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The Palgrave Handbook
of Populism
Edited by
Michael Oswald
The Palgrave Handbook of Populism
 Michael Oswald
Editor

The Palgrave
Handbook of Populism
Editor
Michael Oswald
Political Science
University of Passau
Passau, Bayern, Germany

ISBN 978-3-030-80802-0 ISBN 978-3-030-80803-7 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-80803-7

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
Switzerland AG 2022
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher,
whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation,
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 Preface

Handbooks are intended to give a systematic overview of a subject and its

most important sub-areas. This volume is not intended to compete with other
handbooks dealing with populism already on the market—there are excellent
handbooks. And, although this handbook is a stand-alone publication, its value
lies in how far it extends the discussions on important topics that are either
not covered in other volumes or not adequately represented. Of particular
note here are the highly important topics such as ‘Populism & Gender’ or
‘The Psychology of Populism’. This handbook offers insight into some of the
most potent and relevant dimensions of populism’s expressions and thereby
extending our understanding and appreciation of the concept’s significance
within our contemporary political world.
Many thanks go out to not only the many authors of this volume who have
labored so diligently and tenaciously to draw out the many aspects and implica-
tions of populism and have sought to enlighten us about the less than obvious
hues and tomes of one of social science’s most compelling and demanding
subjects, but to those research assistants as well who have so generously and
selflessly devoted their time and dedication to this project’s progress and
completion, without whom this volume would not have been possible. First
and foremost, among those are Elena Broda and Mario Schäfer who assisted
with editing and the essential task of careful and diligent communication with
the volume’s authors. I could not have done it without you! Also, many thanks
to my wife Valentina, and above all to my children, Ava and Levi.

Passau, Germany Dr. Michael Oswald

March 2021

v
 Contents

Part I Populism–Introduction to & Some Reflections on the

Concept
1 The New Age of Populism: Reapproaching a Diffuse
Concept 3
Michael Oswald, Mario Schäfer, and Elena Broda

Part II Theoretical Critique

2 The Past and Present of American Populism 31
Anton Jäger
3 Populism Is Hegemony Is Politics? Ernesto Laclau’s
Theory of Populism 49
Benjamin Arditi
4 “An Antipodean Populism? Winston Peters, New Zealand
First, and the Problems of Misclassification” 69
David B. MacDonald
5 A Critique of Left-Wing Populism: Critical Materialist
and Social-Psychological Perspectives 85
Helge Petersen and Hannah Hecker

Part III The Political Psychology of Populism & its Affective

Underpinnings
6 The Psychology of Populism 103
Darren G. Lilleker and Nathalie Weidhase
7 Emotional Mobilization: The Affective Underpinnings
of Right-Wing Populist Party Support 115
Hans-Georg Betz and Michael Oswald

vii
viii CONTENTS

8 From Specific Worries to Generalized Anger: The

Emotional Dynamics of Right-Wing Political Populism 145
Christoph Giang Nguyen, Mikko Salmela,
and Christian von Scheve

Part IV Authoritarian Populism & Fascism

9 Fascism and Populism 163
Carlos de la Torre
10 Populism and Authoritarianism 177
Gabriella Gricius
11 Authoritarian Populism and Collective Memory
Manipulation 195
Rafał Riedel
12 The (Almost) Forgotten Elitist Sources of Right-Wing
Populism Kaltenbrunner, Höcke and the Distaste
for the Masses 213
Phillip Becher

Part V Economic Populism, Inequality & Crises

13 Populism and the Economics of Antitrust 227
Aurelien Portuese
14 The Red Herring of Economic Populism 245
Paris Aslanidis
15 Populist Mobilization in the United States: Adding
Political Economy to Cultural Explanations 263
Christian Lammert and Boris Vormann

Part VI Populism & Gender

16 Right-Wing Populism and Gender 277
Gabriele Dietze
17 ‘The Gendered Politics of Right-Wing Populism
and Instersectional Feminist Contestations’ 291
Julia Roth
18 Popular Sovereignty and (Non)recognition in Venezuela:
On the Coming into Political Being of ‘el Pueblo’ 303
Sara C. Motta and Ybiskay Gonzalez Torres
 CONTENTS ix

Part VII New Populisms and Cleavages

19 Environmental Populism 321
Aron Buzogány and Christoph Mohamad-Klotzbach
20 Medical Populism 341
Gideon Lasco
21 Global Populism 351
Daniel F. Wajner
22 Populism and the Cosmopolitan–Communitarian Divide 369
Frank Decker
23 Populism and the Recasting of the Ideological Landscape
of Liberal Democracies 379
Albena Azmanova

Part VIII Populism Discourses

24 Meaning Matters: The Political Language of Islamic
Populism 389
Inaya Rakhmani and Vedi Hadiz
25 Populism, Anti-populism and Post-truth 407
Antonis Galanopoulos and Yannis Stavrakakis
26 Experience Narratives and Populist Rhetoric in U.S.
House Primaries 421
Mike Cowburn
27 The Framing of Right-Wing Populism: Intricacies
of ‘Populist’ Narratives, Emotions, and Resonance 437
Julia Leser and Rebecca Pates
28 Populism and Collective Memory 451
Luca Manucci

Part IX Populists in Office

29 Populism in Southeast Asia 471
Paul D. Kenny
30 Populism in Africa and the Anti-Corruption Trope
in Nigeria’s Politics 485
Sylvester Odion Akhaine
31 Populism in Southern Africa Under Liberation Movements
as Governments: The Cases of Namibia, South Africa
and Zimbabwe 497
Henning Melber
x CONTENTS

32 Venezuela: The Institutionalization of Authoritarian

Populism 511
Thomas Kestler and Miguel Latouche
33 Populist Neo-Imperialism: A New Take on Populist
Foreign Policy 527
Ole Frahm and Dirk Lehmkuhl

Part X Strategic Populism & Societal Support

34 Populism as an Implementation of National Biopolitics:
The Case of Poland 545
Szymon Wróbel
35 Understanding the Support of Right-Wing Populist
Positions Within Unsuspected Groups: The Case
of Professional Social Workers in Italy 563
Luca Fazzi and Urban Nothdurfter
36 Clarifying Our Populist Moment(s): Right-Wing
and Left-Wing Populism in the 2016 Presidential Election 579
Edward G. Carmines, Eric R. Schmidt,
and Matthew R. Fowler

Part XI Consequences of Populism & Anti-Populist

Discourse
37 New Parties, Populism, and Parliamentary Polarization:
Evidence from Plenary Debates in the German Bundestag 611
Marcel Lewandowsky, Julia Schwanholz,
Christoph Leonhardt, and Andreas Blätte
38 The Enemy in My House: How Right-Wing Populism
Radicalized the Debate About Citizenship in France 629
Elena Dück and Sebastian Glassner
39 Can Right-Wing Populist Parties Solve the “Democratic
Dilemma”? 649
Martin Althoff
40 Searching for the Philosopher’s Stone: Counterstrategies
Against Populism 665
Mario Schäfer and Florian Hartleb

Index 687
 Notes on Contributors

Sylvester Odion Akhaine is a Professor of Political Science at the Depart-

ment of Political Science, Lagos State University, Nigeria.
Martin Althoff Dipl.-Soz.-Wiss. Martin Althoff studied political science at
the University of Duisburg-Essen from 2005 to 2012. After graduation, he
worked from 2013 to 2017 as a research assistant at the Institute for Polit-
ical Science at the University of Münster. Since 2017 he has been working as
a Lecturer and research assistant at the NSI-University of Applied Sciences
in Hannover. He is currently working on his Ph.D. thesis, researches and
publishes on the subject of political participation and works primarily with
quantitative methods.
Benjamin Arditi is a Professor of Politics at UNAM, the National Univer-
sity of Mexico. He is the author of Politics on the edges of liberalism: differ-
ence, populism, revolution, emancipation (Edinburgh University Press, 2007,
2008; Spanish translation in Gedisa 2010, 2014, 2017). He co-edits the book
series Taking on the Political published by Edinburgh University Press. His
research focuses on networked political insurgencies, populism and illiberal and
postliberal politics.
Paris Aslanidis is a Lecturer of Political Science at Yale University, Depart-
ment of Political Science and Hellenic Studies Program, MacMillan Center
for International and Area Studies. His work focuses on populism from the
perspectives of party politics, social mobilization and intellectual history. He
has published with Political Studies, Democratization, Sociological Forum,
Mobilization, Quality & Quantity, among other journals, and his chapter on
‘Populism and Social Movements’ appears in the Oxford Handbook of Populism.
Albena Azmanova is an Associate Professor of Political Theory at the Univer-
sity of Kent’s Brussels School of International Studies. Her research spans
justice and judgment, democratic theory and social transformation and critique

