals to assist the Governor in
discharging the administration. Sayyid Ahmad was never a good ruler.
The Mughal system of revenue administration under went a change in Odisha during
Murshid Quli Khan's Subahdarship. For the administrative point of view, he separated Midnapur from
the Subah of Odisha. During the rule of the Naib Nizams of Bengal, the administration of God
Jagannath also received attention. During Taqi Khan, a great disturbance took place in the
management of temple administration. During the rule of the Naib Nizams, the Muslim monuments
were built in Cuttack and Balasore. Local zamindars were instructed to look after the festivals of the
Hindus and Muslims as well. The local participation in the administration was a general feature
during this period. In military administration, the soldires were recruited from this land. Thus, the
incapability on the part of the Mughal rulers led the Naib Nizams of Bengal to look after the
administration of Odisha.
Muslim Administration in Odisha

During the Afghan period no change in the administration took place as they were
always busy in fighting with the Mughals. They only confined themselves in collecting revenue. But
the Mughals introduced some changes in the administration, particularly revenue administration.
Under them Odisha was divided into two political zones. The princely states, mostly hilly, which were
ruled by the tributary chiefs and Rajas were called Garjats.Besides that the areas in coastal belt
under the direct administration of the Mughals were called as Moghulbandi area.

Odisha History
The Mughals introduced an efficient administrative system. Todarmal divided Odisha into five
Sarkars in 1582 A.D. The prime motive of the Mughals was to get a huge amount of revenue from
Odishan soil. Keeping that end in view, Todarmal, the great revenue minister of Akbar introduced his
bandobast (settlement) in Odisha which was famous as Tankhwah Raqmi. Accordingly, Odisha was
divided into two parts- the Mughalbandi and Garjat. The area which remained under the direct
administration of the Mughals was called Mughalbandi. The Garjats were the area which remained
under the direct administration of the native kings, who submitted to the Mughals by paying a fixed
annual Peshkash. In 1728 A.D. Murshid Quli Khan introduced a new system in Odisha known as
Jamma Kamal.
Among the revenue officers of the Mughals, the Choudhuries, Muqaddams, and
Quanungoes played dominant role in revenue collection. In the Garjat administration, however, very
little changes were made. The feudatory kings were called zamindars. Though, in the field of religion,
Mughal administration had taken a tolerant view during Akbar and Shah Jahan's period, this was not
the same during Aurangzeb's regime. During his reign period, the administration of the temple of
God Jagannath at Puri got a set back and some festivals of the temple could not be performed in
proper time. Aurangzeb championed the cause of the Muslims in Odisha. Thus, the Muslim
administration in Odisha was not marked with much worth
Muslim-Maratha Conflict, Maratha Occupation of

Odisha
The disintegration of the Mughal empire cast an evil shadow upon Odisha. On the otherhand,
the Marathas became powerful and wanted to assert their power all over the country. The Bhonsles
of Nagpur under Raghuji gave a new guidance to the Marathas over Odisha thereby directly bringing
a rift with Alivardi Khan, the Nawab of Bengal.
The causes of the Maratha invasion of Odisha were not too far to seek. Raghuji Bhonsle of
Nagpur failed to dominate over Sahu due to the superior strength of Baji Rao and contemplated
plunder in the direction of north-east of his dominion. On 19 April 1742, Barabati fort fell in the
clutch of the Marathas. When Alivardi came back to Murshidabad, Raghuji Bhonsle fell upon Odisha
like a meteor and proceeded towards Bengal to realise Chauth from Alivardi after plundering Cuttack.
This treacherous deed of Alivardi Khan made Raghuji furious who led his vigorous campaign against
Odisha. On 12 May, 1745, the fort of Barabati fell in the hands of Raghuji. The peace treaty was
concluded in 1751 between the Marathas and Muslims. Mir Habib met Raghuji when Alivardi Khan
killed Murshid Quli Khan II. Right from that time, he determined to avenge the death of his master
Murshid Quli. Mirza Saleh, the nephew of Mir Habib, was instrumental in the treaty that took place
in 1751 between his uncle and Alivardi. Sheo Bhatt Sathe was the first Maratha Subahdar in Odisha.
With the death of Raghuji Bhonsle, his son Januji ascended the throne of Nagpur. He appointed Shea
Bhatt Sathe as the Subahdar of Odisha.
Bhawani Pandit reached Odisha with a grand army of five thousand cavalry in July, 1764
and took over the charge as the Governor of Odisha. The motive behind the appointment of
Shambhaji Ganesh as the Subahdar of Odisha was only to collect Chauth from Bengal. He
strengthened his friendship with the British with a hope to realise Chauth. After the death of

Odisha History
Shambhaji Ganesh, Rajaram Pandit remained in the charge of Governor of Odisha for a short while.
Babuji Naik was sent as the Subahdar of Odisha in 1770. He continued his friendly relation with the
British. The governorship of Madhoji Hari witnessed a new kind of development in the coastal strips
of Balasore and Cuttack.
During his period, there were many ship-wrecks, particularly in the middle part of the
coastal Odisha like Kujang, Kanika and Ali (Aul). The governorship of Rajaram Pandit in Odisha
witnessed the Anglo-Maratha conflict during the Governor-Generalship of Warren Hastings. The
death of Rajaram Pandit led his son Sadashiv Rao to be the Naib Subahdar of Odisha. He was quite
friendly to the British like his father. With abolition of the British Residency at Balasore, Barabati
slipped away from the clutch of British East India Company. Thus, the British people betrayed the
friendship of Sadashiv. Lord Wellesley was an imperialist out and out. Taking the absence of Sadashiv
Rao from Cuttack in October 1803, the British General Harcourt occupied coastal Odisha.
Maratha Administration in Odisha
During the Maratha period, as in the Mughal period, there were 30

Garjat states who paid tribute to the Raja of Nagpur. The rest of Odisha i.e. the coastal plain areas
from Suvarnarekha in the North to Chilika in the South popularly known as Moghulbandi were ruled
by the Marathas. The Maratha administration in Odisha was a replica of the Mughal administration.
Among the twenty-four feudatories, the most powerful was. the king of Khurda, the Rajas of Kanika,
Dhenkanal,Ranapur, Baramba, Athagarh, Kujang, Aul (Ali) and Mayurbhanj had also retained their
relative importance during the regime of the Marathas. The Mughalbandi was divided into 150
Paraganas under the management of 32 Amils. Each Paragana was subdivided into two, three, four or
more Mahalas or allotments.
The Amil or Revenue Commissioner was responsible for the assessment of revenue and
bentrusting charge to different officers for the collection of revenue. The hereditary revenue
collectors under him were termed as Chaudhuries, Kanungoes, or Talukdars each in charge of a taluk
or sub-division. The Subahdar was the head of both civil and military administration of this land. The
Kiladar served under him who was in charge of the fort of Barabati at Cuttack. Like the present day,
paddy was produced in huge amount and was a great item of export to Bengal and Madras through
small ports of Golrah, Harishpur, Bishenpur and Manikpatna.
During the Maratha rule, Odisha was well connected through roads with Bengal,
Madras and Nagpur. In the field of religion, the Marathas brought regeneration. The worship of God
Jagannath and the maintenance of the grand temple at Puri was the prime duty of the Maratha
Subahdars. Puri, a deserted place during the rule of the Mughals was studded with pilgrims from all
over India who came to pay homage to the God of Gods. Thus, the Maratha rule in Odisha was, by
and large, military in nature. The one and single aim of the Bhonsles of Nagpur was to treat this land
as a milch cow and to extract much more revenue from the people.
Anglo-Maratha Conflicts

