BOYLE’S LAW

The relationship between volume and pressure of a gas was first started by
Robert Boyle in 1662.
Boyle’s law states that the volume of a given mass of gas is inversely
proportional to its pressure, provided that the temperature remains
constant.
According to Boyle’s law, volume of a gas increases as the pressure
decreases and vice versa.
This relationship is independent of the nature of the gas and it can be
expressed mathematically as:

V = Or PV =k
Where V= volume at pressure P
K = a mathematical constant
For a given mass of a gas, the product of its pressure and its volume is
always a constant. If the pressure of a given mass of gas increases, its
volume will decrease by a similar proportion and vice versa, as long as the
temperature remain constant. This relationship can also be expressed
mathematically as:
P1V1 = P2 V2
Where V1 = volume at pressure P1
V2= Volume at pressure P2
Boyle’s law can still be re-stated as: ‘The pressure of a given mass of gas is
inversely proportional to its volume, provided the temperature remains
constant.Boyle’s law can further be illustrated with the diagram below,
showing that when P is increasing, V is decreasing and when P is decreasing,
V is increasing.

P3
V3
P2
V2
P1
V1

P1 = Initial pressure
P2= Final pressure
V1=Initial volume
V2= final volume
Graphical representation of Boyle’s law
Worked examples
1. 375cm3 of a gas has a pressure of 770mmHg. Find its volume if the
pressure e is reduced to 750mmHg.
P1V1 = P2V2(Boyle’s law)
P1 = 770mmHg
P2 = 750mmHg
V1=375cm3
V2 =? (newvolume of gas)
P1V1 = P2 V2

V2 = = =385cm3
The new volume will be 385cm3

2. 100cm3 of a gas has pressure of 1 atmosphere. Determine the volume of

the gas at 5 atmospheres keeping the temperature constant.
Solution: since T is constant, we are to use Boyle’s law.
P1 Initial pressure = l atmosphere
P1 Final pressure= 5
V1 Initial volume= 100cm3
V2 (required quantity)
Recall: V2 = P1V1 = P2V2

V2= = = 20cm3

CHARLES’ LAW
The effect of temperature changes on the volume of a given mass of a gas at
a constant pressure is described by Charles. Charles’ law states that the
volume of a given mass of gas is directly proportional to its temperature in
Kelvin, provided that pressure remains constant.
The volume of the gas decreases as the temperature decreases, and
increases as the temperature increases.
Mathematically, the law can be expressed as:
V T
V =kT

Or = k
Where v= volume
T= Kelvin Temperature
K= mathematical constant

For a direct relationship, when the temperature increases, the volume will
also increase at the same rate and vice versa, at constant pressure.The
diagram above shows that when V is decreasing, T is also decreasing and
when V is increasing, T is also increasing thus, making the quotient constant.

Charles’s law can be represented graphically has shown below.

If we divide the varying gas volumes by the corresponding temperature in

Kelvin, the result would always be a constant. This relationship can also be
expressed in another form.
=
V2=
Where V1 is the volume at temperature T1
V2 is the volume at temperature T2
ABSOLUTE ZERO
This is the temperature at which the volume of a gas is theoretically zero..At
this temperature there is no motiom of any form and all gases have been
liquefied or solidified. The value of the temperature is -273 0C.
TEMPERATURE CONVERSION
1. To convert from Celsius scale to Kelvin scale, add 273 i.e. T= 0C + 273.
This is because O0C=273K.
2. To convert from Kelvin scale to Celsius scale, subtract 273. i.e
0
C= T- 273.
Where T= Temperature in Kevin
0
C= Temperature in Celsius.
Examples:
1.Convert the following Celsius temperature to Kelvin temperature.
(a) 1000C (b) 00C (c) -570C
Solution
Recall: T= 0C + 273
(a) 1000C= (100 + 273) = 373k
0C=(0 + 273) = (0 + 273) = 373k
(b)-570c = (- 57 + 273)k = (273-57)= 216k
2. Convert the following Kelvin temperatures to Celsius temperature.
(a) 298k (b) 405k (b) 285k (d) 0k
Solution
Recall 00c = k – 273
298k = (298 – 273)0C= 250C
405k = (405 – 273)0C = 120C
0k = (0 – 273)0C = - 2730C
Worked examples on Charles’s law
1. A gas occupies a volume of 20.0dm3 at 373k. Its volume at 746k at that
pressure will be?
Here pressure is constant. Charles’s law will apply.
V1=20.0dm3
T1 = 273k
T2= 746
V2= ?