xi
xii NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

of contemporary capitalism. She is the author, most recently, of Capitalism on

Edge: How Fighting Precarity Can Achieve Radical Change Without Crisis Or
Utopia (Columbia University Press, 2020). She holds a Ph.D. from the New
School for Social Research (New York) and has held teaching or research posi-
tions at Sciences Po. (Paris), the New School (New York), the Max-Planck-
Institute for the Study of Societies (Cologne), Harvard University, and UC
Berkeley.
Phillip Becher (b. 1987) is a social scientist and currently working at the
University of Siegen. He has recently published his Ph.D. thesis on the work
of American fascism scholar A. James Gregor as a monograph. His research
interests include political theory, the history of political ideas, political parties
and social movements. Becher’s publications, papers and presentations deal
inter alia with Italian neo-fascism, contemporary German right-wing populism
and the intellectual new right.
Hans-Georg Betz is a leading expert on populism and the radical right in
affluent liberal democracies. He has written several seminal books and arti-
cles on radical right-wing populism, nativism and Islamophobia. He currently
serves as an adjunct professor in the institute of political science at the Univer-
sity of Zürich where he teaches advanced courses on populism and globaliza-
tion. Before coming to Switzerland, he taught at York University in Toronto,
The Paul H. Nitze School of Advanced International Studies (SAIS) in Wash-
ington, DC, and the Loyola University Rome Center in Italy. He also held
a joint visiting chair at Columbia University/New York University in New
York City. He currently lives near Lausanne in the French part of Switzerland.
Hans-Georg Betz has written extensively on populism, the radical right, and
nativism, both past and contemporary.
Andreas Blätte is a Professor of Public Policy and Regional Politics at
the University of Duisburg-Essen. He received his doctoral degree from
the University of Erfurt and studied Political Science, European Law and
Economics at the LMU Munich and the University of Aberystwyth, Wales. His
research combines a focus on policies and politics in immigrant societies with
the use of large-scale corpora and computational social science approaches. His
published work includes several R packages and corpora that were developed
in the context of the PolMine Project that he has established.
Elena Broda is a Ph.D. candidate at the Department of Journalism, Media
and Communication at the University of Gothenburg. She studied Polit-
ical Science at the University of Hamburg and the University of Passau.
Her research focuses on political communication in transforming informa-
tion environments, and she writes her dissertation on the role of misinforma-
tion regarding the development of misperceptions and knowledge resistance
in online issue publics.
 NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS xiii

Aron Buzogány works at the University of Natural Resources and Life

Sciences (BOKU) in Vienna, Austria. He holds a Ph.D. in political science
from Freie Universität Berlin and has held academic or visiting positions at Yale
University, the German Public Administration Research Institute in Speyer,
the University of Munich, Freie Universität Berlin and Johns Hopkins Univer-
sity SAIS in Washington, D.C. His work is within comparative politics and
touches on different aspects of environmental, energy and climate policy in
the European Union, including its contestation by political parties and social
movements.
Edward G. Carmines is a Distinguished Professor, Warner O. Chapman
Professor of Political Science, and Rudy Professor at Indiana University. At
IU, he serves as Director for the Center on American Politics and Director of
Research for the Center on Representative Government. He is the co-author of
six books, including Issue Evolution: Race and the Transformation of Amer-
ican Politics (with James A. Stimson; Princeton University Press, 1989) and
Reaching Beyond Race (with Paul M. Sniderman; Harvard University Press
1997)—both of which won the American Political Science Association’s Gladys
M. Kammerer Award for the best book in the field of U.S. national policy.
Mike Cowburn is a Ph.D. candidate in political science at the Graduate
School of North American Studies of the Freie Universität Berlin. His research
interests include Congress, political parties, elections, intra-party factions,
polarization, and candidate nomination systems. His Ph.D. project examines
congressional primary competitions in the twenty-first century, considering
their role in nominating experienced candidates and whether contests have
contributed to partisan polarization in Congress.
Carlos de la Torre is Director of the UF Center for Latin American Studies.
He has a Ph.D. from the New School for Social Research. He was a fellow
at the Simon Guggenheim Foundation, and the Woodrow Wilson Center
for Scholars. His most recent books are The Routledge Handbook of Global
Populism, (Routlege, 2019); Populisms a Quick Immersion, (Tibidabo Editions,
2019), De Velasco a Correa: Insurreciones, populismo y elecciones en Ecuador,
(Universidad Andina Simón Bolívar, 2015), The Promise and Perils of Populism,
(The University Press of Kentucky, 2015), Latin American Populism of the
Twenty-First Century, co-edited with Cynthia Arnson, (The Johns Hopkins
University Press and the Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 2013), and Populist
Seduction in Latin America, (Ohio University Press, second edition 2010).
Frank Decker is a Professor of Political Science at the University of Bonn. He
has published widely on problems of institutional reform in Western democra-
cies (including the EU), party systems and right-wing populism. Recent books
include Die Zukunft der Demokratie, co-edited with Thomas Hartmann and
Jochen Dahm (Bonn 2019), Ausstieg, Souveränität, Isolation, co-edited with
Ursula Bitzegeio and Philipp Adorf (Bonn 2019), Die USA—eine scheiternde
xiv NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

Demokratie?, co-edited with Patrick Horst and Philipp Adorf (Frankfurt a.M.
2018), Parteiendemokratie imWandel, 2nd. ed. (Baden-Baden 2018).
Gabriele Dietze (P.D., Dr.) conducts research from a cultural and media
studies perspective on racism, sexism, migration and right-wing populism.
She is a member of the Center for Transdisciplinary Gender Studies at
Humboldt University Berlin (ZtG). Among other positions, she is currently
Harris Professor for gender studies at Dartmouth College (Hanover, NH) and
was visiting fellow at the DuBois Institute at Harvard University (Cambridge,
MA). Some of her recent publications include Sexualpolitik. Verflechtungen von
Race und Gender (Campus 2017) and Sexueller Exzeptionalismus. Überlegen-
heitsnarrative in Migrationsabwehr und Rechtspopulismus (transcript 2019)
and together with Julia Roth (Eds.) Right-Wing Populism and Gender in
Europe and Beyond (transcript 2020).
Elena Dück is a Mercator-IPC research fellow at the Istanbul Policy Center at
Sabancı University. She holds a Master’s degree in ‘International Cultural and
Business Studies’ and a Ph.D. in ‘International Relations’ from the Univer-
sity of Passau. Her research focuses on social-constructivist approaches to
foreign policy analysis and security discourses. She has published articles on
French security discourses and on Canadian and U.S. foreign policy. Her
current project explores the role of international educational cooperation in
German–Turkish relations.
Luca Fazzi is a full Professor of Sociology and Social Work at the University
of Trento (Italy) where he is head of the degree program in Social Work. His
teaching and research interest focus on third sector organizations, participa-
tion and engagement in social work practice. He has published extensively in
international journals and international handbooks. Current projects include
identifying strategies of local development and the political role of social work.
Matthew R. Fowler is a postdoctoral scholar at the University of Chicago’s
Center for the Study of Race, Politics, and Culture and GenForward Project.
His research involves group consciousness and intergroup attitudes—applied
to white identity and racial attitudes, affective political polarization, and public
opinion in American politics. His work has been published in P.S: Political
Science & Politics, American Review of Politics, and the Indiana Journal of
Global & Legal Studies.
Ole Frahm is visiting scholar at Freie Universität Berlin and Lecturer at the
University of St Gallenwherehe researched Turkey’s relations with the post-
Soviet space as part of the Horizon 2020 project EU-STRAT. He has studied
politics, philosophy, economics and European studies at the universities of
Oxford, Bath, Paris (Sciences Po) and Berlin where he completed his Ph.D.
on state building and nation building in Sub-Saharan Africa at the Humboldt
Universität. Frahm has teaching experience in Germany, Algeria and Turkey,
 NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS xv