Odisha History
The Anglo-Maratha conflicts constitute an important chapter in the history of
Odisha. The most important reason for the Anglo-Maratha conflict was the strategic location of
Odisha. Odisha lay between the already occupied British territories of Bengal and Madras
Presidencies. The line of communication ran through Odisha. It is irksome, expensive and sometimes
difficult to get a safe passage through Odisha from the Maratha authorities.
Secondly, Odisha had been considered as a part of Bengal from the day of Muslim conquest in 1568
A.D. The fertile land was a revenue earning proposition.
Thirdly, the right of obtaining revenue collection by the British after the Battle of Buxar made them
covetous of establishing political authority.
Fourthly, the Matarha incursions into outlying British districts in the Northern as well as the
Southern Sarkars of the Mughalbandi region caused harassment. Last but not the least was the
British objective of extending their dominion over the whole of India. The Maratha rule was against
the British interest. The British tried to persuade the Bengal Nawab to drive the Marathas out of
Odisha but failed.
After getting Diwani in 765, Clive wanted the Maratha territories in Odisha through negotiations
instead of force. The governorship of Rajaram Pandit in Odisha witnessed the Anglo-Maratha conflict
during the Governor-Generalship of Warren Hastings. bThe Raja of Nagpur had joined with Poona,
Hyderabad and Mysore, forming an antiBritish confederacy. The Bhonsle chief of Nagpur thought it
prudent not to have a clash with the British power.
After Rajaram Pandit, his son Sadashiv Rao became the Naib Subahdar of Odisha. He was quite
friendly to the British like his father. With abolition of the British Residency at Balasore, Barabati
slipped away from the clutch of British East India Company. However, Sadashiv Rao showed his
cordial gesture to the company and offered Barabati to them which were attached to the British
factory. Sadashiv also suppressed the local Rajas who acted against the British. Taking the absence of
Sadashiv Rao from Cuttack in October 1803, the British General Harcourt occupied coastal Odisha.
Thus, the Maratha rule came to an end in Odisha
Socio-Economic life in Medieval Odisha

Change and continuity became the way of social life in medieval Odisha. The glorious rule
of the Gajapatis, contributed a lot to preserve the social structure of Odisha.
In course of time, besides the four traditional castes, many sub-castes have emerged in the
Odishan society. The most remarkable aspect of medieval Odishan society was the caste system. It
consisted of numerous castes and sub-castes and the interaction among them brought social
harmony bringing peace and tranquility in the medieval Odishan society. The Suryavamsi Gajapatis
accepted the Varnashrama system.
The Brahmins continued to enjoy ascendancy in social life, administration, religion and
learning during their rule. They held important positions in the government and were liberally
patronized by the Gajapatis. Kapilendra wanted to give away the whole world to the Brahmins.The
Kshatriyas occupied their position in the society next to the Brahmins. The Vaisyas belonged to the
trading class who resorted to cultivation, cowherdship, trade and commerce. Generally, prosperity of
the land depended largely upon the people of this community. The Vaisyas belonged to the trading
class who resorted to cultivation, cowherdship, trade and commerce.

Odisha History
Generally, prosperity of the land depended largely upon the people of this community.
The Kayasthas or the Karanas occupied a dominant position in the medieval Odisha. Nevertheless,
the Brahmanical monopoly in the field of religion and learning was broken during the Suryavamsi
rule by the emergence of a reformist religious leadership among the non-Brahmins. The Vaishnavite
movement which preached the doctrine of love and equality and the literary awakening in Odia
language brought about a transformation in the social life and brought to prominence in religious
and literary fields a number of non-Brahmins. Woman's status in society appeared to have
degenerated, as compared to the earlier period. The Suryavamsi monarchs were polygamous. They
had a number of queens and concubines.
Gajapati Purushottama was born of a concubine. Purdah (veil) system was prevailing
in the Suryavamsi period. Inspite of the high position enjoyed by the women in the society, the
practice of Devadasi was a veritable stain in this regard. Land revenue, paid in kind, was the major
source of income for the Gajapatis. Besides this they collected other taxes, such as tax on salt and
cowry, tax on squeezing oil out of seed, and tax on marriage. According to the Madalapanji, there
were a number of famines in Odisha during the Suryavamsi period.
Gold, Silver and Cowry coins were used during this period. Contemporary sources indicate
that Odisha carried on her overseas trade during the Suryavamsi rule as before. Thus, the social and
economic life of the people of Odisha did not remain the same throughout the medieval period.
Cultural Life: Religion, Art and Architecture and

Literature
The cultural life of the people of Odisha during this period was rich and
glorious. In the field of religion Vaishanavaism dominated the religious life of the people. The
Gajapati kings had enriched the cultural life of the people by patronizing religion, art and
architecture and literature. Religion played a great role in the cultural life of the people of Odisha.
Vaishnavaism flourished in a more vigorous way during this period along with other religions. At that
time, Vaishnavism in Odisha had been centred round the worship of Jagannath. This cult was gaining
popularity because of the efforts of five Odia poets known as the Pancha-Sakhas. The Surya Vamsi
rulers of Odisha ruled for hundred and five years only. Yet under this short-lived rule Odisha had
reached the pinnacle of its success. They were not only great monarchs but also great lovers and
patrons of art, architecture and literature.
The half-ruined temple, near the Papanasini tank in Bhubaneswar, contains an inscription bof
Kapilendradeva testifying to the fact that it was build during the reign of Kapilendradeva.
Purusottamadeva had built the temple of Sundara Madhava at Purusottampur in the Ganjam
district. During his reign, it is presumed that one black horse and another white horse with their
riders Jagannatha and Balabhadra respectively were placed near the southern gate of the Jagannath
temple. The Odia literature which virtually began with the Sarala Mahabharata during the reign of
Kapilendradeva progressed tremendously during the time of subsequent rulers of that dynasty. The
Sanskrit literature made its progress during the reign of Kapilendradeva. He was an accomplished
scholar in Sanskrit. Purusottamadeva's monumental work Abhyinava Gitagovinda that contained 800

Odisha History
slokas was a Kavya of no mean order. Prataparudradeva, the last Gajapati king of Odisha was a great
poet and writer. His Sarasvativilasam, Kautuka Chintamani, Nirnya Samgraha and Praudha Pratapa
Martanda were flamboyant literary creations of that period. The age that immediately followed
Sarala Das, is famous as the Panchasakha Yuga (Age of the Panchasakhas). The age has been so called
after the name of five celebrities like Balarama Das, Jagannatha Das, Ananta Das, Achyutananda Das
andYasobanta Das who flourished during the reign period of Prataparudradeva. The writings of the
Pancha Sakhas were revolutionary in nature. Through their writings, the Pancha Sakhas wanted to
abolish caste distinction from the society and bridge the gap between the higher class and lower
class. The flow in Odia literature that started from the age of Sarala Das was kept in tact with
progressive trends during the Panchasakha age. Thus, the rule of the Suryavamsi Gajapatis was a
landmark in the history of medieval Odisha.
Influence of Islam on Odia language and

literature
Muslim rule was confined to coastal districts. Islamism had its effects on the socio-
cultural life of Odisha. One Bhatta Mahapatra was a musician in Akbar's court. Odia language and
literature was influenced by Perso-Arabic vocabulary. More than 2,000 words of Islamic languages
entered into Odia literature. The Muslims turned their mind toward Odia and poets like Salabaig
composed excellent devotional songs for Lord Jagannatha. The harmony and interaction between the
Hindu and the Muslim communities resulted in some syncretic religious rituals like Satyapiri cult in
18th century.
The Kadam Rasul of Cuttack, tombs of Baba Bukhari in Puri and Bhogakhia Pir of Balasore etc.
got equal veneration from both the communities. The popular music show of Bhadrak called Mughal
Tamasa were participated and enjoyed by people of both the communities. A number of Islamic
literatures took shape in Odisha. The original works of Arabic, Parsi, Turkish and even Urdu were
translated into Odia Language. Khwaja Mainuddin- Chisti (Sufi Saint) of Ajmer primarily encouraged
the spread of Parsi language in India.
During Muslim rule in Odisha Parsi language was spoken and official records
maintained in Parsi. Poems of poet Abhimanyu Samant Singhar, Baldev Rath, Upendra Bhanja mark
the influence of Parsi, Arabic and Urdu languages. Islam had direct impact on Fakir Mohan. He was
named Fakir because his Grand mother symbolically sold him to a Muslim Fakir or Dervishes. Poet
Salabeg and Uzir Bag wrote hundreds of Bhajana on Jagannath and Radhakrishna Cult in Odia
literature. Parsian poet Saikh Sahdis (1194-1282) Pand Nama was translated into Odia by Abdul Majid
Saheb of Balasore in Prabodha Bakya or Hitapodesh Mala edited and published in 1869. Countless
words of Parsian, Arabic, Urdu and Turkish entered into Odia Vocabulary and were assimilated in the
spoken language of the common mass. Odia poets used the work in their Kavya or poems. A number
of Islamic literatures took shape in Odisha. The original works of Arabic, Parsi, Turkish and even Urdu
were translated into Odia Language. In this way, the there was great influence of Islamism on the
Odia language and literature