Recall Charles’s law = =

V2= V2 = =
40.0dm3

GENERAL GAS LAW

From the gas laws, we know that the volume of a gas depends on both its
temperature and pressure. The relationship between the three variable; i.e.
volume,, temperature and pressure can be summarized up as follows:

If V (Boyle’s law at constant temperature) and V T (Charle’s law at

constant pressure)

V × T (both temperature and pressure may vary) or = K (a

mathematical constant for a fixed mass of gas)

=k is often known as the general gas equation.

GENERAL GAS EQUATION

General gas equation states that for fixed mass of a gas under any set of

conditions of V, P and T, the value of must remain constant. If for a fixed

mass of gas V1 is the volume at pressure
P1 and absolute temperature T 1 and V2 is the volume at pressure P2 and
absolute temperature T2 it follows that.

=
The general gas equation can be used to find the volume of a gas when both
its pressure and temperature change. Thus;

V2 =
The standard temperature and pressure
The value of gases are sometimes given in standard temperature and
pressure (S. T. P). These values are standard temperature= 273k and
standard pressure = 760mmHg. The S.I unit of standard pressure when used
is 1.01 × 103Nm-2
Examples
1. At S. T. P a certain mass of gas occupies a volume of 790cm 3, find the
temperature at which the gas occupies 1000cm3 and has a presence of
720mmHg

=
P1 = 760mmHg (at stp), V1= 790cm3
T1 = 273k (at stp), = 1000cm3
P2 = 726mmHg
T2 = New Temperature

T2 =

= = 330.1k
The new temperature of the gas is 330.1k
2. A given mass of gas occupies 850cm3at 320k and 0.92 × 103Nm-2
of pressure. Calculate the volume of the gas at S.T.P.

=
P1= 0.92 × 103Nm-2 T1= 320k
V1= 850cm3 P2= SP + 1.01 × 103Nm-2
T2= 273k (at stp)
V2 = new volume of gas.

V2 = = = 660.5

IDEAL GAS LAW

The ideal gas: This is a gas sample whose properties correspond, within
experimental error, to the relationship PV =RT. An ideal gas must obey all
the rules guiding Boyle’s and Charles’s laws. Ideal gas conforms to the
kinetic theory of gases. Four quantities’ are important in all experimental
work, measurements or calculations involving gases. They are: (i) volume (ii)
pressure (iii) temperature and (iv) numbers of moles
Ideal gas equation is given by PV = nRT
The value of R for one mole of a gas at 273K, 1atm and volume
22.4dm3is 0.0821atmdm3K-1mol-1 or 8.314JK-1mol-1
Examples:
1. Calculate the volume occupied by 2.5moles of an ideal gas at-23 oC and
4.0atm. (R = 0.0821atmdm3K-1mol-1)
Solution:
Using PV = nRT where P = 4.0atm n = 2.5 mole T = -23+273 = 250K

Hence, V = =
= 12.8dm3
NOTE: Pressure can also be measured in other units. 760mmHg =
1atm = 101325Nm-2
Ideal gases only exist at experimental conditions of high pressure
and low temperature. Basically all gases are real

REASONS WHY REAL GASES DEVIATE FROM IDEAL GAS BEHAVIOUR

1. The forces of attraction in real gases are not negligible.
2. The volume of real gases are not negligible. Hence, real gases have their
own volume called excluded volume.
3. Real gases undergo inelastic collision

GAY- LUSSAC’S LAW AND AVOGADRO’S LAW

Gay- Lussac’s law describes the combining volumes of gases that react
together.In his experiment, all temperatures and pressures were kept
constant:
A. STEAM: Gay- Lussac’s observed that two volumes of hydrogen reacted
with one volume of oxygen to yield two volumes of steam

B. HYDROGEN CHLORIDE GAS: One volume of hydrogen combined with one

volume of chloride to yield two volumes of hydrogen.
Hydrogen + Chlorine → Hydrogen Chloride

Gay- Lussac’s noticed that the combining volumes as well as the volumes of
the products, if gaseous, were related by simple ratios of whole numbers. He
proposed the law of combining volume or gaseous volumes.
Hence; Gay- Lussac’s law combining volumes states thatwhen gases
react, they do so in volumes which are in simple ratios to one another and to
the volumes of the products, if gaseous provide that the temperature and
the pressure remain constant.
EXAMPLES
1.What is the volume of oxygen required to burn completely 45 of
methane ( )?