has published and presented his research widely and worked at think tanks and
in political consultancy.
Antonis Galanopoulos is a Ph.D. candidate at the School of Political
Sciences, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece. He holds a Bachelor
degree in Psychology and a Master’s degree in Political Theory and Philos-
ophy. His doctoral research is financially supported by the General Secre-
tariat for Research and Technology (GRST) and the Hellenic Foundation for
Research and Innovation (HFRI) (Scholarship Code: 2552).
Sebastian Glassner is a research associate and Lecturer at the Professorship
of International Politics at the University of Passau. He holds a Master’s degree
in ‘Governance and Public Policy’ from the University of Passau. Further-
more, Mr. Glassner studied at the Sciences Po Toulouse. His research interests
include foreign policy analysis, as well as discourse theory and populism. He
focuses in particular on France, Italy and the UK.
Gabriella Gricius is a Ph.D. student and Graduate Teaching Assistant at
Colorado State University and Graduate Fellow at the North American and
Arctic Defense and Security Network (NAADSN). She received her Master’s
degree in International Security from the University of Groningen.
Her interests are focused on the Arctic region, particularly as it concerns
Russian policy and the risk of securitizing the region. She is also a free-
lance journalist and has published in Foreign Policy, Bear Market Brief, CSIS,
Responsible Statecraft, Global Security Review, and Riddle Russia as well as
the academic journals including the Asian Journal of Peacebuilding, Sicherheit
und Frieden, the Kyiv-Mohyla Law & Politics Journal, and the Canadian Naval
Review.
Vedi Hadiz is a Professor of Asian Studies and Director of the Asia Institute
at the University of Melbourne. He is a recent Australian Research Council
Future Fellow and an elected Fellow of the Academy of the Social Sciences in
Australia. He is the author of Islamic Populism in Indonesia and the Middle
East (Cambridge University Press, 2016), among other books.
Florian Hartleb (born 1979 in Passau/Germany) is a political scientist and
Managing Director at Hanse Advice in Tallinn, Estonia. He conducts research
with a global focus on right-wing and left-wing extremism and terrorism,
as well as on digitalization. In 2004, his thesis subject was left- and right-
wing populism. In the past, he worked for the German Parliament, the
Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung and the Estonian Office for equality. He is currently
lecturing at Catholic University Eichstätt and University for Police Saxony-
Anhalt and author of various books. In addition, he is a research associate at the
Brussels-based Wilfried-Martens-Centre for European Studies. Recent Publi-
cations: Lone Wolves. The New Terrorism of Right-Wing Actors, Springer
Nature, Cham/Schweiz u.a., 2020; e-Estonia. Europe´s Silicon Valley or a
new 1984? in: Denise Feldner (ed.): Redesigning Institutions: Consequences
xvi NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

of and Concepts for the Digital Transformation, Springer Nature: Heidelberg

et al. 2020, pp. 215–228.
Hannah Hecker studied social sciences at Goethe University Frankfurt. Her
main focus is on social-psychological perspectives on group-oriented misan-
thropy, antiziganism and anti-feminism. She works as a research secretary at the
Fritz Bauer Institute for the Study of the History and Impact of the Holocaust
based in Frankfurt am Main.
Anton Jäger is a Wiener-Anspach postdoctoral fellow at the Université libre
de Bruxelles and University of Cambridge. His writings have appeared in
outlets such as Jacobin, LSE Review of Books, Los Angeles Review of Books,
nonsite, The Guardian, De Groene Amsterdammer, London Review of Books,
among others. Together with Daniel Zamora (Université Libre de Bruxelles)
he is currently working on an intellectual history of basic income, under
contract with the University of Chicago Press.
Paul D. Kenny is a Professor of Political Science in the Institute for Human-
ities and Social Sciences at Australian Catholic University and a visiting
fellow at the Australian National University. Specializing in comparative polit-
ical economy, he is an award-winning author of two books on populism,
Populism and Patronage: Why Populist Win Elections in India, Asia, and
Beyond (Oxford, 2017) and Populism in Southeast Asia (Cambridge, 2019).
Thomas Kestler is an Associate Professor at the Institute of Political Science
and Sociology at the University of Würzburg. He earned his Ph.D. in 2008
from the Catholic University of Eichstätt with a dissertation on political parties
in Venezuela. His main research areas are political systems and institutions in
Latin America.
Christian Lammert is a political scientist and Professor at the John F.
Kennedy Institute (FU Berlin) with a special focus on political systems in
North America. His recent research interests include economic inequality and
redistribution, tax and transfer systems and crises phenomena of democracy
in the transatlantic region. Among his recent publications is (together with
Markus B. Siewert und Boris Vormann) the second edition of the ‘Hand-
buch Politik USA’ (Springer Verlag 2020) and (together with Boris Vormann)
‘Democracy in Crisis. The neoliberal roots of popular unrest’ (Pennsylvania
University Press 2020).
Gideon Lasco is a physician, medical anthropologist and writer. Based in
Manila, he is a Senior Lecturer at the University of the Philippines Diliman
Department of Anthropology and research fellow at the Ateneo de Manila
University Development Studies Program. He obtained his medical (MD) and
Master’s degrees (M.Sc. in Medical Anthropology) from the UP College of
Medicine, and his Ph.D. in Anthropology from the University of Amsterdam.
His researches focus on contemporary health-related crises, from the drug wars
in Asia to vaccine controversies around the world.
 NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS xvii

Miguel Latouche is a Venezuelan writer and an Associate Professor at the

Central University of Venezuela (UCV). He did his Master’s studies at Syra-
cuse University as a recipient of the Fulbright Program and received his Ph.D.
in Political Science from the UCV. From 2009 to 2017 he was director of the
UCV School of Social Communication. In 2018 and 2019 he did postdoc-
toral studies at the University of Bamberg and the Goethe University Frankfurt
(Germany). Currently, he is a Guest Professor and Philipp Schwartz fellow at
the University of Rostock (Germany). He is also a columnist for The Wynwood
Times.
Dirk Lehmkuhl is a Professor for European Politics at the University of St.
Gallen. He studied at the University of Konstanz, was a Ph.D. candidate at
the University of Bielefeld and completed his Ph.D. at the European University
Institute in Fiesole. Thereafter he was a postdoc at the Max-Planck Institute for
Common Goods and completed his Habilitation at the University of Zurich.
His research includes studies at the interface between international relations
and international law, various topics of European public policy, external gover-
nance of the EU. Over the past years he was involved in two EU-sponsored
research projects as coordinator and investigator on the Eastern partnership
(EU FP7 project ISSICEU; www.issiceu.eu; EU H2020 project EU-STRAT;
www.eu-strat-eu).
Christoph Leonhardt studied Political Science in Leipzig and works as
a research associate at the Institute of Political Science of the University
of Duisburg-Essen. His current research interests include the relationship
between political discourse and institutional change, in particular combining
perspectives of Political Science and Computational Social Science.
Julia Leser is a political anthropologist and a postdoctoral researcher at
Humboldt University Berlin, where she is currently working on the research
project ‘Challenging Populist Truth-Making in Europe (CHAPTER)’. She
is co-author of the book The Wolves are Coming Back: The Politics of Fear
in Eastern Germany (with Rebecca Pates, 2021) and official speaker of
the German Political Science Association (GPSA) working group ‘Political
Ethnography’. Her fields of interest include political anthropology, political
ethnography and affect studies, and further include national security and
migration control, nationalism, populism and political theory.
Marcel Lewandowsky is a political scientist and currently a DAAD visiting
Assistant Professor at the Center for European Studies, University of Florida.
He received his doctoral degree with a study on German regional election
campaigns from the University of Bonn, Germany, where he had studied Polit-
ical Science, Public Law and Modern History. His current research focuses on
comparative politics with special regard to the stability of democratic regimes,
parties and party systems as well as populism in Europe.
xviii NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