Odisha History
Modern History: Odisha
British Occupation of Odisha
The mal-administration of the Maratha rulers, their atrocities and exploitation had made
the Maratha rule quite unacceptable to the people of Odisha. Right from the days of the grant of
Diwani of Bengal, Bihar and Odisha to the East India Company, the British wanted to establish their
supremacy on the soil of Odisha. However, the fragile and weak Maratha administration gave the
British a good opportunity to fulfill their dream of establishing their authority over Odisha.
With the grant of Dewani in 1765, Lord Clive obtained from Emperor Shah Alam the
Northern Circars consisting of Chicacole, Rajahmudry, Ellore and Guntur as free gift in which the
present undivided Ganjam district was included. The British East India Company also got Midnapur
which was a part of Odisha.Lord Wellesley wanted to capture Puri and Cuttack by sheer display of his
diplomacy. Letters were dispatched to the feudatories of Odisha, conveying them that it was the
desire of Lord Jagannath to oust the Marathas from the land by the Britishers who would rule there.
The occupation of Puri emboldened the British to process further. They made elaborate
plan to occupy Cuttack. Making necessary arrangement to check the possible advancement of the
Maratha army from Nagpur, Harcourt planned about his march to Cuttack. In the meanwhile, the
strategy of Captain Morgan at Balasore met with success in driving away the Marathas. On 22nd
September,1803 Captain Morgan occupied Balasore. In January, 1804, Major Broughton,conquered
Sambalpur defeating Maratha Governor Tantia Pharnavis. He concluded friendly treaty with queen
Ratnakumari of Sambalpur and the local chiefs of Raigarh, Gangapur, Bamara, Bonai etc. Thus, the
British occupation of Odisha opened a new era in the history of modern Odisha. It put an end to the
long administration of the Marathas under whose administration the people of Odisha were
suffering.

Odisha History
British Administration of Odisha: Land Revenue

Settlements, administration of Justice
The British occupation of Odisha in 1803 created a new chapter in the history of Odisha.
Introduction of British administration in Odisha brought far-reaching changes in Odisha. Odisha was
divided into three administrative units under British administration. 'Province of Cuttack' was under
Bengal Presidency, Ganjam and Koraput were under Madras Presidency and Sambalpur was under
Central Provinces. Besides, there were princely states. The administration under such conditions
naturally could not become uniform. In the administration, revenue aspects were considered most
important.
All the three kinds of land settlement, viz., Zamindari, Ryotwari and Mahalwari were
implemented in different parts to assess and collect land revenue. The English introduced temporary
settlements in most areas and extended Permanent Settlement to some zamindaries of the Maratha
period. The short term settlements proved ruinous to the Odia tenants as well as zamindars. The
British allowed no reduction or remission of revenue, in the event of the peasants' inability to pay
since 1804, there were numerous floods and droughts, causing famine or scarcity of food, but
collection of revenue went on as per the Bengal Regulations.
The Bengali zamindars who purchased estates stayed away from the estates and appointed
amlas to collect revenue. Those amlas took advantage of the peasants' ignorance of Regulations and
collected more than the legal rent. The Ryotwari system was introduced in place of Zamindari in
'Ganjam plains' of Chhatrapur, Berhampur and Ghumsar in early part of 19th century. The Mahalwari
System was introduced in Sambalpur district. The judicial administration, adopted by the British
government in Odisha, was efficient. One judge was appointed to look after the administration of
justice. The people of Odisha could not follow the clumsy judicial procedure of the court. The
people of Odisha could not follow the clumsy judicial procedure of the court. The police, to a greater
extent, was oppressive in nature. Thus, the introduction of British administration in Odisha brought
far-reaching changes in the life of the people of Odisha
Economic Development- Agriculture and

Industry, Trade and Commerce
The British rule was a long story of the systematic exploitation by an imperialistic
government of a people whom they had enslaved by their policy of divide and rule. The benefits of
British rule were only accidental and incidental, if any. The British economic policy was exploitative in
nature. Since the land revenue was the major source of income to the British Government, it gave
early attention to the question of land ownership and its revenue settlement. The period 1776 to
1947 was full of many agrarian changes. There were numerous agrarian problems in which Odisha
had been suffered a lot. This gives a broad historical overview of the major developments concerning
land revenue administration, tenancy system, stratification of peasantry, size of holding and

Odisha History
productivity of land, cropping pattern, irrigation, technology, agricultural credit and marketing, rate
of rent and wage, etc. The British Government in Odisha initiated the first settlement 1n 1804. This
was followed by a package of alternative solutions to the inherited problems of land revenue
settlement.
The British Raj had endeavoured to introduce commercial agriculture in Odisha. In

addition to rice, sugar-cane was one of the principal food crops. But, due to unsuitable soil, lack of
adequate capital investment by the private enterprise and lack of encouragement from government
or from the landlords, the sugarcane cultivation remained a crop only for local requirement.
The cultivation of jute, tobacco and indigo not very popular. As the basic purpose of the British was
trade and commerce, so they involved themselves in trade and commerce in the colonies. In case of
India, they looked for the enrichment of their treasury rather looking the benefit of the people of
Odisha. Like the British land revenue policy, the British policy of salt monopoly proved ruinous to the
economic life of the people. It is the sad story of the systematic destruction of an indigenous
industry.
The East India Company had established its monopoly over salt trade in Bengal as early as
1765. Under East India Company's monopolistic salt trade the salt price of Bengal was higher than
that of Odisha. According to the Regulation of 1804, the manufacture of salt became the monopoly
of the Company's Government. While the East India Company made huge profit out of monopoly in
manufacture and sale of salt, the malangis and common consumers suffered. The general public had
to purchase salt at a much higher rate under the British monopoly than during the Maratha period
because of the higher taxes imposed on salt. By 1860, the fine and cheap Liverpool salt was being
sold in large scale in Odisha; as by that time the native prejudice against the foreign salt had
disappeared. In 1891 the Government made an attempt to manufacture salt on a monopoly basis by
establishing salt factory at Tua and Gurubai on the Chilika lake (in Puri district). The Tua and Gurubai
factories were closed in 1902. As early as 1633, the British established a trade centre at Hariharpur
(present Jagatsingpur district), one of their first settlements in India.
Their subsequent trade establishment at Baleshwar (or Balasore) on river Burhabalanga and at
Pipili developed into flourishing centers of trade as well as of power. British currency policy adversely
affected the economic life of the people of Odisha. Thus, the British economic policy was exploitative
in nature. It adversely affected the economic life of the people of Odisha.
Resistance Movements in the 19th century-

Khurda rising of 1804-05, Paik rebellion of 1817
The 19th century Odisha witnessed a number of resistance movements of the

common people, landholders, Zamindars and Feudatory Chiefs against the British Raj. Among those
resistance movements, four were very severe and posed great threat to the British rule in Odisha. All
those resistance movements occurred in Odisha due to a strong dislike for the new rule, the
oppressive revenue system and high rent, threat to traditional privileges of vested landed-interests