By Gay- Lussac’s Law:

1 volume of methane required 2 volumes of oxygen i.e.
1 of methane requires 2 of oxygen
 45 of methane require 90
2.20 of carbon(I) oxide are sparked with 20 of oxygen. If all the
volumes of gases are measured at a S.T.P, calculate the volume of the
residual gases after sparking?

Equation of reaction 2 + 2
Combining volume 2 : 1 :2

Volumes before sparking 20 10 , 20

Volumes after sparking 10 20

Residual gases = un-reacted oxygen + carbon (IV) oxide formed
Volume of residual gas = 10 + 20 = 30

AVOGADRO’S LAW
Avogadro’s Law states thatequal volumes of all gases at the same
temperature and pressure contain the same number of molecules.
This law means that for all of gases e.g. oxygen, hydrogen, Chlorine etc if
their volumes are the same, they will have the same number of
molecules.
Avogadro’s Law is easily applied to convert volume of gases to the
number of molecules. Avogadro’s Law can be used to solve problem
under Gay –Lussac’s law of combining volumes.
The formation of steam from reaction of Hydrogen and Oxygen is given
below:
Reaction: Hydrogen + Oxygen → Steam
Volume: 2 1 2
Gay –Lussac’s: 2 : 1 : 2
Avogadro’s Law: 2 : 1 : 2
This agrees with the equation below:
2 + 2
i.e 2 molecules of hydrogen combine with 1 molecule of oxygen to
produce 2 molecules of steam
Example:
1. 60 of hydrogen are sparked with 20 of oxygen at 1000C and 1
atmosphere. What is the volume of the steam produced?
Solution
2H2 + O2 2H2O
 From the equation, 2 molecules of hydrogen react with 1 molecule of
oxygen to produce 2 molecules of steam.
2 + O2 2H2O
2 vol 1vol 2 vol (combining volumes)
i.e. 2 1 2
From the above information, when 2 (2 vol) of react, 1 (1 vol) of
O2will react i.e. half of vol, to give 2 (2 vol) of H2O.
Thus, 10 of will react with 5 of O2 to produce 10 of H2O and
so on.
From the question, we have 60 of and 20 of O2, thus, when all
the 20 of O2react, only 40 of will react to give 40 of
H2O,because the volume of H2 is the same as that of H2O i.e.
2 + O2 2H2O
2 vol 1 vol 2 vol
2 1 2
40 20 40
Thus, the volume of steam (H2O) formed is 40
2.What volume of propane is left unreacted when 80 of oxygen and 20
of propane react according to the equation below?
C3H8(g) + 5O2(g) 3CO2(g) + 4H2O
Solution
C3H8(g) + 5O2(g) 3CO2(g) + 4H2O
1vols 5vols
1 5
4 20
Volume of the propane before the reaction =20
The volume that reacted =4
Volume that did not react= volume before
Reaction – volume that reacted i.e. 20 – 4 =16

GRAHAM’S LAW OF DIFFUSION.

This law states that, at constant temperature and pressure, the rate of
diffusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of its relative
molecular mass or square root of its vapour density. Mathematically,
Graham’s law of diffusion can be represented as:
 Where R1 and R2 are the rates of diffusion and P1 and P2, the
densities of the two gases.
The density is directly proportional to its molecular mass.
EXAMPLES
1. 100 of oxygen diffuse through an office in 60 seconds while it takes
120seconds for the same office. Calculate the molecular mass of the
unknown gas [0=16]
Solution

O2 =
Since the rate of diffusion is inversely proportional to the time taken:

O2 = = =

( )=

Mx= MO2 ( )2= 32 ×( )2= 32

Mx = 32 × 4 = 128g

2. 200 of hydrogen diffused through a porous pot in 40 seconds. How long

will it take 300 of chlorine to diffuse through the same pot?
Solution
200 of hydrogen diffused in 40secs
300 of chlorine will diffuse in

× 4020
(3 × 20) = 60seconds
Now, using the equation

=
Where t= 60s, M1 = molecular mass of hydrogen
i.e H2= (2 ×1) =2
M2= molecular mass of chlorine = cl2 =2× 35.5 = 71

T2 = t1 = 60 = 60 = 60 × 5.96
= 357.5sec
Time of diffusion of chlorine = 358s.
3. How many times the rate of diffusion of hydrogen is faster than that of
oxygen and what law do you use to get the answer? [ vapour density] of
[H=1, O=16]
Solution
 Rate (R+) of diffusion of H2=

= =
Hydrogen diffuses four times faster. The law used is Graham’s law of
diffusion.

