cG rJ , 5 5,64

James M. Goode 4

Washington, D.C.
 Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2016

https://archive.org/details/manualofhistoric00glaz_0
Historic
Ornament.
MONUMENT TO CONTE UGINO, BY MINO DA FIESOLE,
CHURCH OF THE BADIA, FLORENCE.
 A Manual of
HISTORIC
ORNAMENT
TREATING UPON THE EVOLUTION,
TRADITION, AND DEVELOPMENT OF
ARCHITECTURE & THE APPLIED ARTS
PREPARED FOR THE USE OF STUDENTS
AND CRAFTSMEN
BY RICHARD GLAZIER
HON. ASSOCIATE OF THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF ART
ASSOCIATE OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF BRITISH ARCHITECTS
HEAD MASTER OF THE MUNICIPAL SCHOOL OF ART, MANCHESTER

SECOND EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED

WITH 600 ILLUSTRATIONS BY THE AUTHOR

LONDON
B. T. BATSFORD, 94 HIGH HOLBORN
MCMVI
 Printed by S. Clarke
41, Granby Row, Manchester

THE
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.
HE extreme range of subjects included under His-
toric Ornament necessarily implies considerable
restriction and condensation in text and illustra-

tion in one small volume, yet care has been taken

in the selection of types to show the essentials

and characteristics of national styles, and the

evolution or development of design in various materials.
The re-issue of this work has enabled the author to revise generally

and also to add additional matter and illustrations in the more

important sections.
The subject of Architecture has received considerable amplification,
as additional illustrations are given of the Greek, Romanesque, and
Gothic styles, together with the Italian, French, and English Ren-
ascence, making this branch of the work more comprehensive and
useful to the general reader.

The section dealing with the applied arts has also been enlarged,
additional plates of Gold and Silver, Bronzes, Furniture, Wood-
carvings, and Bookbindings being inserted, together with a number
of the beautiful initial letters of the early printed books of the latter
part of the i 5th and the early 16th centuries, illustrating the vitality,
inventiveness, and skill of the craftsmen of the past.

R. G.

Manchester,
1906.
 REFACE.
This manual has been prepared with the three-fold
object of giving an elementary knowledge of Archi-
tecture and Historic Ornament, of awakening a
responsive and sympathetic feeling for the many
beautiful and interesting remains of ancient and mediaeval civilization,

and lastly, of directing the attention of students and craftsmen to

the beauty, suggestiveness, and vitality of the Industrial arts of the
past, and their intimate relation to the social and religious life of
the people.
The advantages to be derived by students and craftsmen from
such a study are manifold, for, by a careful study of these arts we
may see the capabilities and limitations of material, the appro-
priateness and application of ornament, the continuity of line and
form —yet with a marked diversity of enrichment and treatment
the interest and significance of detail, and the customs, myths, and
traditions of the past, with their continuity of thought and expression.
The illustrations, which have been chosen expressly for this work,

are typical examples of each period or style and are produced in

line as being the method best suited to the requirements of students,
giving definition, emphasis, and constructive qualities of design
rather than pictorial effect.
In the appendix will be found a list of text-books and wor ks of
reference, which may be studied with considerable advantage by
students desiring further information upon this important subject.

RICHARD GLAZIER.

Manchester,
1899.
 ONTENTS.
Ornament of Oceania
Egyptian Ornament
Assyrian Ornament .

Greek Architecture .

Greek Ornament
Roman Architecture
Roman Ornament
Pompeian Ornament
Byzantine Ornament
Romanesque Architecture and Ornament
CelticOrnament
Scandinavian Ornament
Norman and Gothic Architecture
Norman Ornament .

Early Gothic
Decorated or Geometric Gothic
Perpendicular Gothic
French Gothic
Renascence Architecture and Ornament
French Renascence .

English Renascence .

Mahometan Ornament
Persian Ornament
Indian Ornament
Chinese Ornament .

Japanese Ornament .

The Applied Arts.

Mosaics
Greek Ceramics
Ceramics
Maiolica
Terra Cotta .

Glass
Stained Glass
Enamels
Gold and Silver
Wrought Iron
Bronzes
Decorative Furniture
Wood Carving
Ivories
Bookbindings
Textile Fabrics
Terms Used in Ornamental Art
Printed Initial Letters
Frets
The Architectural Capital
 1 .. 7
1 —

LIST OF PLATES
PLATE PAGE PLATE
I Ornament of Oceania
Egyptian Ornament
. 2
.

30 Indian Ornament ...

...
PAGE
84
2
3
4
Assyrian Ornament
Greek Architecture
4
6
8
31

33
Chinese Ornament
32 Japanese Ornament
Roman Scroll
...
....
86
88
90
I 1 Greek Ornament . 12, 18
6 J
Roman The Applied Arts.
7 Architecture

Roman Ornament
.

.
20

24, 26 34 Mosaics .... 92

10
9}
Pompeian Ornament . 28
35
36 Ceramics ....
Greek Ceramics

....
.
94
96
1

12
13
Byzantine Ornament
Romanesque Ornament
Celtic Ornament
.
30
32
34
37
38
39
Maiolica
Glass .....
Stained Glass
104
1 10

112
14 Scandinavian Ornament 36
15 The Triforium and Clearstory 41 Gold and Silver .
120, 122
|
16 Norman Details .
44 42 Wrought Iron
17 Early Gothic Details . 46 ^3 Bronzes .... 126, 128
124

18
19
Decorated Gothic Details
Perpendicular Details
French Gothic
.
. 48
50
44
45
[
)

Furniture .... 130

20
21
l Renascence Ornament
22 j
.

•
52

54, 59
46
47
48
Wood
Ivories
Carving

Bookbindings
.... .

.
L34
136
138
23
1 French Renascence . 68, 70 494
24 f 3 ° -Textile Fabrics
25 . 140, 143, 146, 148
25A [-English Renascence .
72, 74, 76 52 J
26 J
53 Frets 152
27 Mahometan Ornament 78 54 Plans of Historic Buildings .
159
Illuminated Manuscript 160
™
29 I)
Persian Ornament . 80, 83 55

ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT.

PAGE PAGE
Arabesque Ornament 62 Palaces —The Farnese, Rome . .
65

Capitals .....
Arch of Septimus Severus

Caryatide from the Erectheum

. 21
154-5-6-7-8
9
The Vendramini, Venice
The Verzi, Verona
Casa del Diavolo
...
...
. . 66
67
67
Celtic
Chairs .....
Ornament •

.
35
131-2
Ancien H6tel d’Ecoville
—
Parthenon the Elevation ....103 .
. 71
14
Chinese Pagoda
Chalice .....
....
87
121
Peruvian Pottery
Peruvian Textiles
.

.... . .

149
Console Table
Corinthian Order from the Pantheon .
133
22
Persian Plate
Plan of Roman House ...
.

...
. . . . 81
23
Coffered Ceiling
Crockets
Decorated Gothic
..... 25
47
49
Plan of Lincoln Cathedral
Polynesian Ornament
Poppy-heads
...
. . . .
.
38
3
51
Doric Frieze from the Parthenon
Early Gothic Window
14
39 Roman Scroll
—
.....
Relief from Nike Apteros

...
. . . 16
25

Enamels
Frieze
.....
Engraved Panel by Aldegrever

from the Parthenon .

. 91
119
15
Roman House
Sibyl,
Sicilian Fabric
...
by Michel Angelo
.
Plan.

. . . .142
23
60

Frieze
Frieze
Frieze
from Susa
from Tivoli
by Mantegna . •
1

27
63
Singing Gallery, by Donatello
Spitalfields Silk
S. George, by Donatello
....
...
.
. 57-8
145
58
Friezefrom Phigaleia
Gothic Borders
Gothic Piers
....
....
15
47
39
Stained Glass
Early Jesse Window
Early Grisaille .
.

.
.

.
.

.
113
114
Gothic Doorway, Amiens .
53 Quarries . . . . .114
Golden Candlestick
Greek Coins
Ilaria di Carretto
.... . . 121
19
56
Canopies
Terra Cotta Greek—
.

Lucca della Robbia

....
. .

.
.

.
.115
.
107-8
108
Ionic Order from Ilyssus
Japanese Key Pattern
Lancet Window
1

153
39
Andrea della Robbia
Theatre of Marcellus
Tomb of Lorenzo de Medici
.....109 . .

. .
22
61
Lismore Crosier 35 Tomb of Ilaria di Carretto . . . 56
Metopes of the Parthenon . 14 Wall Mosaic . . . .
153
Monument of Lysicrates 1 Woodcut from the Grotesque Alphabet
Palace —
The Strozzi, Florence . 64 of 1464 93
 ,
1,
,, 1

ft

CORRECTIONS.
Page for “ Maxentinus” read
“ Maxentius. ”
'

23, line 1 ,

,, 23, ,29 Conpluvium ” read “ Compluvium.”

, , ,
1

,, 25, ilhti tration rTemple of Peace ” read “ Basilica of Maxentius.”

‘
‘
~

,, 27, line 30 for tazzas ” read “ tazze.”

.
‘

,, 29, 1
20, “ plate 33 ” read “ plate 34.”
9 J

raza? “ plate 54.”

53”
‘

,, 3 C ,, 35 , ,, ‘plate
“ page 16 ” read “ page 1 17.”
'

,, 35 , ,, 29, ,, 1

plate 18” read “ plate 15.”

'

,, 40, ,, 28, ,,

,, 53 , , 38, 9 9
page 153 ” read “page 155.”
38
'

“ S. Eustovgio ” read “ S. Eustorgio.”

, , 55 , ,, , ,,

plate 43 ” read “ plate 44.”