Darren G. Lilleker is Head of the Centre for Comparative Politics and

Media Research and Professor of Political Communication at Bournemouth
University. Dr Lilleker’s interests are in political communication, with partic-
ular focus on the use of digital environments and the impact upon citizen
cognition and engagement. He has published over 100 journal articles and
book chapters, his most relevant work on this topic being Political Communi-
cation and Cognition (Palgrave, 2014).
David B. MacDonald is a full Professor in the political science department
at the University of Guelph, Canada, and recently completed a three year
appointment as the Guelph Research Leadership Chair for the College of
Social and Applied Human Sciences. He has previously been on faculty
at the University of Otago, New Zealand, and the École Supérieure de
Commerce de Paris (ESCP-Europe). He has an SSHRC grant with co-
researcher Shery Lightfoot entitled ‘Complex Sovereignties: Theory and Prac-
tice of Indigenous-Self Determination in Settler States and the International
System’. His research focuses on Global Populisms, Comparative Indigenous
Politics in Canada, Aotearoa New Zealand, Australia and United States, and he
also works in the areas of International Relations, genocide studies, and critical
race theory. Recent publications are The Sleeping Giant Awakens: Genocide,
Indian Residential Schools, and the Challenge of Conciliation (University of
Toronto Press, 2019), and Populism and World Politics: Exploring Inter and
Transnational Dimensions Co-Edited with D Nabers and F Stengel (Palgrave
Macmillan, 2019). He has a Ph.D. in International Relations from the London
School of Economics. This chapter was supported by SSHRC Insight Grant
430413.
Luca Manucci is a post-doc researcher at the University of Lisbon. He
received a Ph.D. in comparative politics from the University of Zurich,
and his research focuses on populism, political parties and the media. He
currently works at a project on Iberian populism titled Populus: Rethinking
populism, financed by national funds from the FCT- Foundation for Science
and Technology, within the project PDTC/SOC-OC/28524/2017.
Henning Melber is an Extraordinary Professor at the Department of Polit-
ical Sciences/University of Pretoria and the Centre for Gender and Africa
Studies/University of the Free State in Bloemfontein, a senior research asso-
ciate with the Nordic Africa Institute in Uppsala and a senior research fellow
with the Centre for Commonwealth Studies/Centre for Advanced Study at the
University of London. He is the Director Emeritus of the Dag Hammarskjöld
Foundation in Uppsala and the current President of the European Association
of Development Research and Training Institutes (EADI). As a political scien-
tist and sociologist in African and Development Studies his research includes a
regional focus on Southern Africa (in particular Namibia).
Christoph Mohamad-Klotzbach works at the University of Würzburg,
where he has gained his Ph.D. He is currently a postdoc at the Institute
 NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS xix

of Political Science and Sociology and the general coordinator of the DFG
Research Unit FOR2757 on ‘Local Self-Governance in the context of Weak
Statehood in Antiquity and the Modern Era (LoSAM)’. His work is within
comparative politics where he focuses on fields like democracy and democrati-
zation, political culture and social capital, weak statehood, political parties and
voting behavior.
Sara C. Motta is a mother, storyteller, poet, critical theorist and popular
educator and currently Associate Professor at the University of Newcastle,
Australia. Her scholarly practice transgresses borders-epistemological, social
and spatial-as a means to co-construct with communities in struggle a crit-
ical political science practice for and of the subaltern. She has published widely
in journals including Political Studies, Latin American Perspectives, Antipode,
Historical Materialism and produced a number of books including (co-edited
with Alf Nilsen) Social Movements in the Global South: Dispossession, Devel-
opment and Resistance (Palgrave Macmillan), (co-edited with Mike Cole)
Education and Social Change in Latin America (Palgrave Macmillan) and
Constructing 21st Century Socialism in Latin America: The Role of Radical
Education (Palgrave Macmillan). Her most recent book is Liminal Subjects:
Weaving (our) Liberations (Rowman & Littlefield International), winner of
the 2019 best Feminist Theory and Gender Studies Book Award, International
Studies
Christoph Giang Nguyen is a Lecturer at the Otto-Suhr Institute at the
Freie Universität Berlin. He holds a Ph.D. in political science from North-
western University. His work focuses on the way insecurity and disadvantage
shape political attitudes and the way that emotions such as anger, anxiety, and
disgust translate general grievances into specific political attitudes. He is also
interested in research methods and research design, with a focus on exper-
imental methods, large-N observational data, but also mixed-methods and
qualitative research designs.
Urban Nothdurfter is an Associate Professor in Social Work and Social
Policy at the Free University of Bozen/Bolzano (Italy) where he is head of
the degree program in Social Work. His research interests focus on the connec-
tions between social policy development and social work practice, the street-
level delivery of social policies and on issues of gender and sexuality in social
work. Recent projects deal with LGBT+ parenting and the political role of
social work.
Michael Oswald is an Assistant Professor of political science at the Univer-
sity of Passau, associate research fellow and lecturer at the John F. Kennedy
Institute of the Free University of Berlin and faculty member at International
Center for European Education. His main interest lies in Political Communi-
cation, Populism and Extremism research. He wrote his dissertation on the Tea
Party movement and has held visiting scholarships at Texas A&M and Harvard
University.
xx NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

Rebecca Pates is a Professor of Political Theory at Leipzig University and

member of the Academia Europae, has managed a number of research grants
on the governmentality of sex work and on trafficking for sexual exploita-
tion, funded by the EU and the German Research Council. Her most recent
research is on the malleability of nationalism in the German context.
Helge Petersen is a Ph.D. student at the University of Glasgow, School of
Social and Political Sciences. His Ph.D. project examines the history of political
struggles over racist violence and state racism in the British post-war period.
His research interests include critical racism, nationalism and antisemitism
studies, critical state theory, historical and political sociology.
Aurelien Portuese is Director of Antitrust and Innovation Policy at the
Information Technology and Innovation Foundation, the world’s top think
tank on science and technology. He is also an Adjunct Professor of Law at
the George Mason University and at the Catholic University of Paris. Aurelien
Portuese has 10 years of academic experience where he specialized in antitrust
law and innovation. He has published extensively and presented articles in
international conferences.
Inaya Rakhmani is an Assistant Professor and Head of the Asia Research
Centre, Universitas Indonesia, and the Deputy Director (Science and Educa-
tion working group) of the Indonesian Young Academy of Sciences (ALMI).
She has had 20 years experience in academic and applied research in higher
education and social science research reform, as well as the role of media
in democratic processes. Inaya’s academic interest that underlies her applied
research practices focuses on understanding how culture can hinder and
enable the redistribution of wealth and access to many. She is the author of
‘Mainstreaming Islam in Indonesia’ published by Palgrave MacMillan.
Rafał Riedel is Professor at the University in Opole (Poland), Ph.D. holder
in Political Science, Jean Monnet Professor, habilitated (in EU Studies) at
the University of Wrocław, graduated at the Silesian University and Economic
University in Katowice; Professor at the Political Science Institute of the Opole
University, earlier also: guest researcher at ARENA (Centre for European
Studies) at the University of Oslo, Gastdozent at TUC and Wissenschaft-
slische Mitarbeiter w ETH Zurich. Previously engaged in educational and
research programs, as a scholar, co-organizer or fellow at European University
Institute, Open Society Institute, Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst,
Marie Curie Fellowship Programme, Max Planck Institute, European Values
Network, Fundacji Rozwoju Systemu Edukacji—EEA/Norway Grants.
Scientific interests: European integration process, democratic deficit,
populism, transitology, considology and other problematic in the field of
political science, European studies and economy.
 NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS xxi

Julia Roth is a Professor of American Studies with a focus on Gender Studies

and InterAmerican Studies at Bielefeld University, Germany. Prior to this posi-
tion, she was a postdoctoral fellow at the research project ‘The Americas
as Space of Entanglements’ in Bielefeld and at the interdisciplinary network
‘desiguALdades.net- Interdependent Inequalities in Latin America’ at Freie
Universität Berlin as well as a Lecturer at Humboldt University Berlin, the
University of Potsdam and the Universidad de Guadalajara, Mexico. Her
research focuses on postcolonial, decolonial and gender approaches, inter-
sectionality and global inequalities, anti-racist feminist knowledge from the
Caribbean and the Americas, citizenships and gender, right-wing populism
and gender. From 2020 to 2021, she was co-convenor of the ZiF research
group ‘Global Contestations of Women’s and Gender Rights’ at the Center
for Interdisciplinary Research, Bielefeld.
Mikko Salmela is an Adjunct Professor of Practical Philosophy and a Member
of the Helsinki Hub on Emotions, Populism, and Polarisation (HEPP) at
the University of Helsinki. He is also Associate Professor at the Centre for
Subjectivity Research, University of Copenhagen. His main research interests
are in empirically informed philosophy of emotion, philosophical and political
psychology, and philosophy of sociality.
Mario Schäfer is a doctoral candidate in International Politics at the Univer-
sity of Passau. He studies European Studies and Governance and Public Policy
in Passau, Germany and Ljubljana, Slovenia. Prior to that he studies history
with minor subject Political Science in Mainz, Germany and Siena, Italy. He
conducts research on European Enlargement Policy, Conflict management and
Border Conflicts. His doctoral thesis concerns the EU’s approach to settle
border conflicts during accession processes with special focus on Cyprus and
Croatia/Slovenia. Additionally, he published two reviews—one of them about
Chantal Mouffe’s Für einen Linken Populismus/For a Left Populism (2019),
representing other research topics of his such as populism, collective memory
and identity politics.
Eric R. Schmidt is a Ph.D. candidate in Political Science at Indiana Univer-
sity. His dissertation, Voting in Groups, Thinking Like Ideologues: The
Paradox of Partisan Conflict in the United States documents one of the most
insidious consequences of polarization: disconnect between the issue conflict
that helps citizens make sense of politics, and the intergroup conflict that
helps parties mobilize winning coalitions. His peer-reviewed work has been
published in Political Behavior, P.S.: Political Science & Politics, and the
Journal of Political Institutions & Political Economy.
Julia Schwanholz is a political scientist and Senior Lecturer at the Univer-
sity of Duisburg-Essen. Previously, she represented interim professorships for
democracy research as well as comparative politics and ethics in politics at
different German Universities. She received her Ph.D. at the University of
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 THE TRUSTY SERVANT.