Odisha History
etc which had endangered the life and property of the people of Odisha. With the change of
authorities governing Odisha in 1803, the Raja entered into anengagement with the British agreeing
to pay tribute. There were signs of an improvement in relationship.
But in 1804 troubles started concerning the Raja of Khurda and British apprehended a secret
alliance between Khurda and Kanika. Even the Raja of Kujanga was expected to join this alliance
against the British. The Raja of Khurda had surrendered the Mahals of Lambai, Rahang and Puri to
the Marathas in lieu of some military help he had received for his war against the Raja of
Paralakhemundi. Mukundadeva-II, the Raja of Khurdha (1795-1817) welcomed the British after their
conquest of Odisha in 1803. He hoped that the four Pargans (Rahang, Serain, Chaubiskud and
Lembai) lost to the Marathas would be restored to him by the British. Since the king was a minor, his
regent Jayakrisna Rajguru or Jayi Rajguru went to Cuttack to present his case for the restoration of
the Parganas and a reduction of annual Peshkash. They refused both the demands. Instead, they
pressurised the king to execute an agreement on lines dictated by them. They wanted the king to
dismiss Rajguru. Jai Rajguru read the evil designs of the British. He made an alliance among the
Chiefs of Khurdha, Kujanaga and Kanika states. The king of Khurdha made all preparations for
confrontation with the British.
An attempt to negotiate through Captain Blunt with the Raja of Khurda proved futile on
account of the intervention of Jayi Rajguru. A contingent of 250 cavalry soldiers and 900 Barkandazes
from Khurda entered into Lembai, Rahang and Puri. On hearing this news Captain Hickland, who was
stationed at Pipili marched with an army of 120 Sepoys and defeated the Raja's force on 22
November 1804. Harcourt also proceeded from Cuttack against the Raja of Khurda. The fort of the
Raja was besieged by Capt. Storey. Harcourt engaged Shaikh Waz Muhmmad, a native of Cuttack to
reduce the fort of Banpur and through him captured the Raja's brothers and son. Subsequently, the
Raja was also captured on 3 January 1805 and taken to Cuttack. After subduing Khurda, Harcourt
despatched a small contingent towards Nayagarh to capture Antaji and Kannoji. Two Maratha agents
of Nagpur through whom the Raja of Khurda sought help and himself proceeded towards Kujang and
Kanika via Gop.
As a result of which the British captured the fort of Khurdha in December 1804. The fugitive
king was arrested by the treachery of one Fateh Muhammad in January 1805. The Raja of Kanika,
Balabhadra Bhanja was made a prisoner. The Raja of Kujang was replaced by his elder brother. The
regent of the king of Khurda, Jayakrisna Rajguru or Jayi Rajguru was hanged. Khurdha was
confiscated and brought under the direct (khas) management of the British. The Raja was given an
allowance for the administration of Jagannath temple. His headquarters was fixed at Puri. He
retained the title of Maharaja without any kingdom. Thus, resistance movement of Khurda was a
significant event in the history of modern Odisha.
The Paik rebellion of 1817 was one of the significant event in the history of modern
Odisha. There were many causes which led to the outbreak of the Paik Rebellion of 1817. The
exploitative policies of the British administration which became increasingly intolerable for the
people of Odisha. The faulty revenue policy of the British government adversely affected the local
zamindars and the royats. The British salt monopoly was another cause of the rebellion. The
introduction of new currency- system of the British authority in Odisha was another factor for the
Paik rebellion. The then political condition of Khurda, made its people rebellious. The displeasure of
Buxi Jagabandhu was the immediate cause for the outbreak of the Paik rebellion. On 29 March,
1817, began the Paik rebellion in Khurda. At Nayagarh, Buxi surrendered with his followers at Cuttack
on 27 May, 1825. Buxi was pardoned along with his followers. His monthly allowance was fixed at Rs.
150. He lived, virtually as a prisoner at Cuttack. The Paik rebellion of 1817 had far reaching

Odisha History
consequences which are given bellow. Accordingly, in administrative field, changes were made. Odias
were employed in the government services and entrusted with responsible works. Changes were also
introduced in the field of judiciary. The price of the salt was reduced and more salt was made
available for the smooth purchase of the people. The British government reduced the revenue
burdens of the local zamindars. The British government took adequate step to reorganize the British
administrative structure in Odisha. Thus, the Paik rebellion of 1817 opened the eyes of the British
government. The Paik rebellion brought many changes in the administrative, judicial, economic and
religious life of the people of Odisha
Odisha during the revolt of 1857- role of

Surendra Sai
The Revolt of Surendra Sai was another landmark in the history of the
resistance movement in Odisha. The British imperialism was visible with the arrival of Lord Delhousie
as the Governor-General of India who wanted to grab as much as native states by the
implementation of the „Doctrine of Lapse‟. When Narayan Singh was placed on the throne of
Sambalpur after Mohan Kumari, Surendra Sai revolted. He was captured with his brother Udanta and
uncle Balararna and they were sent to the Hazaribagh jail. Sambalpur was annexed to the British
territory in 1849 with the implementation of the „Doctrine of Lapse‟. At this juncture, the Great
Revolt of 1857 created circumstance for the release of Surendra Sai from that jail who gave a tough
fight to the British authorities in order to assert his claim over-the throne of Sambalpur which shook
the British administration in Odisha.
Surendra Sai played the key role in the Revolt of 1817. The accomplished manner of
Surendra popularized him among the people including the tribals such as Gonds and Binjhals. He
came to eminence in 1828 when he challenged the claim of Rani Mohan Kumari to the throne of
Sambalpur. Being supported by the zamindars of Khinda, Barapali, Sonepur and Gauntias and his
brothers Udanta, Surendra revolted against queen Mohan Kumari. When the sepoys of the Great
Revolt of 1857 reached Hazaribag, they broke the two jails of Hazaribag open and liberated many
prisoners in August 1857. Among the prisoners Surendra Sai and his brother Udanta were released
from the jail and fled away towards Sambalpur which created political storm in Sambalpur.
The negotiation between the two parties took place on 7 October, 1857, Surendra
promised not to revolt, if the British authority would cancel the remaining terms of imprisonment
awarded to him and his brother Udanta. Surendra Sai declared open revolt against the British
authority on 1 November, 1857. Looking at this, the British authority started operation against
Surendra Sai. On the historic day of 16 May, 1862, Surendra Sai with his 40 followers, surrendered
before Major Impey who guaranteed him free pardon. However, due to the effort of Major A.B.
Cumberledge, Surendra was arrested and after trial he was sent to Asirgarh jail. On 28 February,
1884, Surendra Sai died in the cell of Asirgarh jail. Thus, the revolt by Surendra Sai was anti-British in
nature as he could not get the Gadi. It was rebellion against the unlawful annexation of Sambalpur
under „Doctrine of Lapse‟ to the British suzerainty ignoring the rightful claim of Surendra Sai.
Although, the revolt of Surendra Sai got failure, but it had stirred the British administration in Odisha