‘

,, 57 , ,, 3 * ,,

„ 62, ,, 45, 9 ^
plate 19” read “ plate 22.”
,, 69, , , 43, 5 9
“ plate 35 ” read “ plate 36.”
;
” read ”
,, 69, , 44, 9 9
plate
‘
47 plate 48.
‘
‘

,, 69, j j 42. , ?
Andronet” read “ Androuet.”
‘ ‘

,, 7 1, ,, 6 ,
De Carreau and Duperie ” read “ Du Cerceau and Dup<
‘

,, 70 /zVz£. S' 12 and 2%, for “ plates 47-5° ” read “ plates 48-51.”
,, 77 ,
/?«£ 14,/tfr
‘
‘
Radcliffe Library” read “ Radcliffe Library, Oxford.”
,, 77 , ,, 27 ,
Pergolese ” read “ Pergolesi.”
103,
‘ ;t
plate ” read “ plate 35.”
,, , 3 , , ,
34
,, 129, , 43 , , ,
“ page 44 ” read “ page 56.”
,, 130 ,
20, plate 46 ” read “ plate 47.”
‘

Suetonius of 1740 ” read “ 1470.”

4

,, 150 , , 17 , , ,
‘

,, 1
53 , 99 34 , 9 9
C
pages 1 01 and 147 ” read “ pages 103 and 149.”
‘
Part I.

The History and

Development of
Architecture & Ornament.
 . .

ORNAMENT OF OCEANIA. Plate i

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H EAPE^OOLLECTIOn
2
 1

RNAMENT OF OCEANIA.
The ornamentation of the people of the Pacific Isles
is of interest, and is remarkable for the evolution
full
and perfecting of an ornamental style by a primitive
people, with myths and traditions purely local, and in
no way influenced by other nations. It is a style of ornament full of
meaning and symbolism, yet simple in detail and arrangement, not
founded upon the beautiful vegetation and flora of their islands, but
upon abstract forms derived from the human figure, and arranged with
a pleasing geometrical precision remarkable for a primitive people.
The ornamental art of these people may be broadly divided into
provinces, each with its distinct ornamental characteristics and tradi-
tions, New Zealand showing the highest development and Australia
the lowest in the ornament of Polynesia and Melanesia.
Much of the ornament is purely linear, consisting of parallel and
zig-zag lines ;
that of Australia consists almost entirely of these
lines incised in the ground and occasionally filled in with colour.
In New Guinea a higher development is reached, the ornament, of
straight and curved lines, being carved in flat relief. In the pro-
vince of Tonga-Samoa, the surface
is divided into small fields, and the

linear ornament runs in a different

direction on each of the fields. The
Hervey and Austral Islands are
distinguished by their remarkable
adaptations of the human female
figure, the illustrations given here
showing the original type and its
ornamental development. These ex-
amples, together with the circular
eye pattern, form the elements of
the Hervey province, of which the Heape collection contains many

fine examples. In the Solomon Island the linear ornament is

occasionally interspersed with an inlay of angular pieces of mother
of pearl. The New Zealand province is distinguished by its skilful
pierced carving, the beauty of its spiral forms adapted from the
human figure (figs, i - 2 ), and the con-
stant use of the border here given.
3
EGYPTIAN ORNAMENT. Plate 2.

1 m in' lai 1 mi

R£LI Ef pkom the BMTI5H nU5CUA .

‘6 THE EGYPTI APT LOTU5

rmm
X)C
e

eXAA\PLE5 OF PAIHTED
OfVnAnFMT. IOOO 5 C

4
 —

GYPTIAN ORNAMENT.
The history of Egypt, extending from 4400 B.C. to

340 during which thirty dynasties existed, is

B.C.,
usually divided into three groups: (1) The Ancient
Empire, I. -XI. dynasties, 4400-2466 B.C. (2) The
;

Middle Empire, XI I. -XIX., 2466-1 200 B.C. and (3)

;

the New Empire, XX. -XXX. dynasties, 1200-340 B.C.

The capitals of the Ancient Empire comprised Memphis and
Abydos of the Middle Empire, Thebes, Luxor, and Tanis; and of
;

the New Empire, Sais and Bubastes. The remarkable civilization

of these early dynasties is attested by the many fine remains of
architecture, sculpture, and decorative arts that enrich our national
museums. The Great Pyramids were built during the 4th dynasty,
the largest by Kheops, 3733-3700 B.C., is 756 ft. by 756 ft., and 480 ft.
high ;
the second, by Kephren, 3666-3633 B.C., is 707 ft. by 707 ft.
and 454 ft. high; and the third, 333 ft. by 330 ft., and 218 ft. high,
was erected by Mykerinos, 3633-3600 B.C.
The Sphinx, half animal and half human, is the oldest sculpture
known, and is probably of the 1st and 2nd dynasties, yet it is
singular that all the earliest sculptures of the 3rd and 4th dynasties
with which we are acquainted were realistic portraiture, remark-
able for fidelity to nature. Kings, queens, and individuals of note
were finely sculptured, frequently of a colossal size. But the Deities,
Amen Sckhet, Horus, Hathor, Iris, and Osiris were represented in
the later dynasties by small votive statuettes, noticeable for their
number rather than for their artistic qualities, never reaching the
excellence or vitality of the earlier period. Much of the architectural
enrichment was in Cavo Relievo a peculiarly Egyptian mode of
,

ornamentation, the outline of the figures, birds, or flowers being sunk

into the surface of the granite or basalt, and then carved within this
sunk outline, leaving the ground or bed raised, these reliefs being
invariably painted red, blue, green, and yellow. The frieze which in
the hands of the Greeks, at a later period, became their principal
ornamental field, was used by the Egyptians in superposed bands,
—
showing, in cavo relievo the industrial arts and pursuits weaving,
,

glass blowing, and the making of pottery ;

ploughing, sowing, and
reaping also hunting and fishing.
;
The composition and sculpture
of these incidents was simple, refined, and purely decorative, with a
naivete and unaffectedness so appropriate to the architectonic condi-
tions. Mingled with these incidents were the beautiful hieroglyphs,
or picture writing of the Egyptians. Figs. 7-13 are examples of
painted decorations showing the spiral construction of lines, together
with the symbolic treatment of the Lotus, the latter being regarded
by the Egyptians as a symbol of fertility and of a new life, hence the
profusion with which it was used in their decorative work. Great
fertility of invention was displayed in enriching their architectural
capitals with the Lotus, the Papyrus, and the Palm. A singular
feature introduced during the 18th dynasty was the Hathor Capital,
surmounted by a small Naos. During the Ptolemaic period
B.C. 300 — the Hathor Capital was placed upon the vertical bell-
shaped capital (fig. 3).

5
ASSYRIAN ORNAMENT. Plate 3

6
 SSYRIAN ORNAMENT.
Theearly history of Babylonia and Assyria is one
long series of wars and conquests. Originally one
nation, they became divided, and the younger Assyria
in the north became the most powerful empire
of that period, under Tiglath-Pileser I., B.C. 1100,
Ashur-nasir-pal, B.C. 885-60, Shalmaneser II., B.C. 860-25, Tiglath-
Pileser III., B.C. 745-27, the Great Sargon, B.C. 722-705, Senna-
cherib, B.C. 705-681, Esarhaddon, B.C. 681-668, and Ashur-ban-pal,
B.C. 668-626. In B.C. 609 the capital, Nineveh, was destroyed by
Cyaxares the Mede, and Babylon arose again to power under
Nebuchadnezzar, B.C. 604-562 this city was destroyed by Cyrus the
:

Persian, B.C. 539.

Assyrian art, with its and climatic
racial influences, religious beliefs,
conditions, differs in a remarkable degree from Egyptian art. Though
stone is found in Assyria, the great cities were built of brick, no
doubt owing to the fact of the arts and civilization coming from
Chaldea, where stone was scarce and clay plentiful. Both at
Babylon in Chaldea and Nineveh in Assyria the traditional type
of building was rectangular, with arched openings and vaults, built
of sun-dried bricks. The lower part of -the wall was covered with
large alabaster slabs, carved in low relief with scenes representing
the king and his warriors engaged in hunting or fighting (fig. 1).
The upper part of the wall was in enamelled brick, or in coloured
stucco, with details of the Lotus and the bud, together with the
rosette, which was often carried round the archivolt. The representa-
tion of the industrial arts and the pursuits of agriculture, which is so
admirably illustrated upon the Egyptian reliefs, is entirely absent in
Assyria. The enamelled bricks of Chaldea were modelled in low
relief, with enamels of turquoise blue, yellow, white, and black, of fine
quality and colour —
one splendid example is the Frieze of Archers
from the Palace of Susa. The enamelled bricks of Assyria were
usually flat, or modelled but slightly, and the enamels were less pure.
The external walls were similar to the internal ones, but with larger
friezes and bolder reliefs, and usually with religious subjects (fig. 9).
The portals were enriched with colossal winged and human-headed
bulls, of alabaster, finely carved in relief. Typical examples of
Assyrian ornament are the Lotus and the bud (figs. 2 and 3), the
Patera or Rosette (figs. 6 and 7), and the Horn, or Tree of Life
(fig. 8). The Lotus enrichment shows Egyptian influence, and only
came into use during the 7th century B.C., when intercourse between
the two nations was established. It is differentiated from the
Egyptian Lotus by its vigorous growth and curved profile, and the
geometrical form of the calyx of the flower and bud (fig. 2).
The Anthemion or Horn, with its alternate bud and fir-cone, and
with strong lateral markings, is beautiful in line and proportion of
mass (fig. 3). The Horn is frequently used as a flower on the sacred
tree, a form of enrichment that influenced much of the later Persian
and Sicilian textile fabrics.
7
GREEK ARCHITECTURE Plate 4

8
 ;;