Effigiem servi si vis spectare probati,

Quisquis es, hæc oculos pascat imago tuos;
Porcinum os quocunque cibo jejunia sedat;
Hæc sera, consilium ne fluat, arcta premit.
Dat patientem asinus dominis jurgantibus aurem;
Cervus habet celeres ire, redire pedes.
Læva docet multum, tot rebus onusta, laborem;
Vestis munditiem, dextera aperta fidem.
Accinctus gladio, clypeo munitus; et indè
Vel se, vel dominum, quo tueatur, habet.
 “A trusty servant’s portrait would you see,
This figure well survey, whoe’er you be;
The porker’s snout not nice in diet shows;
The padlock shut, no secret he’ll disclose.
Patient, to angry lords the ass gives ear;
Swiftness on errand the stag’s feet declare;
Laden his left hand, apt to labour saith;
The coat, his neatness; the open hand, his faith:
Girt with his sword, his shield upon his arm,
Himself and master he’ll protect from harm.”
Here may generally be seen a row of huge leather jugs about two
feet high, (“Jacks,”) made of hippopotamus hide, and peculiar to
Winchester, I believe; at any rate, a relative of mine who lived in one
of the midland counties purchased a pair here every year, and he
used to give me the commission, which I had the greatest pleasure
in executing, as he always sent me a five-pound note to pay for
them with, and could never be induced to take any change.
The Kitchen is a spacious apartment with a vaulted roof,
occupying the entire height of the building on the west side of the
quadrangle, and at least half its length; here we might see a few
Fags endeavouring to coax Jem Sims, John Coward, Bill Bright, or
mother Mariner, (the cooks,) for an extra supply of mashed potatoes,
till Kitchen is cleared by the exasperated Manciple, who has just
detected a delinquent in the act of secreting under his gown an
armful of the small faggots used for lighting the kitchen fires, (called
“Bill Brighters,”) an opportunity for purloining which was never
allowed to slip by a Junior of a properly regulated mind.
It may be asked how the Fags managed to dine at all, and it
would be difficult to answer; but somehow or other we did manage
to eat at odd times, and plenty too, I suppose; at any rate we were
always in excellent condition; there was ample food supplied by
College, the opportunity of eating it only failed. The entire system is
now completely changed; the boys dine at one o’clock, their dinner
is as plentiful as ever, and properly served, with good cookery,
plates, and knives and forks, and no Fagging whatever is allowed,
the Choristers waiting, and a Master being present.
 CHAPTER VII.
THE JUNIOR IN CHAPEL.

The Late Warden—The Antechapel—The Crimean Memorial—

The New Tower—Hours of Service—The Oath—Cloisters.
Let us tread more gently as we pass through the gates of the
beautiful chapel. Here at any rate our Junior finds some rest and
quiet, and is for a period beyond the reach of the weary call of
“Junior, Junior.” I feel that it is a subject that cannot worthily be
treated of by my trivial pen. The most indifferent stranger cannot
enter its sacred precincts without being struck by the air of peaceful
solemnity that pervades it throughout; how much more, then, must
he be affected who revisits, for the first time after many years, the
spot where as a boy he so often listened to the swelling tones of the
organ, or eloquent words of wisdom—often, alas! but too little
heeded! What crowds of reflections are called forth as he gazes on
the scene! How many resolutions have here been formed, and how
have they been kept? Can he flatter himself that he is really more
advanced on the narrow path than when he sat on those benches
years and years ago?
I will not attempt to describe the edifice. Let the reader imagine a
noble choir lighted with large windows of rich painted glass, through
which the slanting rays of the sun throw a many-coloured glow over
the wainscot and stalls of polished oak. How well I know every
feature of those quaint figures of prophets and apostles; and as I sit
in my stall and see the boys trooping in, it is difficult to realise that I
am no longer one of them.
But time has made many changes in the upper ranks; the clear
ring of the melodious tones of the accomplished Head-master’s voice
may still be heard, but he alone remains. In vain we look for the
stalwart form and genial countenance of the late beloved Warden,
Barter, who, having filled his responsible office full thirty years, has
gone to his rest. In the long list of his predecessors there has been
none who was more universally beloved in life, and whose death has
been more unfeignedly regretted.
On our way from Chapel we pass through Antechapel, now
somewhat curtailed in its dimensions, the screen which separates it
from Chapel having been moved in order to give room for the
increased number of boys. The beautiful font, presented by the
Head-master, and some mural tablets, (which formerly stood
beneath the Tower,) have been removed to a small side chapel, the
entrance to which is under the organ; one of these, erected to the
memory of a young and lovely wife by her sorrowing husband, bears
the following beautiful inscription:—
“I nimium dilecta, vocat Deus, I bona nostræ”
“Pars animæ, mærens altera disce sequi.”

In the vestibule leading to Cloisters, immediately opposite to the

door of Antechapel, is the memorial erected by Wykehamists in
memory of their brethren who fell in the Crimean war; it is worthy of
its object, being beautifully executed in variegated marble. I have
stood by their graves in the dreary Russian Chersonese, yet it seems
but yesterday that I heard some of them answering their names at
this very door.
THE CRIMEAN MEMORIAL.
 INSCRIPTION ON THE CRIMEAN MEMORIAL.

The beautiful Tower attached to the Chapel had long been in

rather a dilapidated condition, owing to its having been built on a
very insecure foundation; it had inclined considerably to one side, a
great crack had appeared on the contiguous wall of Chapel, which
indeed it threatened to drag down, and it was considered unsafe to
ring the bells. For these reasons the authorities determined to pull it
down and rebuild it, stone for stone, with the old materials; this was
commenced in 1860, and the work is now fully completed. It is
called the “Tower of the Two Wardens,” in memory of the late Dr
Williams, who was (many years Head-master of Winchester, and
afterwards) Warden of New College, Oxford, and of Mr Barter, the
late Warden of Winchester; while the work of reconstruction was
going on, the opportunity was seized of enlarging the chapel by
taking in part of the Antechapel, as described in a previous page. If
the school continues to increase as it has done lately, this
enlargement must, I think, be carried on further, and the whole of
Antechapel be added to the main aisle. Beneath the Tower, on the
southern side of the Antechapel, is the following inscription:—
 In Memoriam,
DAVID WILLIAMS, I.C.D.,
hujus collegii
xiv. annos hostiarii: xii. informatoris
coll. b.m. winton in oxon
xx. annos custodis,
viri consilio dignitate doctrinâ,
humanitate munificentia,
candore morum, et integritate vitæ,
si quis alius insignis.

In Memoriam,
ROBERT SPECKOTT BARTER,
I.C.B.,
hujus collegii
xxix. annos custodis,
viri
ob benevolentiam cordis et largitatem
constantiam animi et fidem,
suavitatem liberalitatem pietatem,
nemini non dilectum.