Odisha History
Tribal uprising- Ghumsar Rising under Dara Bisoi,

Khond Rising under Chakra Bisoi, Bhuyan Rising
Under Ratna Naik and Dharani Dhar Naik
The 19th century witnessed a number of tribal rebellions against the British rule in
India as well as Odisha. All those rebellions occurred due to strong dislike for the new rule, the
oppressive revenue system, high rent, threat to traditional privileges of the tribal people, etc. The
Ghumsur rebellion under the leadership of Dora Bisoi and Chakra Bisoi, Keonjhar rebellion under the
leadership of Ratna Naik and Dharanidhar Naik and the Munda uprising under the leadership of Birsa
Munda are some of the important tribal uprisings of Odisha against the British authority.
The Kandha tribe rose in rebellion under the leadership of Kamal Lochan Dora Bisoi. In
order suppress the rebellion of Dora Bisoi, the British authorities took several measures. When the
rebellion of Dora Bisoi became intolerable, the British authority under the Madras Presidency sent
George Edward Russel to suppress the rebellion under Dora. At the instruction of Henry Ricketts, the
Commissioner of Odisha, Raja Somnath Singh of Angul had played a very important role in
surrendering Dora Bisoi. Lastly, Raja Somanath Singh of Angul handed over Dora Bisoi to the British
forces in 1837. The Kandha rebellion did not stop after Dora’s imprisonment and death. His nephew,
Chakra Bisoi, took Dora‟s place and resolved to take revenge for his uncle‟s imprisonment and
death. He posed a great threat to the British authority. Thus, the Kandha rebellion under Dora Bisoi
and Chakra Bisoi is significant in the history of Odisha in particular and India in general.
One of the prominent rising of the tribal in Odisha history was the Bhuyan rising of Ratna
Naik of Keonjhar. Ratna Naik organized the tribal of Keonjhar to fight against the British
Governement. After the death of Maharaja, Gadadhar Bhanja of Keonjhar, his eldest son Dhanurjay
became the king in 1861. Pattamahadei Bishnupriya submitted a petition before T.E. Ravenshaw that
before his death, the king of Keonjhar had proposed to accept Brundaban Bhanja as the legal hair to
the throne of Keonjhar. T.E. Ravenshaw went through the petition of queen Bishnupriya and rejected
it. Being disgusted, the queen appealed to Ratna Naik to do the needful. The Bhuyans and the Juangs
were now ready to fight for the cause of the queen. As the leader of the Bhuyans, he organized them
and raised them to fight against Dhanurjay. Ratna Naik organised the Bhuyans. All of them with the
queen Bishnupriya wanted to have a plan. So, the queen left the palace of Keonjhargarh and came to
Basantpur. She met Ratna Naik and other Bhuyans and Juangs. All of them took a vow to oust
Dhanurjay Bhanja from the throne of Keonjhar.
In the meanwhile T.E. Ravenshaw negotiated with the queen who came to Keonjhargarh
palace to attend Dhanurjay,s coronation. This activity of the queen appeared as a betrayal to Ratna
Naik. He organized the Bhuyans, Juangs, Kohlas and declared that until they place King Brundaban
Bhanj, they would not leave the fight. The British Government took steps to putdown the rebellion.
When T.E. Ravenshaw reached Keonjhargarh, Ratna Naik and Nanda Naik surrendered and the Ratna
meli came to an end. The revolt of Dharanidhar Naik, a Bhuyan leader of Keonjhar against Dhanurjay
Bhanja constitutes another inglorious chapter during the British rule in Odisha. The Bhuyans
became more organised under his leadership and challenged the king. Of course, the British
Government ruthlessly suppressed it.

Odisha History
Growth of Modern Education, Growth of Press

and Journalism
The modern education started during the British period led to the collapse of the
traditional education system in Odisha. Under the East India Company, Christian missionaries made
the beginning of modern education in Odisha by printing the Old and New Testaments in Odia. The
first primary school was created in 1822 by missionaries. One of the long term impacts of the British
rule in Odisha was the introduction of English education in the land. This attempt of the British put
Odisha on the path of modernization through the growth of education in Odisha. Prior to 1803 (the
year British occupied Odisha) education was controlled by the private initiative. The schools
(Pathasala) ran in temples, Sanskrit Tols , Bhagavat Tungis and in the house of some rich men.
The Avadhanas (teachers) put emphasis on reading, writing and working out simple
mathematics or traditional knowledge. It was Lord Macauley’s Minute in 1835 under which the
British took steps to open English Schools in Odisha. In 1836, the British opened the first English
School at Puri. Although the Cuttack English School was established in 1823-24 by the Christian
missionaries, its management was transferred to the Government in 1836. The Wood's Despatch was
another milestone in the history of educational progress in the state of Odisha. Due to the Wood's
Despatch, the Zilla School at Sambalpur assumed the status of the Anglo-Vernacular School. Besides
primary education, the secondary education also received a fresh impetus by the Wood's Despatch.
Under Hunter Commission in 1882, private schools and colleges were opened in different
towns of Odisha. The establishment of Ravenshaw College in 1868 began a new epoch in the field of
higher education in Odisha. In 1968, the Cuttack Zilla School was converted into Collegiate School
with the opening of FA (First Arts) class only having facility for teaching of Intermediate standard. The
technical education was also provided by the British in course of time in order to full fill the need of
the British Government. In 1923, the Odisha School of Engineering was opened at Cuttack which at
present known as the Bhubanananda Engineering School. Thus, the modern education in the form of
English education in Odisha started during the British period.
The growth of press and journalism in Odisha created a landmark in the history of
modern Odisha. The initiative was taken by the Christian missionaries who made great contribution
in this field. With the establishment of printing press by them, started the story of press and
journalism in Odisha. In due course of time vernacular press emerged in Odisha. It also prepared the
way for the growth of journalism. The growth of press and journalism in Odisha led to the growth of
socio-political consciousness among the people of Odisha. For the first time in 1837, they established
a press in Cuttack named the 'Cuttack Printing Press' and published the earlier Odia journals. In 1866,
the second printing press in Odisha was established which was named as the Cuttack Printing
Company. Only after two years in 1868, the third printing press was established at Balasore by the
efforts of Fakir Mohan Senapati with the help of local Zamindar and people. In 1837 the first Odia
newspaper named Kujibara Patrika was published by a monk named Sadhu Sundar Das. Then the
missionaries published the journal named Jnanaruna in 1849 for the propagation of their religious
ideas. They also published two other journals named Prabodha Chandrika and Arunodaya.

Odisha History
In 1889, Sambalpur Hitaisini was published under the patronage of King Sudhaladev. Utkala
Madhupa, Utkala Putra, Kohinur Utkal Sahita, Dainika Asha, Samaj etc. were other journals and
newspapers. Among the leading newspapers and journals, Cuttack Argus (1869), Cuttack Star (1869),
Cuttack Standard Odisha Patriot (1866·, Geruem News (1896) and Star of Utkal (1906-1912) were
prominent. Thus, the growth of press and journalism during British period brought many changes in
the life of the people of Odisha
Natural Calamities in Odisha, Famine of 1866- its

causes and effect.
The occurrence of natural calamities like drought, flood, epidemics and cyclone
a reoccurring phenomenon in the history of Odisha. Their frequent visitation in 19th century was the
most important factor that broke the backbone of the people of Odisha. The people of Odisha have
been suffering from many natural calamities. The most famous among them all was the Famine of
1866 which is famous in the history of Odisha as Na-anka famine. The Famine of 1866 in Odisha was
one of the worst famines of the world. The carelessness of the British administrators in charge of
Odisha Division coupled with natural calamity and economic disasters brought this catastrophe.
About one-third of the total population of Odisha perished by the disastrous famine.
There were several factors which were responsible for the outbreak of the famine of 1866 in
Odisha. The drought of 1865 served as the potential factor for the famine of 1866. Alarming shortage
of food grains due to casual export of food grains was another reason for the outbreak of the famine
of 1866. East India Company did not pay attention for the improvement of agriculture in Odisha after
the occupation of the land. The lack of communication facility was another cause for the famine. No
prompt action of the Government machineries was largely responsible to worsen the situation. The
British government could not control the artificial scarcity of food grain in the market when the rice
merchants joined hands during the famine and hoarded rice. At that time there was no proper media
(print and electronic) to highlight the famine. The famine started in October, 1865 with the acute
shortage of food grains in the market of Odisha. At the early part of December 1865, Ravenshaw
suggested for the formation of relief committees and went on long tours to the Tributary Mahals.
When Ravenshaw returned from tour on 31 January, 1866 and on the same day, he sent an urgent
telegram to the Calcutta government to provide food grains instead of wages for the distressed
people of Odisha. However, it was not listened by the Bengal authorities. From 13 to 19 February,
1866 Sir Cecil Beadon, the Lieutenant Governor of Bengal, visited Cuttack. Neither he carefully
visualized the situation, nor the government servants projected the true picture of the famine before
him out of fear. Taking the graveness of the situation, the government machineries were geared up
to deal with this alarming situation from July to October, 1866. The Public Works Department
adopted different steps in which grains were given as wage.
By December, 1867, the famine was declared as over. By that time, sufficient relief measures
had been provided to the people of Odisha. In December 1866, by the order of the secretary of State
for India, an enquiry commission was formed to enquire into the causes, circumstances and extent of

Odisha History
the famine. It consisted of three members-George Campbell, the President, W.E. Morton and
H.L.Dampier, the two members.
As per the views of the members of this commission, besides inevitable circumstances,
negligence of administrative authorities and errors of certain individual officers were responsible for
such a catastrophe. The consequences of the Na-Anka famine were far reaching. It exposed the
failure of the administrative machineries in Odisha to look after the people. The mortality was
around 1,000,000, nearly one-third of the population of the province as per the calculation of the
government. Chaos and confusion prevailed everywhere in Odisha and epidemics followed the
famine and made the life of people more miserable. However, the famine of 1866 was a turning
point as it ushered a new era in the field of administration in Odisha.
Social and Cultural changes in the 19th Century