REEK ARCHITECTURE.
Classic or columnar architecture is divided into the
Greek and Roman styles, and each style comprises
several orders of architecture the Grecian orders
:

are the Doric, the Ionic, and the Corinthian, and

many examples of each of these orders are still
—
extant in Greece and her colonies Asia Minor, Southern Italy, and
Sicily. From a comparison of these buildings, certain constructive
and decorative features are observed to be present, and thence they
are considered as the characteristics of the style or order, which
comprises the base (except in the Grecian Doric, which has no base),
column and capital, and the Entablature, which consists of the
Architrave, Frieze, and Cornice. The proportions of these orders
are generally determined by the lower diameter of
the column, which is divided into 2 modules or
60 parts, the height of the column always including
the base and capital. The DORIC order was used
for the early Greek temples from B.C. 600, and cul-
minated in the Parthenon, B.C. 438. The COLUMNS
y
in this order are 4 2 to 6 diameters in height, with
20 shallow flutings with intermediate sharp arrises
the Capital is half a diameter in height, and is
composed of an echinus or ovolo moulding with
annulets or deep channellings below, and a large
square abacus above. The ARCHITRAVE is plain
the Frieze is enriched by rectangular blocks, with 3
vertical channellings in the face, termed triglyths,
alternately with square metopes which were fre-
quently sculptured. The CORNICE, composed of
simple mouldings, projects considerably beyond the
face of the frieze.
The IONIC order has columns of from 9 to 9^
diameters in height, with 24 flutings divided by
narrow fillets the base is half a diameter in height,
;

and composed of a plinth, torus, fillet, cavetto, fillet,

CARYATIDE,
torus, and fillet. The Capital is t7q of a diameter ERECHTHEUM.
high, and consists of a pair of double scrolls or
volutes, supported by an echinus moulding enriched with the egg
and tongue, with an astragal below.
The Entablature is one quarter the height of the columns, the
Architrave of one or more fascias, the Frieze continuous and
frequently enriched with sculpture in low relief the CORNICE has
;

simple and compound mouldings supported by a dentil band.

Caryatides were occasionally introduced into this order; they were
female figures clad in drapery having vertical folds which re-echoed
the flutings of the Ionic column. These Caryatides supported the
entablature in place of the columns ;
a beautiful example is in the
south portico of the Erechtheum at Athens.
9
 —

The CORINTHIAN order was not much used by the Greeks;

the examples, however, show considerable refinement and delicacy
of details. The COLUMNS are io diameters in height, with 24
flutings the Base is half a diameter high the Capital is a little
; ;

greater than a diameter in height, and is enriched with acanthus

and spiral volutes. The Entablature is richer and the
foliations
CORNICE deeper and more elaborate than those of the other orders.
The principal Doric buildings in Greece are
2 8
The Temples at :
—
Corinth 2 ’
8
650, Angina,
B.C. 550, the Parthenon 2 9 and the
B.C. ’

,
’

Theseum 2 8 B.C. 438 the Temples of Jupiter at Olympia 2 8 B.C. 436,

’

, ;
’

Apollo Epicurius at Bassae 2 8 B.C. 436, Propylaea at Athens, B.C. ’

431, and the Minerva at Sunium, B.C. 420. Ionic buildings are:
Temples at Ilyssus 7 B.C. 484, Nike Apteros 7 B.C. 420, and the
1 ’

,
1 ’

Erechtheum, B.C. 420 (see plan, plate 54), North Portico 7 East ,

Portico 8 at Athens.
,
In Asia Minor there are the Temples of
Samos 8 Priene 8 Teos 8 Diana at Ephesus 9 (with 36 of its columns
, , ,

sculptured), and of Apollo at Miletos. Corinthian buildings are:

The Monument of Lysicrates, B.C. 335, the Tower of the Winds
(octagonal in plan), and Jupiter Olympius 2 8 B.C. 200. ’

During the 5th century B.C. the Doric order was extensively used
in the Greek colonies at Sicily. At Agrigentum there are the
remains of six fine Doric temples, of which the Temple of Zeus 2 ,

B.C. 450, is the largest, being 354 by 175 ft. In this Temple were
found the Telemones or Atlantes male figures, 25 ft. in height, with
, ,

their arms raised, probably supporting the roof. This Temple is also
remarkable for its portico of seven columns, 60 ft. in height, and
having the peristyle walled up.
At Selinus there are five large Doric temples 2 8 and one 5,9 with ’

columns 57 ft. in height, with an entablature of 19 ft. At Segesta

there is a Doric temple 2 8 with only the peristyle complete and the ’

columns unfluted, and at Paestum, in southern Italy, there are two

Doric temples 2 8 and a basilica 5 with its porticos of nine columns each.
’

All these buildings in Sicily and Paestum date between 500 and
430 B.C.
CLASSIFICATION OF CLASSIC TEMPLES.
Arrangement of Columns and Walls.
1
Apteral - - When the side walls have no colonnade.
2
Peripteral - - When there is a colonnade standing apart from the side walls.
3
Pseudo-peripteral When the colonnade is attached to the side walls.
4
Dipteral - - When there is a double colonnade standing out from the walls.
6
Pseudo-dipteral - When the inner row of columns are attached to the side walls.

The Relation of the Ends of the Temple.

In Antis - - When the columns do not project beyond the ends of the side walls.
Prostyle - -
When a portico stands in front of the temple.
6
Amphi-prostyle - When there is a portico at each end.
Mono-prostyle - If the portico is one column in depth.
Di-prostyle - If the portico is two columns in depth.
The Number of Columns in the Portico.
7
Tetrastyle -
If of four columns.
8
Hexastyle - If of six columns.
9
Octastyle - If of eight columns.
IO
PROPORTIONS OF THE ENTABLATURE, IN PARTS.
Total
Archi- Cor-
Frieze. Enta-
trave. nice.
blature.

Doric - - {
rthenon -
44% 40% 26 hi
\ Theseus 5° 55% 25% 131
Ionic- J Erechtheum 5T % 48% 37% 137%
\ Priene - 46% 29 ,
55% I 3I %
( Lysicrates - 5i 39% 50 140%
Corinthian -f Jupiter IONIC ORDER, TEMPLE OF
p Olympius 4i% 27% 48 117 ILYSSUS.

I I
GREEK ORNAMENT, Plate 5.

AMTHEMlOn ORNAIAENT FRON GfVECK TOFABS ATHENS. B C. 360

OWhEMT FROfT THE HOHUMEMT OF
LYSICAATE5 ATHENS .

B C 330 ^ . .

/\. /r'X ^

FIGURES HKOfA THE EAST FFQ EZE

OF THE PARTHENON
D C *L38

POKTion or
THE DOORWAY.
D\ECHTHEU/n.
ATHEP15
G REE IN
FUNERAL D.C.409
STELE, WITH
THE ANTHEHION

2
 REEK ORNAMENT.
Greece, or Hellas, consisted of a number of small
states, speaking the same language, and worshipping
the same gods. Almost the whole of the Aigean coast
of Asia Minor was occupied in early times by Greek
Colonies, which supplanted those of the Phoenicians
of Tyre and Sidon. The southern portion of this seaboard was
occupied by the Dorians, and the northern by Ionians. In the course
of time other Greek settlements were made on the Black Sea and Medi-
terranean Coast of Asia Minor, as well as at Syracuse, Gela and
Agrigentum in Sicily, and in Etruria and Magna Grecia in Italy.
These colonies appear to have reached a higher state of art at an early
period than Greece itself. The ascendency in art in Greece was en-
joyed by the Dorians circa, 800 B.C.; after which Sparta took the lead,
but was in turn excelled by the Ionians, when Athens became the
focus of Greek art, and attained a degree of perfection in that
respect that has remained unequalled to this day. Athens was des-
troyed by the Persians under Xerxes, 480 B.C.; but under Pericles
(470-429 B.C.) Greek art reached its culmination.
The abundant, although fragmentary, remains of Grecian architec-
ture, sculpture, and the industrial arts, show most vividly the artistic
feeling and culture of the early Greeks, with their great personality
and religious sentiment, in which the personal interest of the gods and
goddesses was brought into relation with the life and customs of the
people. Their myths and traditions, their worship of legendary heroes,
the perfection of their physical nature, and their intense love of the
beautiful, were characteristic of the Greek people, from the siege of
Troy to their subjection by Rome, B.C. 140. The almost inexhaustible
store of Greek art, now gathered in the British Museum, and in other
European museums, furnishes one of the most valuable illustrations
of the many glorious traditions of the past. The vitality of con-
ception, the dignity and noble grace of the gods, the consummate
knowledge of the human figure, and the exquisite skill of craftmanship,
are here seen in the greatest diversity of treatment and incident.
The work of Phidias, the most renowned of Greek sculptors, is
largely represented in the British Museum by noble examples, showing
his great personality, wonderful power, and his remarkable influence
upon contemporary and later plastic art.
The Parthenon, or temple of the goddess Athene, which was built
upon the Acropolis at Athens by Ictinus and Callicrates, B.C. 454-438,
was enriched with splendid works of sculpture by Phidias. Many of
the originals are now in the British Museum forming part of the
Elgin Marbles, which were purchased from the Earl of Elgin, in 1815.
The two pediments of the temple contained figure sculpture in the
round, larger than life size. The Eastern group represents the birth
of Athene, and the western group the contest of Athene and Poseidon
13
for the soil of Attica. The fragments of these pedimental groups
are now the British Museum, and, though sadly mutilated, show
in
the perfection of sculpture during the Phidian age. Of the 92 square
metopes sculptured in high relief, that enriched the Doric frieze, 1 5
are included in the Elgin Marbles. The subject represented on these
metopes was the battle between the Centaurs and Lapithae, or Greeks,
— a fine example of composition of line and mass, and dramatic
power of expression.