Utriusque geminorum horum Collegiorum decoris tutelæ columnæ

Utriusque intra unius anni spatium ad immortalia avocati
Hanc Turrim vetustate diu labantem denuo exædificandam, ab nomine
Duorum Custodum
Perpetuo appellandum censuerunt Wiccamici sui A.S. MDCCCLXIII.
posterorum causa
Id scilicet in animis habentes ut in ipsa acerbissimi desiderii
recordatione manifestum facerent
Non in quibuslibet viris magnis nec in brevem aliquam hominum
ætatem
Sed in omne tempus et in perpetua serie virorum ad horum
exemplar
Sub his penetralibus ad omnia bona fortia fidelia enutriendorum

stare rem wiccamicam.

 The hours of worship (now, I believe, somewhat altered) used to
be as follows:—At six a.m. in summer, at a quarter before seven in
winter, at eight and at half-past ten a.m., and at five p.m., on
Sundays,[6] Saints’-days, and Founder’s Anniversaries. On Fridays at
eleven a.m., and on Saturdays at five p.m. the boys might be seen
trooping across the quadrangle on their way to Chapel—on Sundays
and on Saints’-days clad in white surplices. Besides this, every
evening at nine prayers used to be read by the junior Præfect in
Antechapel, who stood on the top of the steps leading up to one of
the curtained and barred pews reserved for ladies, one of which was
placed on each side of Antechapel; the fair occupants, not being
allowed to enter the body of the chapel, were obliged to content
themselves with looking and listening through the grating.
Once a year all the boys who had passed the age of fifteen, (and
who had not previously gone through the same ceremony,) were
marshalled into Chapel, and, under the inspection of “Semper
Testis,” (the legal aide-de-camp of the College authorities,) went
through the form of taking an oath. I have no distinct recollection of
the form of the proceeding, (it is now abolished,) but I think the
official above-mentioned read out a Latin document, and we were
supposed to say Amen. I believe the gist of it was that we were to
defend and befriend the college to the best of our ability, and never
tell anybody what went on within its walls. I am sure I should
require no compulsion to carry out the former obligation, should the
occasion occur, and I had any possible means of fulfilling my duty,
and if I have done no more harm in writing this little sketch of our
proceedings at Winchester than infringing the latter, my conscience
will not be much troubled. Although the making a number of
thoughtless boys go through a ceremony of this kind may seem
objectionable, yet it is not the part of a Wykehamist to exclaim
against it, as, according to well authenticated tradition, Cromwell
would have destroyed the College, had he not yielded to the urgent
representations of one of his officers, who was a Wykehamist, and,
mindful of his oath, succeeded in saving the noble establishment
from its impending fate.
 I must not take leave of Chapel without noticing the beautiful
Cloisters, with a little gem of a chapel standing in the middle,
surrounded by smooth green turf. It is now used as the Fellows’
library. I think it a pity that the Cloisters are so little seen, as they
are very beautiful. The Fellows, in general, do not reside at
Winchester, and I do not imagine that those who do spend any very
great part of their time in such absorbing study that the movements
of the Præfects in Cloisters on week days, and of the others on
Sundays, would disturb them very much; to such an extent I think
the boys might be admitted without danger of their injuring the
building or the tablets on the walls. At present the extreme stillness
of the place is somewhat overpowering.
 CHAPTER VIII.
THE JUNIOR IN SCHOOL.