Odisha
The nineteenth century witnessed socio-cultural changes in Odisha. This socio-
cultural awakening was basically the outcome of the impact of western civilization upon the Indian
society. The English educated elite class spearheaded this movement. The factors that brought about
the socio-cultural changes Social and cultural changes in 19th century Odisha were the impact of
Christian missionaries, introduction of English education and growth of Press, journalism and
modern literature. The activities of the Christian Missionaries brought socio-cultural changes in
Odisha. Soon after the British conquest of Odisha, the Christian missionaries started their activities in
this province. In several ways, the missionaries contributed to the socio-religious reformation. They
established orphanages in which they gave shelter to the destitute children and rescued Meriahs.
The missionaries also took some steps for the education and uplift of the women. Some female
missionaries engaged themselves in this work. The missionaries appear to have significantly
interacted with the indigenous religious life even in the early stage.
Due to the introduction of English education, there were socio-cultural changes in Odisha.
Progress of education among women was much slower, compared to men, due to social prejudice
and the compulsion of early marriage. Throughout the nineteenth century the Odia girls could not go
beyond the middle vernacular standard. It is worthy to mention that towards the progress of
education, some rajas and zamindars made notable contributions.
The new elite class which was a product of English education was influenced by Brahmo
movement of Bengal and sought to bring about social reforms like abolition of child marriage and
introduction of widow marriage. During the last quarter of the nineteenth century an indigenous
religious cult, prevalent among the lower castes and tribal of the hilly regions of central and western
Odisha, called Mahima Dharrna gave an unqualified challenge to Brahrnanical orthodoxy. Mahima
Dharma is a religion of Hindu reform movement that turned against Jagannath. worship in particular.
The literary awareness also brought social and cultural changes in Odisha in 19th century. The
growth of education brought about a literary awakening in Odia language. Fakir Mohan Senapati and
Radhanath Roy may be regarded as the pioneers of this literary awakening. Fakir Mohan brought
about a literary awakening in Odisha, which afterwards facilitated the movement for a separate
political identity of the Odias. Thus, the educated elite class of Odisha like the elite elsewhere in India

Odisha History
sought to change the social and cultural life of the people of Odisha in 19th century through such
measures as promotion of education and uplift and emancipation of women, etc.
Mahima Dharma.
The 19th century Renaissance in India had greatly influenced Odisha. On the other
hand, Odisha's Renaissance was different because it bloomed from a very rural set up being
uninfluenced by any western education. In thought and expression, it emerged in its own unique way
in the form of Mahima Dharma. Mahima Dharma appeared in the early part of 19th century A.D. as a
religion in the Hindu reform movement. The founder of this dharma was Mahima Gosain. By the
efforts of Bhima Bhoi, the blind poet, it was spread in the nook and corner of Odisha Mahima
Dharma was founded by Mahima Swami or Mahima Gosain. He reached Puri around 1826 from
where he started Mahimabada. Through his great literary creation like Stuti Chintamani,
Brahmanirupana Gita, Nirveda Sadhana, Chautisa Madhuchakra, Adyanta Gita, Astakabihari Gita etc.,
he popularised the Mahima Cult. From 1862 to 1867 Mahima Dharma spread like wild fire in the
nook and corner of Odisha. Mahima Gosain breathed his last in 1867. The disciples of Mahima
Gosain became famous as Mahima monks Alekha sanyasi. The great saint Bhima Bhoi played a key
role for the spread of Mahima Dharma. He was born in 1855 at Rairakhol in Kondh family. His father
was Dhaneswar Bhoi and mother was Gauri. Bhima Bhoi was born-blind. Believing in one god was
the principle of Mahima Gosain. He preached his doctrine in Odia language. The Mahima cult urges
for pure Non-Dualism. According to it, God is one and next to none. He is omniscient, omnipotent
and omnipresent. He is the supreme soul and the cause of the creation of the world.
Mahima Dharma was against idol worship. Like Buddhism and Jainism, Mahima dharma raised voice
against the superstitions of Brahmanism.This Dharma was against the caste system in the society and
raised voice against the caste system in Odisha.Mahima Dharma believed in the principle of
Vasudhaivakutumbakam. The Mahima doctrine conceived the whole universe as a single family and
desires the welfare of all. Happiness for all and peace to all is the motto of Mahima dharma. It was
essentially a Bhakti Cult whose philosophy is Visuddha-advaita Brahmaveda. The Mahima Dharma
has always given importance on the values of life. It emphasized that one should cultivate qualities
like love, compassion, tranquility etc. in one's mind which will bring fullness of heart. The Mahima
Cult prescribed certain ethical codes for the householders. Thus, the Mahima Dharma had stimulated
the social and religious life of the people of Odisha in 19th century.

Odisha History
Odia Movement: Growth of Socio-Political

Associations, Growth of Public Associations in
the 19th Century, Role of Utkal Sammilini (1903-
1920)
The country (Odisha) whose territory extended from Ganga to Godavari was
disintegrated in course of time. The disintegration was started from the death of Mukundadeva up to
the period of 1936. Due to dismemberment, the Odia-speaking territories virtually became attached
to four provinces - Bengal, Madras, Central Provinces and Bihar, and being reduced to the status of
linguistic minorities in all these provinces.
The Odias felt neglected and dominated by the linguistic majorities, and particularly felt
distressed at the deliberate efforts to abolish Odia language. The new elite that emerged in Odisha
in the latter half of the nineteenth century raised its voice for the unification of Odia-speaking areas
so as to safeguard the legitimate interests of Odias and preserve and develop the Odia language and
culture. The 19th century witnessed the growth of socio-political associations and public associations
in Odisha. The educated middle class that emerged in Odisha in the post-famine period, like its
counterpart elsewhere, expressed its ideas, views and aspirations through the press, meetings, and
associations.
A number of socio-political associations and public associations, having different objectives

such as the development of Odia language and literature, protection of the interests of Odias, social
reform, promotion of education and intellectual and literary discussions were formed in the post-
famine period.
The lead in this field was taken by some Englishmen who formed at Cuttack an association, called
Mutual Improvement Society in 1859. These Englishmen used to discuss social issues. Subsequently
following associations were formed - Utkal Bhasa Unnati Bidhayini Sabha (Association for the
development of Odia language), Balasore, 1867; Utkal Bhasa Uddipani Samaj (Association for Odia
Linguistic Awakening), Cuttack, 1867; Utkalollasini Sabha (Association for awakening the Odias),
Cuttack, 1868; Cuttack Debating Club, 1868, etc. There were some communal and caste-based
associations, such as Karan Sabha, Odisha Islam Association, 1875 and Odisha Christian, Association,
Cuttack, 1896.
The educated elite of Odisha like the elite elsewhere in India, sought to reform the social life
through such measures as promotion of education and uplift and emancipation of women. The
Utkala Sammilanni played the key role for the Odia movement as well as the formation of separate
province of Odisha. In 1902 the Odias of Ganjam sent a memorial, signed by a large number of
people, to the Viceroy Lord Curzon, suggesting the unification of Ganjam, Sambalpur and the Odisha
Division of the Bengal presidency under one government and one university.
In pursuance of the Berhampur resolution, the first Odia national conference was
held at Cuttack on 30-31 December, 1903 through the efforts of Madhusudan Das,Rajendranarayan
Bhanja Deo (the zamindar of Kanika) and Shriram Chandra Bhanjadeo (the Maharaja of
Mayurbhanja). The Utkal Sammilani was loyalist in nature. It always began its session by paying

Odisha History
tributes to the British Crown and Viceroy. Thus, the Odia movement led to the growth of socio-
political associations and growth of public associations in 19th century Odisha.
Nationalist Movement in Odisha: Non-