TzfTo'Rir’^ E PAB^-T
—

The continuous frieze upon the upper part of the cella wall, under
the colonnade or Peristyle, was 40 feet from the ground, 40 inches in
height, and 523 feet in length. It was carved in low relief, the
subject being the Panathenaeic procession, the most sacred and
splendid of the religious festivals of the Ancient Greeks. This frieze,
with its rhythm of movement and unity of composition, its groups of
beautiful youths and maidens, sons and daughters of noble citizens,
14
its heroes and deities, heralds and magistrates its sacrificial oxen,
;

and its horses and riders are doubtless the most perfect production

of the sculptor’s art. Each figure is full of life and motion, admirable
in detail, having an individuality of action and expression, yet with
a unity of composition, appropriate to its architectural purpose as a
frieze or band.

The Parthenon, however, was but the shrine of the standing figure
or statue of the goddess Athene, which was 37 feet high, and formed
of plates of gold and ivory, termed
Chryselephantine sculpture.
Probably owing to the intrinsic value of the material, this work of
Phidias disappeared at an early date.
Among the examples of sculptured marbles in the British Museum
is the beautiful frieze from the interior of the Temple of Apollo at

Phigaleia, erected by Ictinus, B.C. 450-430. This frieze, which shows

an extraordinary vitality and movement, is 101 feet long and consists
y
of 23 slabs 25 2 inches in width, the incidents depicted being the
battle of the Greeks and the Amazons, and the contest between the
Centaurs and the Lapithae. The dignity and reserve of the Parthenon
frieze is here replaced by activity and energy of line and an exuber-
ance of modelling.

Some of the marbles in the British Museum are from the Nereid
Monument of Xanthos, B.C. 372, so called because the female figures
display moist clinging garments, and have fishes and seabirds between
15
 6

their feet. These sculptures show a high degree of perfection, and

were probably the work of the Athenian sculptor, Bryaxis.
Among other examples of the Greek treatment of the frieze, is that
of the Erectheum, B.C. 409, with its black Eleusinian stone background,
and white marble reliefs. The Temple of Nike Apteros, of about
the same date, is noted for the beautiful reliefs from the balustrade
which crowned the lofty bastion on which the temple stands. An
example of Nike or victory, adjusting her
sandal, is here given. These reliefs are
remarkable for their delicacy and refine-
ment of treatment, and the exquisite ren-
dering of the draped female figure. Other
friezes now in the British Museum are
from the Mausoleum erected by Artemisia
to her husband, Mausolus, B.C. 357-348.
This tomb consisted of a solid basement
of masonry, supporting a cella surrounded
by a colonnade of 36 columns. The upper
part of the basement was enriched with a
frieze illustrating the battle of the Centaurs
and Lapithai the frieze of the cella was
;

illustrated with funeral games in honour

of Mausolus. Seventeen slabs of the frieze
of the order from the colonnade are in
the British Museum they represent the
;

battle of the Greeks and Amazons. In their composition these slabs

show extraordinary energy of movement and richness of invention.
This frieze differs absolutely from the Parthenon frieze in its fertility
of incident and intensity of action. Bryaxis, the sculptor of the
Nereid monument executed the north frieze, while the south was by
Timotheus, the east by Scopas, and the west by Leochares.
A remarkable building, where again the frieze was an important
feature, was the great altar at Pergamos, erected by Eumenes II.,
B.C. 168. This had a basement of masonry 160 ft. by 160 ft, and
16 ft. high, enriched with a sculptured frieze jyi ft. high. The sub-
ject is the Gigantomachia, or battle of the gods and giants the ;

treatment being characterised by passionate energy and expression,

and daring skill in grouping and technique. Ninety-four of the
original slabs of this frieze are now in the Berlin Museum.
The frieze was an important decorative feature with the Assyrians
and Greeks. The continuity of incident and rhythm of movement
that was possible with the continuous frieze, together with its func-
tional use of banding, no doubt tended to preserve its traditional
form, hence we have many remains from antiquity of this beautiful
decorative treatment. An early and fine example is the frieze of
Archers from the palace of Susa, B.C. 485, now in the Louvre. This
1
frieze,of which an
illustration is here

given, was exe-

cuted in glazed and
enamelled bricks.
A dignity of con-
ception and unity
of composition
were here com-
bined with skilful
modelling of relief
work, and fine
colouring of blue,
turquoise and yel-
low. This treat-
ment of the frieze
no doubt influenced
the later work of
the Greeks, who so
nobly carried on
this tradition of
the frieze.
Greek ornament
is distinguished by
simplicity of line,
refinement of de-
tail, radiation of parts, unity of composition, and perfect symmetry.

The anthemion, which is the typical form, is derived from the tradi-
tional lotus and bud of Egypt, Assyria, and India. It differs,
however, in its more abstract rendering and its absence of symbolism,
having a charm of composition and a unity and balance of parts, yet
lacking that interest and deeper significance associated with many
periods of art.
The anthemion was sculptured upon the top of the funeral stele
(figs, i, 2, and 5, plate 5), upon the architrave of doorways (fig. 6),
and above the necking of the Ionic columns (plate 4), or painted
upon the panels of the deep coffered ceilings. It was also used in
a thousand ways upon the many fine vases and other ceramic wares
of that period. The simplicity and beauty of the anthemion and its
ready adaptability, has doubtless rendered it one of the best known
types of ornament. Like the Egyptian and Assyrian prototype, the
Greek anthemion is usually arranged with alternate flower and bud,
connected by a curved line or more frequently by a double spiral. Illus-
trations are given on plate 6 of a few typical examples, where the
rhythm and beauty of composition are indicative of the culture and
perfection of Greek craftmanship.
Another feature, which at a later period received considerable
17 B
GREEK ORNAMENT. Plate 6.

EXAMPLES OF DA D S FfVOM GNEFK VASES

l~1 OWEM JOriES

pill
I
lH 1 |1
SISTISISIHISIHI^ISTHISIS

FKOn THE MUSEUM MAPLES

OKTiAMEriT in A\AKbLE , FfNCYA THE f^OOFAPEX. AVOMUAAFMT
OF LYSICRATES ATHEM3 D.C . 335
development, was the scroll given on plate 6, which is a fine example
from the roof of the monument to Lysicrates. The scrolls, cut with
V-shaped sections, spring from a nest of sharp acanthus foliage.
This scroll is formed of a series of spirals springing from each other,
the junction of the spiral being covered by a sheath or flower ;
the
spiral itself being often broken by a similar sheath.
This spiral form, with its sheathing, is the basis of the Roman and
Italian Renascence styles, and sharply differentiates them from the
Gothic ornament, in which the construction line is continuous and
unbroken.
The rosette, a survival of the traditional Assyrian form, was
frequently used upon the Architrave (fig. 6), and the funeral stele
(fig. 5, plate 5) where its circular and radiating form contrasts so
beautifully with the functional straight lines of architectural design.
The extraordinary vitality and versatility of the Greek craftsmen
may be traced through a magnificent series of coins dating from
B.C. 700 to B.C. 280. The interest of subject, beauty of composition
and largeness of style, combined with the utmost delicacy of technique,
of these gold, silver, and electrum coins, are a reflex of the artistic
feeling for beauty of the early Greeks.

Colour, as well as form, was a great factor in the art of the Greeks;
their architecture and sculpture were enriched and accentuated by the
judicious use of beautiful colour. The Parthenon, with its simple
and refined Doric architecture, and magnificent sculpture by Phidias,
was enhanced by colour, which was introduced in the background of
the pediment and the frieze, and also upon the borders and accessories
of the draperies. The “ Lacunaria,” or sunk panels of the ceilings,
were frequently enhanced with blue, having rosettes or stars in gold
or colour. A frank use of pure colour was almost universal in early
Egyptian and Assyrian art, and the Greeks were not slow to avail
themselves of any art that was beautiful.

19
ROMAN ARCHITECTURE Plate 7

20
 OMAN ARCHITECTURE
Is differentiated from that of Greece by the extensive
use of the arch and of superposed orders. The many
fine remains of Roman temples and public buildings
show the extraordinary versatility and conception of
the Roman architects, their constructive skill, and
their remarkable power of assimilating the arts of other nations.
The Roman temples were somewhat similar in plan to their Greek
prototypes, but usually without the side colonnade, larger in scale,
and with an ostentatious display of mouldings and ornaments, less
refined in contour and detail.

A typical example is given here of a triumphal arch, namely, that

of Septimus Severus, A.D. 203. Other examples are the Arch of
Titus, A.D. 83, and the Arch of Constantine, A.D. 326, all near the
Forum at Rome. Trajan’s Arch, A.D. 114, was destroyed by Con-
stantine, who used many of the reliefs for the building of his
own arch.
The superposition of columns and arches is seen in the Theatre of
Marcellus, B.C. 20, where the lower order is of the Doric and the upper
of the Ionic, and, like the early Greek Theatre, was semi-circular
in plan.
The Colosseum, commenced by Vespasian, A.D. 72, and completed
2 J
 by Titus, A.D. 80, has a third story,
having the Corinthian order, and an
attic story, with Corinthian pilasters,
the whole reaching to a height of
157 ft. The diameter of the amphi-
theatre was 584 by 468 ft.
One of the best preserved build-
ings of the early
Roman period
is the Pantheon

(plan, plate 54),

built during the
reign of Had-
rian, A.D. 1 18-38.
This has a fine
dome of coffered
panels, having a
diameter of 142
ft., and an alti-
tude of 71 ft. 6
in., with a total

height of 143 ft.

from the floor to
eye of dome.
The beautiful
octastyle Corin-
thian portico, of
the time of Ag-
rippa,B.C. 27, has
granite columns
46 6
ft. in. in height, with fine capitals in white
marble.
The magnificent temple of Castor and Pollux,
frequently called Jupiter Stator, is only known
from the three columns still standing but these ;

show the magnitude of scale and the exuberance

of detail that characterized the finest period of
Roman architecture. The proportions of this
order are columns, 45ft. 3 in. in height and the
entablature lift. 7 in.
The Tuscan and Composite orders were added
to the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian orders, thus
forming the of architecture.
five orders
The Romans rarely used the peristyle temple,
consequently the cella was of the same width as
the portico. In the civic buildings and palaces, THE CORINTHIAN ORDER
the Romans show the greatest constructive skill FROM THE PANTHEON
and splendour of embellishment. The skilful planning and appro-
priateness of decorative treatment in their basilicas and amphitheatres
are evidences of the practical nature of the Romans.
The Basilica or Hallof Justice was an important architectural
feature, rectangular in plan, with a semi-circular apse at one end,
where the Tribunal was placed; roofed with timber framing, or
vaulted with concrete, and supported with rows of columns or piers.
The remains of two typical Roman basilicas are still in existence :

the Basilica of Trajan, A.D. 1 14, rectangular, 180 by 160 ft., five aisles,
the centre aisle with a semi-circular wooden roof, and enriched with
bronze plates, is typical of one class and the Basilica of Maxentinus,
;

A.D. 310, with a width of 195 ft, and a length of 260 ft, is typical of
a vaulted Basilica, the two side aisles with an arched roof, and the
centre aisle with an intersecting vaulted roof.
These Roman basilicas were adopted by the early Christians to
their service, and the basilica church became the typical form used
up to the 1 2th century in the Romanesque provinces.
The Roman houses were of two
types: the Domus, or houses clustered
together, and the Insular houses ,

which were surrounded by streets.