Description of School—Scobs—Officers—Division of Classes—

Prizes and Medals—Long and Short Half—Easter Time—
Commoners’ Speaking—Cloisters—Latin Composition—
Flogging—Scraping and Shirking Out—Latin Verses—
Pealing.
On descending Hall stairs, and turning sharp to the right through
Seventh Chamber passage, we enter School Court. The School is a
spacious edifice, (built in 1687,) ninety feet long, and thirty-six
broad; it may be a handsome building by itself, but, like the adjacent
Commoners, is not favourably contrasted with the venerable Gothic
buildings of the College, of which they form part. In the south-west
corner of School is the Throne of the Head, and, in the south-east,
that of the Second Master; opposite to each are seats for the Under-
Masters.
At each end of School are three tiers of benches rising gradually
one above the other,—that on the ground being called “Senior Row,”
and the others “Middle” and “Junior Row” respectively. On these the
classes sit when “up at books,”—i.e., when repeating lessons,—four
parallel double ranges of solid oak benches, intersected, at intervals
of about four feet, by others, and firmly fixed to the floor, run from
end to end of the room, except where broken by Commoners’ tables,
(two tables, at which there is room for about thirty Commoners; the
rest get places where they can,) by the fireplace, and the passage
from it to the door; between these rows of benches are three broad
passages down School. On every angle of these intersecting forms is
placed a large oak box, with a double lid. Every College boy, and
some Commoner Præfects, had one of these; and some of the
Senior Præfects have four, others three, and the rest two. One of the
lids of these boxes was generally kept up during School-time to
ensure a certain degree of privacy to the occupant, the lower lid
doing duty as a table; inside were kept the books and other
belongings of the proprietor. They were called “Scobs,”—i.e., box
phonetically spelt backwards.
High up on the wall, at the west end of the School, is a large
tablet, with a mitre, crosier, sword, inkstand, and rod painted on it,
with the words—
“Aut disce, aut discede, manet sors tertia cædi;”
which has been freely rendered—
“Work, walk, or be whopped.”
At the opposite end of School is another large tablet, on which is
painted the
“Tabula legum Pædagogicarum,”
which gives the rules to be observed by the boys in Chapel, School,
Hall, Quadrangle, Chambers, On Hills, and in All Places and Times.
 School hours, in the times I write of, were from eight to nine a.m.,
(Morning School,) from ten to twelve, (Middle School,) and from two
till six p.m., (Evening School;) at the close of which prayers were read
by the Præfect of School.
On “Remedies,” (a kind of whole holiday,) we also went into
School in the morning and afternoon for an hour or two without
masters; this was called Books Chambers; and on Sundays, from
four till a quarter to five. In “Cloister Time,” (v.i.,) Præfects, and
senior part of the Fifth, went into School on Sundays from seven to
eight, which period was called “Grotius Time.”
Order was kept during School hours by the Bible Clerk and
Ostiarius, two of the Præfects, who held these offices in rotation,—
the former lasting for a week, the latter for one day only. They
paraded School armed with sticks, and brought up to the Head and
Second Masters (who alone had the power of flogging) the names of
the delinquents which had been “ordered” for punishment; the
names of the more heinous offenders being confided to the Bible
Clerk, the others to the Ostiarius. Just before School-time, a boy was
always stationed to watch the arrival of the Master, of which he had
to give notice by emitting a loud “Hiss,” upon which there was a
general rush up to books; the previous uproar dwindled to a calm,
and work began.
The School was divided into three classes, or “Books,” as they
were called. Of these the Præfects formed one, “Sixth Book:” “Fifth
Book” was subdivided into three parts, called respectively “Senior,
Middle, and Junior part of the Fifth;” in speaking of them, the words
“of the Fifth” were generally omitted. The rest of the boys made up
“Fourth Book;” their instruction, however, was not carried on in
School, but in another building adjoining, where the Præfects had a
library, and in which the mathematics were taught. The Præfects
and senior part did not change places from day to day, but only at
the final examination in Election-week. In the other parts, the
relative positions of the boys continually fluctuated, and their
numbers were marked every day, at the beginning of Middle School,
in a book called the “Classicus (or Cuse) Paper:” the individual who
had the greatest number by the end of the half year “got the books,”
(i.e., gained a prize.) These books were supposed to be given by the
late Duke of Buckingham; now, I believe, they are really given by
Lord Saye and Sele. The boy who had the lowest score at the end of
any week, held the office of “Classicus” for the week following,—his
duties being always to inform the other boys what was the particular
lesson for the day, and what was the subject for the next vulgus
verse or prose task. There were two gold medals for Composition,—
for Latin verse and English prose, and for English verse and Latin
prose, on alternate years; and two silver for Elocution, annually
competed for; besides prizes given by Maltby, Bishop of Durham, for
Greek verse, Latin verse, and Inferiors’ speaking; Sir William
Heathcote, of Hursley, for Scholarship; and Mr Duncan, for
Mathematics.
The School year was divided into two unequal parts. One, called
“Short Half,” commenced about the beginning of September, and
lasted till about the middle of December; the other, “Long Half,” from
the beginning of February till the middle of July. The six weeks after
Easter (“Easter-Time”) were devoted to the study of Greek Grammar,
and once in each of these weeks there was competition in speaking,
the best speakers being selected to display their oratorical powers
on the final day, which was called “Commoners’ Speaking.” During
the remaining weeks of Long Half, (“Cloister Time,”) Sixth Book and
Senior part went up to books together; when thus combined, they
were called “Pulpiteers.” Middle and Junior part were merged
together in the same way—those in Junior part having the
opportunity of rising into Middle part, and vice versâ. This
combination was called “Cloisters,” and this period of the year
“Cloister Time;” the distinguished post of “Cloister Classicus” was, I
can tell from long experience, by no means a sinecure.
Efficiency in Latin composition, especially verse, and learning lines
by heart, were (unfortunately for me) the surest means of rising in
the School. Four days a week we had to write a short copy of verses
of from four to six lines on a set subject; this was called a “Vulgus,”
and was always written on half a quarter of a sheet of foolscap, (“a
Vessel of Paper.”) Once a week, one of from ten to twenty, a “Verse
Task,” (written on a quarter of foolscap;) and, once a week, also a
“Prose Task.” We were always excused (“had Remission from”)
Vulgus when the next day was a Saint’s-day; and if one fell on a
Wednesday or Friday, our verse or prose task for the day previous
was remitted. Præfects and Senior part also were encouraged to
write, once or twice in the half-year, a copy of verses on any subject
selected by themselves, which was called a “Voluntary.” From time to
time, also, they had to write Latin criticisms on Greek plays, and the
other boys to write an analysis of some historical work; these
productions were called “Gatherings,” (or “Gags.”) In the last week
but one of “Long Half,” all the boys, except those in Sixth Book and
Senior part, had to say a number of lines; this was called ”Standing-
up Week,” concerning which and “Election Week,” (the last week of
the same half,) I will treat hereafter.
Flogging was not excessively frequent, and by no means severe.
The rod consisted of a wooden handle about two feet and a half
long, with four grooves at one end, into which were inserted four
apple twigs; these branched off from the handle at so considerable
an angle, that not more than one could touch the space of skin
exposed,—about a hand’s-breadth of the small of the back, the
waistcoat of the victim being raised to the necessary height. To
obviate this to a certain extent, the “Rod-maker”—one of the Juniors
charged with the care of these implements—had to twist them
together so as to form one combined stick; generally, however, they
separated after the second cut. I am told that these twigs are now
cut so as to lie in a straight line with the rod, without any angle,
which is a very disadvantageous change for the floggee. The
ordinary punishment consisted of four cuts, and was called “a
Scrubbing.” The individual who was to be punished was told “to
order his name,” which he did by going to the Ostiarius, and
requesting him to do so; that officer accordingly, at the end of
School time, would take his name to the Master, who would then call
it out, and the victim had to kneel down at Senior row, while two
Juniors laid bare the regulation space of his back. The first time a
boy’s name was ordered, the punishment was remitted on his
pleading “Primum tempus.” For a more serious breach of duty, a
flogging of six cuts (a “Bibler”) was administered, in which case the
culprit had to “order his name to the Bible Clerk,” and that individual,
with the help of Ostiarius, performed the office of Jack Ketch. If a
boy was detected in a lie, or any very disgraceful proceeding,—a
rare occurrence, I am happy to say,—he had to stand up in the
centre of Junior row during the whole of the School time,
immediately preceding the infliction of the flogging; this pillory
process was called a “Bibler under the nail.” I have also heard, that
for a very heinous offence a boy might be punished in Sixth
Chamber, in which case the number of stripes was not limited; but I
never knew an instance of this.
On one first of April, an impertinent boy undertook to make an
April fool of the Doctor, and accordingly marched boldly up to his
throne, and told him that he had torn his gown; and, on the rent not
being found visible to the naked eye, suggested that it was the 1st
of April; upon which he was told to order his name to the Bible
Clerk. When Middle School was over, the Doctor put on his trencher
cap, and called out, “Pincher, Bible Clerk, and Ostiarius!” (which
meant that Pincher was to advance to receive his deserts, and the
others to assist as masters of the ceremonies.) At the moment that
the culprit was expecting to feel the sting of the apple-twigs across
his backbone, the Doctor threw down the rods, saying, “Who is the
fool now?” and was walking out of School, when the undaunted
Pincher jumped up, and ejaculated, “It’s past twelve, Sir!”
Ordinary offences of a trifling character, such as being late for
Chapel, or “Shirking Hills,” (v.i.,) were punished by the infliction of an
imposition,—generally thirty lines of Virgil, English and Latin. I think
I must have written out the Æneids of Virgil and Odes of Horace
half-a-dozen times during my sojourn at Winchester. Indeed, being
naturally of a prudent disposition, whenever I had nothing particular
to do, I used to write out a few lines, and thus gradually became
possessed of a small capital of a thousand lines or so, on which I
could draw at any pressing emergency.
 If a boy had occasion to speak to a Master, and while he was up at
books, the correct thing was to keep his gown buttoned at the top;
and if he wished to go out of School, he wrote his name on a slip of
paper, (or “Roll,”) with the following sentence:—“Ostiarii veniâ
potitus, tuam pariter exeundi petit;” he then asked leave of the
Ostiarius to “put up his roll,” which being granted, he deposited it on
the Master’s desk, and made his exit. When a Præfect wanted to go
out, he went to a corner Scob near the door, and “scraped” with his
feet until he attracted the Master’s attention, and obtained a nod of
consent. At one particular time of the year, (I think it was during
Saturday evening School in Easter week,) two Commoners and one
College Inferior might collectively scrape out together. Only about
half-a-dozen boys were allowed to be out at one time; but I have
known some steal out on the sly, without any preliminary formality.
On a fine summer afternoon, the Doctor might accidentally cast his
eye over School, and observing that it had rather a deserted
expression, would send out the Bible Clerk and Ostiarius to make a
foray in Meads, who would presently return with a flock of truants; it
being impossible to flog such a number, it was usual to make them
“cut in a book,”[7] to settle which half-a-dozen should be
distinguished in this manner.
 SCHOOL.

The educational system at Winchester is, I believe, most excellent,

and turns out a very superior article in many cases. I am sorry that I
cannot point to myself as a brilliant example. When I was in Junior
part, I was under a Master who used to curb my ascending energies
by making me always stand up junior, and not allowing me “to take
up” even when we went up to the Doctor for our monthly
examination. He used also to employ the following method of
repressing any little eccentricities on my part; he would call me up to
the side of his desk, and putting his hand affectionately on my
shoulder, mildly remonstrate with me, gradually his hand would
creep up, and a finger entwine itself in the hair above and a little in
front of my ear, and he would impress on me the more salient points
of his lecture by a steady screw of the finger. This treatment
ultimately became very tiresome; so one day, just as the screw-
powder was being laid on, I emitted a yell, that made the Doctor
bound again in his chair, and brought every boy in the school on his
legs. After this my hair was allowed to curl naturally. In the middle of
the half year this Master left, and his place was filled by another. The
reader will be as much surprised as I was, when he hears that at the
end of that half I got the books! If any one doubts the fact, I can
show them the volume in question, with a statement in it endorsed
by his Grace the late Duke of Buckingham, that my morals were
excellent, and my habits of application most praiseworthy. I was
accordingly promoted into Middle part, and when the next half year I
proudly ascended to my new position, I had visions of a fellowship at
New College, and a shadowy notion of the woolsack in futurity.
Neither of these fancies, however, have yet been accomplished. If it
were not that owing to the inclemency of the season this autumn,
the grapes are so very backward, I should be inclined to make some
remarks touching the former disappointment.
My new Master unfortunately thought that I was incorrigibly idle,
and in my Latin verses and lines showed me no mercy. I struggled
hard for a year, (oh, the many hours that I have sat up in bed and
paced up and down School, trying to drive the requisite number of
lines into my head for the next morning’s repetition,) and after that
his opinion gradually became more correct. Unfortunately for me,
our places were always marked every morning immediately after the
repetition of lines; and as I invariably went to the bottom then, it
mattered little how much I had risen previously, and I was “Semper
(always) Classicus;” and so if I had remained at Winchester, I should
have been to the present day.
I must also admit that I was not strong in Latin verse. I remember
writing a copy once that I thought was beyond criticism, and was
much disgusted when I found that the Master thought that “pius
Æneas” was not a suitable termination to an Hexameter line. I was
not, however, alone in this want of true poetic feeling. My worthy
friend Podder one day produced the following Pentameter:—
“Lēŏ rĕx bēllŭărūm ūt cæ̆ tŭs ēst pĭscĭūm.”