Cooperation and Civil Disobedience Movements
in Odisha
In Odisha, nationalism developed in two different ways. First, the merger
of all Odia-speaking regions, and secondly, in the later phase with the growth of national awakening,
the people of Odisha involved themselves with the mainstream of the national movement along with
the rest of the country. The nationalist movement in Odisha can be divided into two periods (1) from
the establishment of Indian National Congress i.e. 1885 to 1920 A.D., and (2) the Gandhian period
from 1920A.D. to 1947 A.D. Being influenced by the nationalist movement in India, the elite class of
Odisha created political awareness in Odisha. Different organizations like the National Society at
Balasore, Odsha Association also known as Utkal Sabha at Cuttack and the Utkal Hitaisini Samaj at
Paralakhimedi were some of the early socio-political organizations formed by the intellectuals of
Odisha who disseminate political ideas among the Odias. Besides the above members, other Odia
intellectuals whom the Indian National Congress fascinated in the 19th century were Fakir Mohan
Senapati, Bhagabat Prasad Mohapatra, Nanda Kishor Bal, Gopal Chandra Praharaj, Biswanath Kar,etc.
In 1905, the Swadeshi Movement started in Bengal in protest against the partition of
Bengal which had a substantial influence on the intellectuals of Odisha. The post World War-I had
brought a radical change in the political scenario of India. In the First World War, the Indians had
fought at the call of Gandhiji for the British victory with the expectation that in recognition of their
services during the war, the British would give the Indians substantial measure of self-government.
Protesting against the Jalianawallabagh massacre and Khilafat Movement, the Congress
under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi decided in its special session, held at Calcutta in
September, 1920, to start the Non-cooperation movement against the British Government. At the
clarion call of Gandhi in 1920-21, Gopabandhu Das virtually started once again the Congress
movement in Odisha. Mahatma Gandhi's call brought nationwide response including Odisha. A
number of young persons left their schools, colleges and Government service in Odisha. H.K.
Mahatab, N. Kanungo, Nabakrushna Choudhury and R.K. Bose left their studies at the call of Gandhiji
and joined the Non-cooperation movement. Non-cooperation meant the withdrawal of cooperation
from the British Government in all aspects. The programme of Non-co-operation movement had two
phases of actions.
Mahatma Gandhi visited Odisha for the first time in March 1921. His visit gave a
tremendous fillip to the Non-Cooperation movement in Odisha. The people of Odisha extended
warm welcome to him. In 1922 a peasant‟s revolt in the zamindari of Kanika occurred which was
closely associated with the Non-co-operation movement. After the suspension of the Non-co-
operation movement, following the Chaurichaura incident in U.P. early in 1922, the Congress party
was divided into two groups; while some wanted to enter the legislatures under the Government of

Odisha History
India Act, 1919, and somewanted to work out the constructive programme of Gandhiji while
boycotting the legislatures. The Civil Disobedience Movement formed another landmark in the
nationalist movement in Odisha. The 26th January 1930, was celebrated as the day of independence
by the Congress men of Odisha and at Cuttack, Gopabandhu Choudhury read out the declaration of
independence.
On 12 April, 1930, the Satyagrahis led by Acharya Harihar, reached at lnchudi in Balasore. Large
number of Satyagrahis from various parts of Odisha like Puri, Ganjam, Sarnbalpur and Baripada
joined them. Despite the oppression by the police, the Satyagrahis manufactured the contraband salt
at Inchudi on 14 April 1930. The Civil Disobedience was also carried on in other forms such as
boycott of the foreign cloth, picketing before the excise shops, refusal to pay Chowkidari tax, and
spread of Khadi. As an effect of the Gandhi-Irwin Pact on 5 March 1931, the Civil Disobedience
movement was discontinued and Congress decided to participate in the second session of Round
Table Conference at London. Thus, the nationalist movement in Odisha which was started with the
establishment of Indian National Congress in 1885, ended with the attainment of independence of
India on 15th August 1947.
Creation of Separate province, Non-Congress and

Congress Ministries( 1937-1947)
The creation of separate province is a significant chapter in the history of modern

Odisha. Odsha got disintegrated after 1568 into several regional kingdoms. The Bhois of Khurdha,
the Bhanjas of Ghumsur and Myurbhanj and the Chauhans of Sambalpur gradually assumed political
prominence. The sway of either the Mughals or the Marathas failed to restore the political unity of
Odisha. Odisha was conquered by the East India Company in a gradual manner; first the southern
part, then the coastal region and lastly Sambalpur and the adjoining tracts. For administration, its
southern part was tagged with Madras Presidency, the coastal region with Bengal and the Western
part with the Central Provinces. The Odia-speaking people were placed under three different
administration as neglected, insignificant and minority groups.
However, Odisha became a separate state on 1st April, 1936. A circular, famous as Risley
circular, was issued restoring Odia as official language in Sambalpur and the adjacent Feudatory
States and transferring them to Odsha Division in 1905. The Odsha Division was added to Bihar and
Bihar-Odsha Province was created in 1912, while Ganjam and Vizianagaram Agency remained under
Madras. During 1903-20 the Utkal Sammilani passed many resolutions of which amalgamation of
Odia-speaking territories was the most important. The Reforms Committee of 1917 recommended
provincial autonomy. A resolution was moved by Sachchidanand Sihna in the Imperial Legislative
Council on 20th Feb. 1920 recommending Govt. of India "to formulate a scheme for the
amalgamation of Odia-speaking tracts".
The Philip-Duff Committee after visiting several places and examining grievances of Odia -
speaking people was convinced of a genuine, long-standing and deep-seated desire of Odias under
Madras Government to come under one administration with other Odiaspeaking people. The Simon

Odisha History
Commission suggested to Government India to set up a Boundary Commission to demarcate the
territorial extent of the Province. Finally the Donnel Committee recommended for a separate
province which would include Odsha Division, Angul, Padampur, Khariar Estate, the greater part of
Ganjam district and Vizagapatam Agency. Thus, on the basis of Joint Select Committee's report,
provision was made in the Government of India Act, 1935 for the creation of the new state of
Odisha. According to His Majesty, the King Emperor's Order-in-Council, dated 3 March, 1936, the
province was inaugurated on 1 April, 1936. Election was held for the provincial assembly in January
1937, under the provision of provincial autonomy in the Government of India Act, 1935. In March
1937 the Governor invited Biswanath Das the leader of the Congress Legislature party, to form the
ministry and be its head.
But Biswanath Das refused to accept the invitation in pursuance of the direction of the All India
Congress Committee. The Governor then invited the Maharaja of Parlakimedi to form the ministry.
The Maharaja of Parlakimedi resigned and the first Congress ministry in Odisha was formed with
Biswanath Das as the Prime Minister on 19 July 1937. Besides the Prime Minister, the Ministry had
two ministers- Nityananda Kanungo and Bodhram Dube. In October 1939, the All-India Congress
Committee directed the Congress ministries in all provinces to resign in protest.
On 4 November 1939, the Congress ministry resigned in Odisha. By August 1940 the dissident
Congress leader Godavarish Mishra had started a move (or the formation of a coalition ministry. On
24 November 1941 a coalition ministry was formed with the Maharaja of Parlakimedi as the Prime
Minister and Godavarish Mishra and Maulavia Abdus Sobhan Khan as the ministers. In the election,
held early in 1946, the Congress party secured majority of seats in the Odisha Legislative Assembly,
and formed ministry under the Prime Ministership of Harekrushna Mahatab on 23 April 1946. The
first popular act of the new ministry; was the release of an political prisoners. Thus, the country
attained independence on 15 August 1947, for the country in general and Odisha in particular the
vital problem of merger of princely states which was achieved by H.K. Mahatab and Sardar Patel
Quit India Movement
The dragging of India into the war scenario of the World War II by the British Government and
expected Japan‟s plan to capture India, forced Gandhiji to declare Quit India movement in India. On
8 August 1942, the AICC passed the Quit India Resolution at Bombay to cast a final blow against the
British imperialism.This movement also known as August Revolution was the culmination of the
Gandhian struggle for freedom in India and its manifestations in Odisha. But on the very next day all
the Congress leaders from various parts of the nation were arrested.
Among the leaders of Odisha, H. K. Mahtab was the only leader who was arrested at
Bombay and sent to the Ahmadnagar fort jail.The British Government's strategy to suppress the
uprising through firm control of the urban centres went wrong. Leadership of the movement now
devolved upon the younger generation of students. The situation seemed to be normal and quiet
after these arrests. But within two weeks, cases of revolutionary activities were reported from the
remote villages of Odisha where the police were not prepared to tackle the law and order problem.
The students of the Revenshaw College organized meetings, processions and supporting
the call of Mahatma Gandhi boycotted the classes. As a mark of protest against the arrest of their