Most of the finest Pompeian houses
were of the Insular type.
The usual plai of a Roman house
consisted of the Ostium an entrance
,

or Vestibule, which opened into the

Atrium a large room or court partly
,

roofed over, with an opening in the

centre called the Conpluvium under ,

which was the Impluvium or cistern

,

of water, placed below the level of the

ground. Small chambers surround-
ed the Atrium and at the further end
,

was the Tablinum or private room,

frequently leading to the Peristylium
or private part of the house, an open
court, with a colonnade surrounding
a marble fountain, with flowers, shrubs,
and trees, forming a Viridarium. Sur-
rounding the Peristylium were private
rooms, one of which was the Tri-
clinium or dining room.
,
From the
Peristylium fauces or passages led to the Porticus, a colonnade which
,

overlooked the garden.

ROMAN ORNAMENT Plate 8
Fig l

FRIEZE. FORUM OF TRAJAM . LATE NAM MU5EUM.

3

TRJAMGULAN BASE OFA MARBLE FRIEZE, FORUM OF TRAJAM ROME MO A D

CAriDE LABR.UM British AMj5Eu/“\
.
.

24
 OMAN ORNAMENT.
Rome, founded by Romulus, B.C. 783, became by
successive wars and conquests the mistress of the
world, absorbing the arts and the architecture of the
Etruscans B.C. 567, the Samnites B.C. 340, and of
Corinth and Carthage B.C. 146. From these varied
sources arose the style termed Roman, assimilating and adopting the
column and the horizontal entablature of the Greeks the arch, the
;

vault, the mural paintings, and the decorative use of bronze and terra-
cotta of the Etruscans, with the sculpture, ornament, mosaics and
coinage of the Greeks and Carthaginians. These varied arts were
assimilated and perfected by the Romans during the period B.C. 100
to 337 A.D.
Roman ornament isthe continuity of the Greek and Etruscan
anthemion, the acanthus and the scroll the
styles, consisting of the ;

Romans using these forms with greater exuberance and elaboration,

together with bold and vigorous carving, yet lacking the simplicity,
refinement, and graceful contour of the Greek and Etruscan forms.

Roman ornament consists largely of continuous spiral lines, clothed

with cups and sheaths of acanthus foliage, the various spirals ter-
minating in a rosette. These main spirals are frequently interwoven
with fine curved or spiral lines, clothed with acanthus or other foli-
ation, such as the vine, olive and
ivy. Birds and reptilesandcupids,
and the chimera or griffin (fig. 1)
are often interspersed with the
ornament, thus giving that large-
ness of mass, and contrast of
form, which is so characteristic
of Roman art. The Thermae, or
baths and public buildings, dis-
played fine decorative ceilings,
having deep sunk panels called
Lacunaria, or coffers ;
square,
hexagonal or octagonal in form,
with a centre rosette in high re-
lief and the border mouldings of
the coffers being enriched with the egg and dart, or the water leaf.
These exhibit an effective treatment of moulded surfaces. The
ceilings of the tombs and palaces were in many cases ornamented
25
ROMAN ORNAMENT. Plate 9.

VIA LATINA. PvOMC.. AD 160. DI5COVCKED in 1660.

THE CEILING 15 BARREL-VAULTED & ORNANENTED
see no. 2,

9t

Peer

STUCCO ORNAMENT IP1 LOW REUCP UPON ACEIUNG IN TOMB VIA LATINA
f\ON\E .

RELIEP FAT1EL PKOA THE OP THE PORTICO OP THE

IH5IDE
PAMTHenON f\ON\E A D. 125
.
.

26
with circular and square panels, richly decorated with arabesques or
mythical figures, and cupids in low relief of fine stucco the mouldings
;

or divisions in higher relief, and having the water leaf or the egg and
dart enrichment (plate 9).
The architectural frieze and the sepulchral urn and sarcophagi of
this period were often decorated with festoons (figs. 4 and 5, plate 9),
and which were supported by
cupids or by candelabra (plate
9), or by the skulls of oxen, as
on the frieze from the Temple
of Vesta at Tivoli, here given,
which is no doubt a survival of
the sacrificial custom of worship.
The architectural basilica and
forum of Trajan, erected A.D.
1 14, by Apollodorus, a Greek
of Damascus, was of the utmost magnificence, the remains attesting
to the skill and artistic craftsmanship of the Romans. Apollodorus
also erected the marble column of Trajan, having a rectangular
pedestal 18 feet high, and richly sculptured with the dresses, armour
and standards of the Roman army. This pedestal supports a column
of the Tuscan order of architecture 97 % ft. high, and 12 ft. in
diameter, enriched with a series of spiral bands, having bas-reliefs
representing the successive events of the Dacian War by the Emperor
Trajan.
This magnificent and well preserved relic of antiquity furnishes a
complete epitome of the costumes and the arms and armour of that
period. Another well preserved column, similar to that of Trajan,
was erected in Rome by Marcus Aurelius, A.D. 174, the subjects of
its reliefs being the war with the Marcomans. Large marble urns,
or Tazzas, enriched with Bacchanalian figures, surrounded with foliage
and birds and animals magnificent tables, chairs, couches, and can-
;

delabra, of bronze, enriched with silver damascening, together with

the choice remains of sculpture and mosaics, all indicate the luxurious-
ness and love of magnificence of the wealthy Roman citizens.
In Roman architectural ornament we see the most powerful model-
ling combined with the use of the continuous scroll growing from
a nest of foliage, repeated in their painted decorations (see Pompeian).
This elaboration of the typical Greek ornamentation and the rounded
serrations of the Acanthus (see plate 33), forms the chief character-
istic of Roman ornament, which is wonderfully bold and vigorous in
conception and execution, but deficient in the refinement and delicacy
of Greek art.
There a considerable difference in the foliations of the various
is

capitals. TheCorinthian capital of the Parthenon has foliage of the

simple olive leaf type. In the composite capital of the Arch of Sep-
timus Severus the foliage is serrated like fig. 8, plate 8, while that of
the Corinthian capital of the Temple of Vesta, Tivoli, is more of the
parsley leaf type, and each leaf is folded forward at the terminations.
POMPEIAN ORNAMENT. Plate io.

28
 OMPEIAN ORNAMENT.
Pompeii, Herculaneum and Stabia, Roman cities,
were buried by an eruption of Vesuvius, A.D. 79.
These cities had already suffered from an earthquake,
A.D. 63, and were being rapidly rebuilt when they were
finally destroyed by the eruption. The Younger Pliny,
the historian, was a spectator of the event at Pompeii,
and wrote two event and
letters to his friend Tacitus, describing the
his flight from the doomed which remained buried for seventeen
city,
centuries, with the treasures of gold and silver, bronzes of rare work-
manship, mural paintings on a most magnificent scale, and floors of
mosaics of marvellous execution and design ;
everything affording
a vivid glimpse of the domestic and public life of the Romans of the
1st century A.D. Herculaneum was discovered in 1709, and Pompeii
1748, and from these cities many valuable remains of art have been
taken. In the museum at Naples there are over 1,000 mural paintings,
some 13,000 small bronzes, over 150 large bronzes of figures and
busts, and 70 fine large mosaics.
A plan of a Roman house is given on page 23 showing the arrange-
ment and use of the rooms. The floors covered with mosaics (see
plate 33), those of the vestibule, corridors, and small rooms having
simple patterns enclosed with borders of the key pattern, or the
Guilloche in black, red, grey, and white tesseriae. The floor of the
triclinium, or dining room, was often a magnificent mosaic representing
some mythological or classical subject. The walls were painted in
colour, usually with a dado }ith the height of the wall, with pilasters
dividing the wall into rectangular panels and a frieze above (plate 10).
The general scheme of colour was, the dado and pilasters black, the
panels red, and the frieze white or black dado, red pilasters and
;

frieze, with white or yellow panels. The decorations upon these

various coloured grounds was light and fanciful, and painted with
great delicacy. Representations of architectural forms, such as
columns and entablatures, are often rendered in perspective upon the
painted walls.
The painted ornament has somewhat the same characteristics as
the Roman relief work, but is usually much more delicate in treat-
ment. The spiral form and the sheath are always prevalent, and
from these sheaths and cups grow the finer tendrils or delicately
painted spray of foliage, upon which birds are placed.
Stucco enrichments, such as ornamental string courses and mould-
ings, were frequently combined with the painted ornament ;
they
consist of small details, such as the water-leaf, the egg and dart, and
the anthemion, and are repeated in a regular series.
Herculaneum differed considerably from Pompeii, for the finest
works of art and innumerable MSS. have been found, shewing that
a higher intellectual life existed than that at Pompeii, where not a
single MS. has been found. It is probable that Herculaneum was
equal to Athens itself in the wealth of its art treasures.
29
 1