For the benefit both of those who do, and those who do not,
understand Latin, I will mention that the translation of the above
was meant to be—
 “The lion is the king of beasts, as the whale is of fishes.”

Will Bumpus forgive me if I relate an instance of his ingenuity? He

quietly took the following line from Horace, and served it up as an
Hexameter of his own composition:—
Dūlcē|ēt dē|cōrūm|ēst prō|pātrĭâ|mōrī.|

On the inexpediency of this being suggested to him, he was setting

to work to alter it, when suddenly a bright thought flashed across his
mind; he knew the line was out of Horace, so that if it wasn’t an
Hexameter, it must be a Pentameter; so up it came—
Dūlcĕ ĕt|dēcōr|ūm|ēst prŏpă|triă mŏ|rī.

The rest being tragic, I will break off here, and having given the
reader enough of myself and my shortcomings, will proceed to more
general subjects.
We had some singular customs at the commencement of Cloister
time. Senior part and Cloisters, just before the entrance of the
Masters into School, used to engage in a kind of general
tournament; this was called “Cloister Roush;” each party used to
charge from their respective ends of School till they met in the
middle; it was a good-humoured affair; fists were not used, but only
wrestling and hustling. Another remarkable custom was that of
“Cloister Pealing.” At the commencement of Cloister time, for a few
minutes before the hiss was given, the vast gulf that usually existed
between Præfects and Inferiors was temporarily broken down. All
the boys in Cloisters being assembled up at books, proceeded to
chant the praises of the popular or severe criticisms on the
unpopular, Præfects, in short Latin, Greek, or English epigrams. I am
happy to say that the complimentary species generally
preponderated. Well do I remember the enthusiasm with which we
chanted on one occasion—
Ζωή μου σᾶς ἀγαπῶ.
Ζωή being the nickname of one of the senior Præfects, Rich in all
those physical and moral qualities that endear an athletic youth to
his younger school-fellows. I might give some examples of Peals,
which the reader might find more amusing than the subjects found
them complimentary, but for obvious reasons I abstain.
In Commoners also there was an entirely different description of
“Pealing,” which will be described in the chapter on Standing up and
Election Week.
 CHAPTER IX.
THE JUNIOR ON A LOCKBACK HOLIDAY.

Fagging Choristers—Crutch—Currell—Concerts—Fighting—
How to Catch the Measles—“Books Chambers.”
When the weather was too bad on a Holiday or “Remedy” to go on
to Hills, we used to pass the day principally in school; the gate of
Seventh Chamber passage being locked, and communication with
Chamber Court being cut off, it was called a “Lockback.”
On leaving morning chapel on such a day we adjourned at once to
school, when the Fags would by no means have an idle time of it.
The instant they arrived “Junior! Junior! Junior!” would resound on
every side, and in every conceivable tone of gentle entreaty, slight
impatience, and vehement indignation, according to the temper of
the caller, or duration of the call. Then the valets had to arrange
their master’s washing things on Commoners’ table, for few of the
Præfects condescended to wash before chapel. Others were sent,
with all kinds of commissions, to “Blue gate,” (a door in the west
wall of School court, which opened into a side passage running
along the outside of the kitchen buildings, to outer gate,) which was
pierced with a hole about a foot square, through which the
Choristers were called and received their orders, and through which
they handed any articles they might have been sent for; the scene
here was similar to that at Whitesman’s hatch at breakfast time, (v.
s.) crowds of Fags jostling round the hole and clinging to the bars
screaming “Chorister! Chorister!” at the top of their voices, in frantic
eagerness to catch the eye of the first Chorister, the clatter of whose
hobnailed boots would be heard coming up the flint pavement a long
time before the wearer could be seen. When he did appear the cry
was, “Fagging for me;” or, more generally, instead of “me,” the name
of the Præfect for whom the message was to be sent was used, as
more likely to carry weight with the Chorister.
The little Choristers had hard work of it; they were soon scattered
all over the town,—to La Croix’s for a pint of coffee and
twopenn’orth of biscuits, or a “Tizzy tart;” to Nevy’s (this gentleman
supplied edibles at Commoners’ field; I suppose he once had an
uncle or an aunt, and so got his nickname; if he ever had any other
name nobody knew it, and I doubt if he did himself) for strawberries
and cream, or Burney’s biscuits; to Flight’s for sallyluns; to Forder’s
for buns; to Stone’s, to Drew’s, to Raymond’s for anything you like,
besides innumerable errands to the boot-maker, tailor, circulating
library, &c., &c.
One of the most common and disagreeable orders for a Junior to
receive on these wet mornings was to get a pint cup; as at the
commencement of the half year the stock-in-trade for the whole
College consisted of about two dozen, and as they were by no
means “College ware,” i.e., not easily broken, in a few weeks they
became rather scarce articles, but no Junior being ever allowed to
say he “couldn’t” procure anything he was told to get, he had to
depart on his hopeless errand, and, not succeeding, receive the
usual reward.
As the day wore on some of the Præfects would subside into the
comfortably stuffed seats between their scobs, and set to work
“Mugging,” (reading hard,) only occasionally lifting up their voices to
call “Junior!”: other boys would take to playing chess, or some other
quiet game; while the more noisily disposed would indulge in
practising jumps over the Commoners’ tables, playing Hicockolorum,
or Crocketts, (miniature cricket, with a stump and a fives ball,) to the
great detriment of Præfect of School’s windows.
Presently Seventh Chamber passage would open and admit
Crutch, (I wonder what his name really was,) a knowing-looking little
man, whose occupation was that of surgeon to those cricket and
fives bats that had received severe wounds; and he was such a
skilful operator that a bat always seemed to rise like a Phœnix from
its ashes after passing through his hands; a clamorous crowd would
speedily surround the bat-surgeon, to supply him with fresh patients,
or consult him on the constitution of others. Currell, also, would be
likely to come in on a wet day,—when I say Currell, I mean a hair-
cutter, for there were two or three of them, but whoever the
individual was, to the boys he was always “Currell.” One of them
operated on me yesterday; as he was combing my luxuriant locks,
he remarked:—“Hair not quite so thick, sir, as it used to was in the
old times; very fine ’ead of ’air then, sir. Remember when you came,
before New Commoners’ was built; great changes since then. Old
Poole dead at last, sir. Doctor’s nephew is a master now, sir; has an
’ouse in Kingsgate Street, and takes in young gents,” &c., &c. But I
don’t think he could have told me much more, as I find that having
my hair cut is not nearly so tedious an operation as it used to be.
On the dark afternoons in the short half, for about an hour before
hall time, (six o’clock,) the boys used to assemble round the fire, the
Juniors sitting on the stone steps, and the Præfects on scobs ranged
in a semicircle in front; two large vessels of egg-flip were placed in
the middle, from which the contents were scooped out with pint
cups, and we used to sing lustily, if not well. I trust that the
repertoire of songs has been changed since those days; indeed,
before I left all the more objectionable ones were expunged. We
always began with “When good King Arthur reigned,” and then
followed promiscuously “The Bay of Biscay,” “The Workhouse Boy,”
“John Barleycorn,” “Three Jolly Postboys,” “Betsy Baker,” “Captain
Bold,” “The Overseer,” “I Loves a Drop of Good Beer,” “Fox went Out
one Moonshiny Night,” “Tally ho! Hark away,” &c.
 EGG-FLIP NIGHT.

Amongst two hundred boys quarrels would occasionally arise,

which were generally adjusted, when the principals were at all
equally matched, by an appeal to that old British weapon—the Fist.
Fights were by no means exceedingly frequent, and when they did
come off, were conducted with all due solemnity. School on a
Lockback day was a very favourite arena, and differences were also
settled on Hills and on “Sicily,” (a triangular piece of grass just at the
entrance into Meads,) where I have also seen a main of cocks
fought. I will not give an account of an ideal fight, as everybody has
already read the particulars of that one so graphically written by my
excellent friend Tom Brown, with whose sentiments on the subject in
general I cordially concur, and I strongly recommend my readers to
take down their copy of the book from its shelf at this moment, and
reperuse that portion of it. To the best of my recollection, I was only
once engaged in a bonâ fide set-to of the kind in question; but I
flatter myself that this was a very remarkable contest, being well
remembered for some little time by the fortunate spectators. We
commenced operations immediately after morning chapel, and did