The vapour density of a gas or vapour is the number of times a given

volume of gas (or vapour) is heavier than the same volume of hydrogen
measured and weighed under the same temperature and pressure

Vapour density =
Applying Avogadro’s law, it is possible to show that the vapour density of
a gas is related to the relative molecular mass of the gas.

V.D=

V.D =
2 x V.D =relative molecular mass
The density of hydrogen at S.T.P is 0.09
Example
Calculate the vapour densities of the following gases from the given data.
1. 560 of oxygen at S.T.P weighs 0.8g
2. 1,400 of sulphur (iv) oxide weighs 4g
Solution
1. 1000 of hydrogen at S.T.P weighs 0.09g

560 of hydrogen at × 0.09

0.05g

V.D=
Vapour density of oxygen=

2. 1000 of hydrogen at S.T.P weighs 0.09g.

1400 of hydrogen will weighs
 = 0.126g

Vapour density=

Vapour density of SO2=

= = 31.74= 32
MOLAR VOLUME OF GASES- AVOGADRO NUMBER AND THE MOLE
CONCEPT
The molar volume of any gas is the volume occupied by one mole of that gas
at s.t.p. and is numerically equally to 22.4 i.e. one mole of any gas at
s.t.p. occupies the same volume the value of which is 22.4 . This value is
called molecular mass or molar mass.
From the Avogadro’s law, the molar volume for all gases contains the same
number of molecules. This number is called the Avogadro’s number or
constant and the value is 6.02 at s.t.p
MOLE: The mole can be defined as the amount of substance which
contain as many elementary particles or entities e.g. ions,
molecules, atoms, electrons as the number of atoms in exactly 12
grams of carbon -12.
The mole of any substance represents 6.02 particles of any substance.
Therefore, a mole refers to Avogadro’s number of particles of any substance.
In summary, the molar mass of a gas contains Avogadro’s number of
molecules which is 6.02 and occupies a volume of 22.4 at s.t.p.
The atomic mass of every element also contains Avogadro’s number of
atoms.
The mole concept- This says that one mole of any substance contains the
same number of particles; which can be atoms, molecules or ions. This
number is 6.023 (the Avogadro’s number)
Examples
1.158g of a gas at s.t.p. occupies a volume of 5000 . What is the relative
molecular masss of the gas? (Molar volume at s.t.p= 22.4 mol-1
Solution
Volume of gas: V = 50.00
Molar volume of gas; V = 22.4 mol-1
N= amount in moles

=
N= = 2.23mol

Molar mass M of the gas = = = 70.8

Molar mass = 71 gmol -1

2. What is the mass of 3 moles of oxygen gas O2? (O = 16)

Mass of 1 mole of O2= (2 16)g =32g
Mass of 3moles of O2= (3 32)g = 96g
3. How Many moles are there in 20g of CaCO3? [CaCO3 =100]
Molar mass of CaCO3= 100g
100g of CaCO3= 1 mole

20g of CaCO3 = 1mole = 0.2moles

DALTON’S LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURE

Dalton’s law of partial pressure states that for a mixture of gases that do not
react chemically, the total pressure exerted by the mixture of gases is equal
to the sum of the partial pressures of the individual gases.
Mathematically, Dalton’s law of partial pressure for a mixture of n gases can
be expressed as:
Ptotal = P1 +P2+P3 +………..+ Pn where Ptotal is the total pressure exerted by the
mixture of gases that dot not react, P 1, P2, P3……Pn are partial pressure of the
individual gases.
Example:
If 20.0dm3 of hydrogen were collected over water at 17 oC and 79.7kNm-2
pressure; Calculate the
(a) Pressure of dry hydrogen at this temperature.
(b) Volume of dry hydrogen at s.t.p.
( vapour pressure of water is 1.90kNm-2 at 17OC)
Solution:
(a) PH2 =Ptotal – Pwater vapour
= 79.7 – 1.90
= 77.8kNm-2

(b) =

=
= 14.5dm3