BYZANTINE ORNAMENT. Plate 1

30
 YZANTINE ORNAMENT.
The decline of the Roman empire, in the
3rd and 4th centuries A.D., had its inevit-
able influence upon contemporary art, but
perhaps a more potent influence was that
of Christianity, which, under the reign of
Constantine, received state recognition and
support and when this Emperor removed
;

the seat of government from Rome to Byzantium, the traditional

Greek and Roman arts were assimilated with those of Persia and
Syria, but moulded and influenced by the new religion, giving that
strong vitality, deep significance, and symbolism which is so remark-
able a feature of the Byzantine style.
The change of style did not take place immediately, for most of
the buildings erected by Constantine were in the traditional Roman
style, but the arts were gradually perfected until they culminated in
the building of S. Sophia, by Anthemius of Tralles and Isidorus of
Miletus, during the reign of Justinian, A.D. 538. This building is
remarkable for its splendid dome, supported by semi-domes and
pendentives on a square plan (see plate 54), its embellishment with
mosaics of glorious colours, and the great inventiveness and symbol-
ism of the detail. The traditional sharp acanthus foliage of the
Greeks was united with the emblems of Christianity, such as the
circle, the cross, the vine, and the dove : the peacock also is fre-
quently seen. Figure sculpture was rarely used, but groups of figures
were used in great profusion in the gold-ground mosaics that covered
the upper part of the walls and the vaults and domes of the magnifi-
cent Byzantine buildings. The churches of Ravenna, in Italy, have
somewhat similar characteristics: S. Vitale, A.D. 535, the basilica
churches of S. Apollinare Nuovo, A.D. 493-525, S. Apollinare in
Classe, A.D. 535-45, together with the Baptisteries, are rich in
mosaics and sculptured capitals of the 6th and 7th centuries. In
the cathedrals of Torcello, A.D. 670, and Murano, and the beautiful
S. Mark’s at Venice, marbles and mosaics were used in great pro-
fusion to enhance the architecture. The sketch plans given on
plate 53 are typical of Byzantine planning, in which the symbolism
of the circle and cross are used as constructive features. This sym-
bolism is a marked feature in Byzantine ornament ;
interlacing
circles and crosses mingle with the acanthus or the vine, and are
cut with a peculiar V-shaped section. The circular drill is largely
used at the sinking of the leaves, and but little of the background is
visible in the sculptured ornament of this period.
Pierced marble screens of interlaced foliage, or the fret in combina-
tion with the circle, were frequently used (see plate 53). A large
number of pierced parapets in S. Mark’s are carved in low relief,
with various- modifications of the interlacing Guilloche, or circles.
31
ROMANESQUE ORNAMENT. Plate 12.

32
 ;

OMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE
ORNAMENT.
Romanesque architecture differs from Roman chiefly
in the universal use of the arch, the absence of the
classic entablature, and in the imagery and symbol-
ism of its sculpture and ornament, doubtless due to
Northern influence. One of the earliest existing buildings of this
style is the church of S. Ambrogio, Milan (i ith century), which has a
nave and aisles, three eastern apses, and a western atrium, surrounded
by an open arcade, enriched with vigorous reliefs of interlaced orna-
ment and animals. Contemporary in date is S. Michele, Pavia, with
a nave and transepts and central cupola there is a single eastern
:

apse, having an open external gallery and bands of sculptured orna-

ment. This and the frequent use of the lion or griffin as a support
for pillars, are characteristic of the Lombardic style, and are seen at
S. Michele, Lucca, and the Cathedral, Baptistry, and the Campanile
of Pisa.
It was, however, in France and Germany that the Romanesque
reached its highest development, principally in the south and south-
west of France, where the churches are distinguished for the richness
of the west fronts.
S. Trophime, Arles (12th century), has a fine low semi-circular pro-
jecting porch, resting upon a sculptured frieze and pillars. A cloister,
with arcading of coupled columns richly sculptured, is attached to
this church ;
while S. Gilles (1076) has a low projecting porch of three
arches, enriched with vigorous sculpture and ornament (plate 12).
The Cathedral at Angouleme has a vaulted nave, with three
cupolas, and a west front with recessed arcading and figures two
:

square towers, with open arcading and conical spires, rise from the
angles of the facade. Notre Dame, Poitiers, is even more rich in its
gabled west front, having a fine doorway with two tiers of arcading
above. The facade is flanked by two circular turrets, with massive
columns attached, having an open arcade above, with a conical spire
enriched corbel tables are carried across the front, over the door,
the upper arcade and window, and round the turrets.
Saint-Front, Perigueux, has a richly sculptured west front and nave
of the 1 ith century, to which was added in 1150 a larger church
similar in plan to S. Mark’s at Venice (a Greek cross, see plate 54),
and roofed with five cupolas in stone. In central France there was
the magnificent Abbey Church of Cluny, with its range of six towers ;

and in Germany this number of towers is found at the great Roman-

esque churches of Speyer, Worms, and Laach, with their singular
western apse and external clearstory gallery.
Plate 12 illustrates a few of the chief features of Romanesque
ornament. The upper frieze is similar to the Roman scroll, but less
vigorous in modelling, and with a rounder form of serration of leaf
form. The Laon capital has rich interlacing ornament and animals
that suggest Scandinavian influence. The portal of Saint-Gilles
shows the exuberant carving and storiation that characterized many
of the churches of south-west France.

33 C
 . n

CELTIC ORNAMENT. Plate !3

iniTIAL
FK.OM THE G 05 PEL5 OF
LinDlSFANTIE .

EnD OF 7™CCnTURT>
5KITI5H /"VJSEUFV

CELTIC inTETfCLACCinG FfCET

3

IITTEMACED AITIttAL5. FKOtt THE BOOK

OF KELLS. 0 TH CCMT>- BRITISH nuSEUH CAKEW Cf\0:

POKTlOn OF THE.
TPTJAAPET PATTERN
6^ -rOf^DIVOVGEMT
/ 5 PIR£L. FROFV
'

SHIELD EMfMCHED WITH f\ED THE frOOK OF

EnAMELt>. tWjTI3HnU3CUn. DUR^CW. MTY CO. I PTC . D, ,n, I

34
 ELTIC ORNAMENT.
No period in the history of art is more remarkable
than the Celtic. The carved stone architecture and
crosses, the bronzes, enamels, and silversmith’s work,
the splendid illuminated books and manuscripts with
capitals and borders, full of imagery and intricacy of
detail, and the clear and accurate writing of the text are all indications
of the culture and love of ornament of the early Irish people, showing
a remarkable preference for the spiral and interlacing forms. The
bronze shield (fig. 6), with its spirals and bosses of enamel enriched
with the northern “ Fylfot ” is a typical example of the 2nd or 3rd
century, A.D. Then comes the trumpet pattern or divergent spiral,
which, seen in its infancy on the bronze shield, reached a great degree
of elaboration in the 8th and 9th centuries, A.D. (figs. 2 to 7), being
typical of Celtic work up to the middle of the 1 ith century when all
trace of this spiral is lost. The interlacing bird and animal forms
used from the 8th to the 14th centuries are doubtless derived from
Byzantine and Lombardic sources. The serpent or dragon, which is
such a marked feature from the 7th to the 15th century must have
been borrowed from the north, as Ireland had no traditions of snakes
or dragons, and it is to Scandinavia, with its legend of Fafni, that we
must look for the origin of the dracontine treatment. It is this Zor-
morpic character that distinguishes the Celtic from all other styles of
ornament except Scandinavian. The obverse of the magnificent
processional Cross of Cong (A.D. 1123), is divided into 46 panels of
decorations, and convoluted snakes occupy 38 of them.

The illustrations given here from the Lismore crosier are typical
examples of this Celtic dracontine treatment. The early or Pagan
period noted for its bronze work, cast and wrought, and enriched
is

with Champleve enamels. The fine chalice of Ardagh (page 116)

and the Tara Brooch (plate 40) 7th century, are splendid examples
of the Christian period dating from St. Patrick, A.D. 440-460. The
beautiful Book of Kells, the Book of Armagh, the Book of Durrow,
manuscripts of the early part of the 9th century (Trinity College,
Dublin), and the Book of Durham, called the Lindisfarne Gospels,
A.D. 689-721, written by Eadfrith, and illuminated by Ethelwald, are
a tribute to the vitality, assimilation of ideas, and the culture and
wonderful craftmanship of the early Irish people. In Irish manuscripts
gold is not used, except in the Lindisfarne Gospels, where a minute
quantity is used.
35
SCANDINAVIAN ORNAMENT. Plate 14

36
 !