Odisha History
leaders they resolved to break laws and turned violent, setting fire to Government offices and
assaulting the officers. They even resorted to harmful activities like damaging the railway tracks and
cutting of telegraph lines etc. The anti-war propaganda which had already been conducted by the
Congressmen and Socialists and the suffering of the people caused by the war had prepared the
ground for the spontaneous outburst of the masses, even among the hill tribes of the Koraput
district.
The violent mob burnt down some records at the Lakshmipur police-station. During the Quit
India Movement the supreme heroism was exhibited in the Koraput district by Laxman Naik who was
an ordinary illiterate four-anna member of the UPCC. After the arrest of the leaders, the students of
the Ravenshaw College and other educational institutions carried on the movement in the Cuttack
district. About 200 students from Ravenshaw College set fire to the office building on 15th August
1942. Maximum cases of revolutionary activities were reported in Jajpur subdivision of Cuttack
district. The police oppression was most severe in Balasore district. On 28th September 1942,
another clash between the police and the people took place in the village Khairadihi, situated under
the Khaira police station.As a result of the police firing two persons were killed and one got injured.
The Quit India movement became very intense at Eram in Basudevpur. Thus, the Quit India
Movement in Odisha was a mass-oriented and widespread movement. It got tremendous support in
towns, villages, Adivasi areas and even princely states.
British relation with Princely States of Odisha

and Prajamandal Movement and Merger of the
States
The Feudatory States also known as Native States or Princely States or Garhjat
States or Tributary Mahals were twenty six in number by the time of the merger with the Province of
Odisha in 1948-49. Feudatory States were controlled indirectly in contrast to British Odisha which
was under the direct administration of the British government. The British followed a policy of 'No-
interference' in the internal affairs of the States. The policy of laissez-faire changed towards 1813. A
significant feature was the creation of the office of the Superintendent of the Tributary Mahals in
1814. The Great Indian Revolt of 1857 brought about a noticeable change in British Policy. The
growth of national consciousness became alarming for the British authority. They tried to maintain
more cordial relationship with the Feudatory Chiefs. Many States faced a lot of troubles from the
Praja Mandalas or State's People's Conference after 1920. Thus, during the two decades preceding
the Merger of the States in 1948 witnessed implementation of some reform measures and
developments in administration, education and public works.
When India became independent on 15 August 1947, the hitherto sovereign princely
states of Odisha merged into the national mainstream largely through the efforts of Sardar Patel and
Dr. Harekrushna Mahatab. The people were exploited through several means of taxation like 'Rasad',
'Magan', 'Bethi' and 'Begari'. Finally, when exploitation of the people became unbearable, they were
captivated by a burning desire to revolt. Their accumulated hatred and anger against the ruling
princes were manifested in the Prajamandal movement. To give a proper direction to the

Odisha History
Prajamandal movement, for the first time on 20 June 1931, the 'Odisha Garajat state people's
Association' was convened at Cuttack. Odisha witnessed a number of Prajamandal movements in
different parts of the state. The 1938 Prajamandal movement at Nilgiri is a very special event in the
history of Odisha. Under the initiative of Harakrushna Mahtab and Sarangdhar Das a 'Prajamandal' as
formed at Gariamal. The 'Praja of Dhenkanal started a rebellion against the payment of Bethi,
Magana, Rasad and Sunia Bheti. The objectives of the Prajamandal were printed in pamphlets were
circulated among the people.
The Prajamandal movement in Talcher assumed dangerous proportions. The Gangapur

Prajamandal movement too assumed a terrified character. The Ranpur Praarnandai movement was
reflection of the all-Odisha peoples' or 'Praja' dissatisfaction against their rules. Prajamandala was
constituted in Nayagarh in June 1938 under the leadership of Narayan Nanda. At Bonaigarh, the
Prajamandal was formed in 1938. The Sonepur State Prajamandal was formed in December 1938
under the presidentship of Bhimsen Bhoi. In 1940, the Prajamandal was formed in Mayurbhanj. Sarat
Chandra Das was its president. To denigrate the Prajamandal in the eyes of the people, the king
formed a parallel government organisation known as the Prajamangal and started delivering
assistance to the people.
The Prajamandal movement was witnessed in other parts of Odisha also. Notable among
them were Khandapara, Patna, and Kalahandi. It was during that year the Cabinet Mission visited
India and Mahatab gave assurance that he would place before it the issue of the merger of the
'garajat' states with the new Odisha province. Hereafter Iron man Sardar Patel and Harekrushna
Mahatab made persistent effort to end the separate existence of the native princely states. These
states were subsequently merged with Odisha. A conference of the Prajamandal was convened on
the eve of independence on 10 August 1947. Taking advantage of the rapidly spreading discontent
and the consequent misrule, Harekrushna Mahatab acted swiftly and with great alacrity to bring
about the merger of Nilgiri with Odisha.
On 24 December 1947, Mahatab convened a meeting at Cuttack for the purpose of the
merger of the Garajat States. The efforts of Sardar Patel, Harekrushna Mahatab and V. P. Menon had
made possible the merger of the Garajat states with Odisha. On 23 December 1947, as per the 'Extra
Provincial Jurisdiction Act,' the administration of the Garajat states was transferred to the hands of
Government of Odisha. It became operational on 1 January 1948. Though Mayurbhanj merged with
Odisha, the twin Garajat states of Sareikela and Kharasuan were merged with Bihar. Thus, a new era
dawned in the history of Odisha after the merger of the native princely states with Odisha.


Odisha History

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Odisha History

• Sources of Ancient History of Odisha

Medieval History: Odisha

• The Suryavamsi Gajapati Sources, Political history( Kapilendradeva, Purusattomadeva,

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Modern History: Odisha

• British Occupation of Odisha.

Ananta Sabar /9439455754 Aadhar ID- 8971 8065 3919

Ancient History: Odisha

Sources of Ancient History of Odisha:

Historical Geography: Kalinga, Utkala, Odra,

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Odra is also mentioned in the Manusamhita, where it is associated with the

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The Mahameghavahanas: Career and

As young prince he acquired knowledge in different branches of learning, which were

However, N. K. Sahu has fixed up the chronology of Kharavela's reign, as follows:

Rise of local dynasties: Matharas, Sailodbhavas

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The Bhaumakaras- Origin, Chronology and

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The Somavamsis- Early History- dynastic history

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The Ganga- Sources, Political History,(

By his extensive conquests, Chodagangadeva became the master of a vast kingdom

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Cultural significance of the Ganga rule

Chodagangadeva built the present gigantic temple of Lord Jagannath.

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Society and Economy- during the Bhaumakara,

It is known from many inscriptions of the Bhauma-Karas that Brahmins belonging to

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Medieval History: Odisha

The Suryavamsi Gajapati : Sources, Political

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The Chalukya and Bhoi

The accession of Ramachandradeva to the throne of Bhoi dynasty at Khurda marks a

Ananta Sabar /9439455754 Aadhar ID- 8971 8065 3919

Decline and disintegration of Medieval Odishan

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Sri Chaitanya faith in Odisha: its Impact

Panchasakha and Bhakti Movements

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Jagannath Das was born in Kapilesvarapur or Kapilesvar grama (one of the 16

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Muslim conquest of Odisha, Mughal -Afghan

Odisha under the Mughal rule: Akbar, Jahangir,

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Odisha under the Naib-Nizams

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Muslim Administration in Odisha

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Muslim-Maratha Conflict, Maratha Occupation of

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Maratha Administration in Odisha

During the Maratha period, as in the Mughal period, there were 30

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Socio-Economic life in Medieval Odisha