CANDINAVIAN ORNAMENT.
The beautiful bronze and silver jewellery and imple-
ments of war of the early Viking period, found in
Norway, Sweden, and Denmark, display no trace of
plant forms in their ornamentation, the latter consist-
ing wholly of interlacing animal forms chiefly the —
dragon. The Viking ship found at Sandifiord in 1880, although
destitute of ornament, shows traces of the “ Bronze Dragon Prow,”
referred to in the early Scandinavian Sagas. At the commencement
of the 1 2th century, plant forms are found mingled with the dragons,
and figure sculpture became important in treating of the myths of
the gods Frey, Woden, Thor, and Tyr, of the pagan period, being
;

influenced by the newer cult in religion. This is shown by the

Sigurd Overlap.
—
The farmer Hreithmar had three sons Otter, Fafni, and Regin
the smith and three of the Scandinavian gods —
Woden, Hceni, and
—
;

Loki wandered towards the farm, and, through misunderstanding,

Loki killed Otter. For this the three gods were seized, and released
only on payment of enough gold to cover the skin of Otter (fig. 2)
when hung up by the nose. This price was procured by Loki, who
compelled the dwarf Andwari to surrender all the gold he possessed,
as well as a magic ring, which carried with it a curse that for eight
lives the gold should be fatal to its owner. Then Hreithmar was
slain by his surviving sons for the treasure, which was carried off to
a great mound on Gnita Heath by Fafni, who lay round his plunder
in the form of a dragon. Regin, his brother, in order to obtain
the treasure, prompted Sigurd, his foster son, to slay the dragon.
Sigurd, in testing his sword, broke it in twain thereupon Regin
;

made him a magic sword, with which he lay in the trail of the
dragon, and pierced it through (figs. 1-4). Then Regin took out
the heart of the dragon, which Sigurd cut into pieces and toasted
while Regin slept. Sigurd, burning his fingers, placed them in his
mouth, and tasted the blood of Fafni, the dragon (fig. 1), and, lo
he heard the voice of birds saying that Regin was plotting to kill
him. Then Sigurd killed Regin, ate the heart of Fafni, placed the
treasure on the back of the noble horse Grani, and departed, only to
be slain for the gold by Gunnar, who for this crime was cast into the
pit of serpents (fig. i). 1
This myth explains much of the Scandinavian ornament, for in
figs. 1 and 2 the story is told in a series of incidents remarkable for

the fertility of invention and dracontine ornamentation. Halton

Cross, in Lancashire, and a slab at Kirk Andreas, Isle of Man,
illustrate the same subjects, dating from the 11th century. In later
times, the dragon becomes more pronounced in character, until in
the 14th century it fills the whole portal with the beautiful interlacing
ornament (fig. 6).

“The Pagan-Christian Overlap in the North,” by II. Colley March, M.D. (Lond. ).

37
 1 —
;

ORMAN GOTHIC &>

ARCHITECTURE.
English Gothic architecture has been broadly divided
into periods for the purpose of classifying the styles,
the following being the most generally accepted :

By Sharpe .
1
By Rickman. -

A.D. A.D.
Roman- f Saxon 1066 Norman 1066-1189
esque \ Norman - 1066- 1
145 Early English - 1189-1307
Transitional 1 190
45 ' 1

Lancet - 1 190-1245
Decorated - 1307-1379
Gothic Perpendicular
Curvilinear 1245-1360 -
1379-1483
Rectilinear 1360-1550 Tudor - - 1483-1546

Most of our magnificent cathedrals were founded, A.D. 1066-1170,

by Norman bishops, some upon the old Saxon foundations, such as
Canterbury and York, or near the original Saxon buildings, as at
Winchester, or upon new sites, such as Norwich and Peterborough
and were without exception more magnificent erections than those
of the anterior period, portions of the older style still existing in
many cathedrals, showing the fusion of Roman and Byzantine archi-
tecture with the more personal and vigorous art of the Celtic, Saxon,
and Scandinavian peoples.
Lincoln is a typical English plan, showing no trace of the semi-
circular apsidal arrangement so universal in Norman and French
cathedrals. Each vertical division in the nave, the choir, and transept
is termed a bay. On plate 15 is an illus-
tration of four typical bays of English
cathedrals, showing the development of
style from the 12th to the 15th century.
The general characteristic of each bay is
given separately, but obviously it can only
be approximate, as the building of each
cathedral was influenced by local considera-
tions, each period necessarily overlapping
its predecessor, thus forming a transitional
style. For instance, in the choir of Ripon
Cathedral the aisle and clearstory have
semi-circular Norman windows, and the
nave arcading has pointed arches. In
the triforium and clearstory arcading,
round arches are seen side by side with
the pointed arch.
—
The PIERS sometimes termed columns of these bays have —
1
“The Seven Periods of Church Architecture,” by Edmund Sharpe.
2
“Gothic Architecture,” by Thomas Rickman.
38
 —

distinctive features
which arecharac-
teristic of each per-
iod of the Gothic
development.
Sketch plans are
here given showing
the changes that took place in the section of the pier from 1066 to
1 500. The same general characteristics are observed in the arch
mouldings and string courses.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE NORMAN PERIOD.

Nave Arcading. Theuniversal use of the round arch, cylindri-
cal or rectangular piers, with semi-circular shafts attached to each
face. Capitals cubical and cushion-shaped. Arch mouldings en-
riched with concentric rows of
Chevron and Billet ornament.
—
TRIFORIUM. -In early work,
of one arch. In later work, two
or four small arches carried on
single shafts under one large
semi-circular arch.
Clearstory. — One window,
with an open arcading in front,
of three arches, the centre one
larger and often stilted. This
arcade forms a narrow gallery
in the thickness of the Clear-
story wall. The roof of the
nave of wood, flat and panelled,
roof of the aisles semi-circular
quadripartite vaulting. An ar-
cading of semi-circular arches
was usually placed upon the
wall, under the aisle windows.
Early windows are narrow,
flush with the external wall,
and deeply splayed on the
inside. Later windows are re-
cessed externally, with jamb-
shafts and capitals supporting
an enriched moulded arch. A
few semi-circular rose windows
ri emuixame/. still remain, of which a fine
The 6R 5 T (ua\ih •

example is be found
to in
Wtt.Ce T PCRJOD •

Barfrestone Church, Kent.

39
 EARLY ENGLISH OR LANCET PERIOD.
The Lancet or pointed arch universal.
Capitals, of three lobed foliage and circular abacus. The pier
arch mouldings, alternate rounds and hollows deeply cut and enriched
with the characteristic dog’s tooth ornament. A hood moulding
which terminates in bosses of foliage or sculptured heads invariably
surrounds the arch mouldings. This moulded hood when used ex-
ternally is termed a “ Dripstone,” and when used horizontally over
a square headed window, a “ Label.”
The TRIFORIUM has a single or double arch, which covers the
smaller or subordinate arches, the spandrels being enriched with a
sunk or pierced trefoil or quatrefoil. The Triforium piers are solid,
having delicate shafts attached to them, carrying arch mouldings of
three orders, and enriched with the dog’s tooth ornament or trefoil
foliage.
The Clearstory lancet windows are in triplets, with an arcading
on the inner face of the wall. The vaulting shaft occasionally springs
from the floor, but more usually from a corbel above the nave capitals,
and finishes under the clearstory string with an enriched capital, from
which springs the simple vaulting usually quadripartite or hexapartite
in form. Early windows in small churches were arranged in couplets,
and at the east end, usually in triplets, with grisaille stained glass.
The example given on the previous page from the east end of
Rievaulx Abbey shows a finely proportioned window and its arrange-
ment. Figure sculpture, beautiful and refined in treatment, was fre-
quently used upon external walls.
The figures of Saints and Bishops were placed singly under
triangular pediments and cusped arches, of which there are fine
examples at Wells, Lichfield, Exeter, and Salisbury (fig. 5, plate 18).
Splendid examples of circular rose windows are to be seen in the
north and south transepts of Lincoln Cathedral, also at York, but
they are comparatively rare in England, while France possesses over
100 of the finest and most important examples of this type. They
are to be seen in the Cathedrals of Notre Dame, Rouen, Chartres,
and Rheims.

DECORATED OR GEOMETRIC PERIOD.

In this, the piers have engaged shafts, with capitals having plain
mouldings, or enriched with finely carved foliage of the oak, maple,
or mallow, seen in perfection at Southwell Minster, which contains
the finest carving of this period —
1280-1315 (plate 18). The pier
arches have mouldings of three orders, also enriched, usually with the
characteristic ball, flower, or foliage, similar to that upon the capitals.
The Triforium consists of double arches, with subordinate cusped
arches adorned with Geometric tracery. The inner arcading of the
Clearstory is absent, the one large window being divided by mullions
40
 THE TRIFORIUM & CLEARSTORY. Plate 15,

1 i 70 R.<DAr? 2 LiAr?ceT 3 eeoroeTRic"th 4 peRPer?Dicu[ifiR-

FOUR BflY6 OF TYPIC^Li er?©LcI6H C£lTHeDR.<4liS 12 to -me 15™ CCPTO RY
and geometrical tracery, or by equilateral triangles enriched with
circularand bar tracery (fig. 3, plate 15). Above the pier capitals an
enriched corbel is usually placed from which springs the vaulting
shafts,terminating with a richly carved capital under the Clearstory
string. The aisle arcading, as a rule, is very beautiful, having geo-
metric tracery and finely proportioned mouldings, the aisle windows
with mullions and bold geometric tracery. The circular rose windows
of the transepts are typical of this period.

PERPENDICULAR AND TUDOR.

The PIERS of this style are lofty and enriched with shallow
mouldings carried round the pier arch, where capitals are introduced.
They frequently resemble a band round the pier at the springing of
the arch, or occasionally they are octagonal in form, and decorated
with an angular treatment of the vine. In some instances the upper
part of the plain octagonal capital is relieved with an embattlement.
The latter is also frequently used as a cresting for the elaborate per-
pendicular screens, or for relieving the clearstory strings, or on the
transoms or the lofty windows.
The Triforium is absent in this period, the bay consisting of two
horizontal divisions only. The CLEARSTORY, owing to the sup-
pression of the Triforium, becomes of more importance. The windows
are large and often in pairs, with vertical mullions extending to the
arch mouldings of the window head. The aisle windows are similar,
and when lofty have horizontal transoms, on which the battlement
ornament is displayed. The aisle arcading being also suppressed, all
plain wall space was covered with perpendicular surface tracery.
Enrichment of this type was used in the greatest profusion upon walls,
parapets, buttresses, and arches, also upon the jambs and soffits of
doorways. This, together with the use of the four-centred arch, forms
the characteristic feature of the Perpendicular or Tudor period.
The remarkable growth of the Gothic style during the 13th and
14th centuries was contemporary in England, France, Flanders,
Germany, and in a less degree in Italy. One of the most beautiful
churches in Italy is S. Maria della Spina, at Pisa, with its rich •

crocheted spires and canopies, features which were repeated a little

later at the tomb of the famous Scaligers at Verona. Gothic is
differentiated by the use of the ogee arch with cusps and pierced
quatrefoils.
At Venice there are many
magnificent examples of Gothic archi-
tecture, remarkable grouping of the windows,
for the beautiful central
arcades, and balconies and the prevalence of the ogee arch, with
cusps and pierced quatrefoils and rich foliated capitals. The fa£ade
of the Doge’s Palace, with its great colonnade of 36 pillars with rich
foliated capitals (see Ruskin’s “ Seven Lamps of Architecture,”
plate V.), and the Porta della Carta, or entrance, with its magnifi-
42
cent doorway flanked by figures and canopies and surmounted by a
traceried window, and gable enriched with exquisitely carved crockets
and finials of foliage and figures, are by Bartolommeno Buon
(1420-71), who also built the Foscari Palace. Other examples are
the Casa, or Ca d’oro, and the Palazzi Pisani, Conterini Fasan, and
Danieli, each with beautiful grouping of windows, pierced quatrefoil,
and rich balconies.
It was in France and England that Gothic architecture reached
its culmination. The abbeys and cathedrals, with spires and towers
enriched with vigorous and beautiful sculpture, arcadings and cano-
pies, with cusps, crockets, and finials, and the splendid traceried
windows, filled with glorious stained glass, are all tributes to the
religious zeal and splendid craftsmanship of the middle ages.
The west fronts of the larger cathedrals of France have deeply-
recessed triple porches, covered with figure sculpture (page 53),
magnificent towers with lofty open tracery, as at Amiens and
Rheims, and splendid rose windows, as those of Chartres (an early
example of plate tracery), Rheims, Amiens, and the Cathedral and
S. Ouen at Rouen, the two latter with rich flamboyant tracery.
French cathedrals are invariably of the periapsidal plan, with the
semi-circular eastern ambulatory, surrounded by three or five radia-
ting chapels. Aisle chapels also are frequently introduced between
the bases of the flying buttresses, giving a greater width across the
church. In early cathedrals, the triforium chamber, or upper aisle
and its arcade, was similar to English examples but early in the
;

13th century the triforium gallery was reduced to the thickness of

the nave wall, and the outer arcading glazed. Later, the triforium,
with its glazed arcading, became merged into the great clearstory
windows, with their wealth and glory of coloured glass.
English cathedrals show a marked contrast in scale to contem-
porary French buildings. The English nave and choir are less in
height and width but greater in length than French cathedrals. For
instance, Westminster is the highest of our English cathedrals, with
its nave and choir 103 ft. from floor to roof, 30 ft. wide, and 505 ft.
in length. York is next with 101 ft. from floor to roof, 45 ft. wide,
and 486 ft. in length. Salisbury is 84 ft. from floor to roof, 32 ft.
wide, and 450 ft. in length and Canterbury 80 ft. from floor to roof,
;

39 ft. wide, and 514 ft. in length. Lincoln with 82 ft. and Peter-
borough with 81 ft. are the only other examples reaching 80 ft. in
height: York, with 45 ft, being the only one reaching above 40 ft.
in width of nave. The measurements of contemporary French
cathedrals, on the other hand, being as follows: — Chartres, 106 ft.
from floor to roof, 46 ft. wide, and 415 ft. in length; Notre Dame,
1 12 ft. from floor to roof, 46 ft. wide, and 410 ft. in length;
Rheims,
123 ft. from floor to roof, 41 ft. wide, and 485 ft. in length; while
that at Beauvais reaches the great height of 153 ft. in the nave,
45 ft. in width, and only 263 ft. in length.
43
NORMAN DETAILS. Plate 1 6.

44
 ORMAN ORNAMENT.
Norman Architecture was distinguished by the use
of the traditional semi-circular arch, superseded by
the pointed arch of the early Gothic period. These
semi-circular arches in the earlier dates were
decorated with rudely executed carvings, cut or
worked with the axe. Later Norman work is very rich, the mouldings
being well carved with enrichments of the Chevron, the Cable, Pallet,
Star, Fret or Key Patterns ;
the lozenge and the beading or pearling.
Characteristic features of this period also are the beakhead (fig. 5),
and the corbel-table, which was a series of heads of men or animals,
from which spring small arches supporting the parapet. Many rich
examples of Norman surface ornament are still extant at Christ-
;

church, Hants, a beautiful intersecting arcading of semi-circular arches

occurs, the enrichment above being a scale or imbricated pattern ;
at
St. Peter’s, Northampton, a very rich example of surface ornamenta-
tion may be seen (fig. 6).
Floral forms are but rarely used in Norman ornament instances
;

are known of the use of the rose and the fir-apple, but they are the
exception and not the rule.
Early doorways usually have a square head recessed under semi-
circular arch mouldings, decorated with the Chevron, Key, or Beak-
head. The semi-circular Tympanum over the door was plain or
enriched with rude sculpture in low relief. Later doors show a great
profusion of ornament in the archivolt and arch mouldings, which are
often carried down the jamb mouldings. The recessed columns are
also enriched with the Chevron, or diagonal lines of pearling (fig. 1),
and have sculptured capitals showing a classical tendency in the
arrangement of acanthus foliage and the volute. Fine examples of
this period may be seen in the west front of Lincoln Cathedral (fig. 1 ),
the Galilee porch at Durham, and the west door of Iffley Church,
Oxfordshire. A fine, deeply recessed semi-circular Norman doorway
is at Tutbury Church, having a richly recessed window over, now

filled with flamboyant tracery.

Early Norman Capitals are usually cubical or cushion-shaped, with
a square or cruciform abacus, or occasionally octagonal as at Durham,
or circular as at Gloucester, and enriched with the Chevron, Star, or
Anthemion. The capitals being escalloped with segments of circles,
or enriched with Volutes or the Anthemion. Early examples are in
the White Tower, and St. Bartholomew, London. Later Capitals,
usually rich in ornamentation, are found at St. Peter’s, Northampton
and Wooton, or more frequently that have interlacing bands of orna-
ment and animals others with figures or “ Storied Capitals,” as in
;

the North Porch, Wells.

—
In the transition period —
end of 12th century Capitals were con-
cave or bell-shaped, with foliage of the serrated water-leaf type clinging
to the bell and turning up under the abacus, forming a Volute. This
foliage was varied in type and vigorous in technique. Fine examples
are at Christ Church, Oxford, and at Canterbury Cathedral.
45
EARLY GOTHIC DETAILS Plate

46
 ARLY GOTHIC.
The Norman style was succeeded by the pointed, or
GOTHIC style, remarkable for its variety, its beauty of
proportion, and the singular grace and vigour of its

ornament. Showing no traditions, beyond Sicilian

and Arabian influence, it grew rapidly, and reached
a high degree of perfection in France and England. The massive
and barbaric character of the Norman style gave place to the light
clustered shafts and well-proportioned mouldings of the early English
Gothic, with its capitals characterised by a circular abacus, and the
typical three-lobed foliage growing upwards from the necking of the
shafts, thence spreading out in beautiful curves and spirals under the
abacus. This tendency to the spiral line is peculiar to the early
Gothic, and differentiates it from the Decorated and Perpendicular
Period. The diagrams of the three crockets here given show the
distinctive character of English Gothic ornament.

CROCKer
CARJiY
<0°TblC

Early Gothic, three-lobed leaves

arranged in spiral lines. Decorated
Gothic, with natural types of foliage,
LiATe
©OTN such as the oak and maple, with a
flowing indulating line. Perpendicular
Gothic showing the vine and leaves as elements, and arranged in a
,

square and angular manner. The same features and characteristics

are observed in the borders here
given. The beautiful carved span-
dril from the Chancel Arcade,
Stone Church, Kent (fig. i), is one
of the most beautiful examples of
English ornament, remarkable for
the vigour and flexibility of curve,
its recurring forms of ornamen-
tation, and admirable spacing,
typical of much of our early Eng-
lish foliage from about 1170-1280.
The type of foliage in early
English stained glass is somewhat
similar to contemporary carved
work, but showing more of the
profile of the leaf, and it has a
geometric or radiating arrangement
in addition to the spiral forms of
foliage (plate 39), and the admir-
able spacing of the ornament shows
the skill in design that the mediaeval craftsman possessed.
47
 .

DECORATED GOTHIC DETAILS. Plate 1 8

CAPITALS FROM CHAPTER HOU5E. 50UTHWELL

48
 ECORATED OR GEOMETRIC
GOTHIC.
Decorated Gothic is remarkable for its geometric
tracery, natural types of foliage, and the undulat-
its

ing character of line and form, in its ornamental

details. The foliage of the oak, the vine, the maple, the rose, and
the ivy were introduced in much luxuriance and profusion, being
carved with great delicacy and accuracy. Lacking the dignity and
architectonic qualities of the early Gothic foliage, it surpassed it in
brilliancy and inventiveness of detail. The capitals, enriched with
adaptations from nature, carved with admirable precision, were simply
attached round the bell, giving variety and charm of modelling, but
lacking that unity which was so characteristic of early work.
The from Southwell are charac-
illustrations
teristicexamples of the richly-carved clustered
capitals of this period. The arch mouldings
were also enriched with foliage of a similar
type, and at the springing of the vaulting shaft
of the nave, beautiful carved corbels, such as
those at Exeter, were used, while the walls,
screens, and parapets, were diapered with low
relief carving.
Crockets and finials, which were introduced
in the early Gothic period, were now treated
with exceeding richness and used in the greatest
profusion. A characteristic example is given
here from Exeter Cathedral.
The Queen Eleanor crosses (erected 1291-4),
are perhaps the richest examples of the decorated
period, showing the exuberance of model-
ling and the versatility and skill of the
English craftsman in the finest period of
Naturalistic foliage (1280-1315).
The “ Ball Flower ” so characteristic of
the decorated period, replaced the equally
characteristic “Tooth Ornament” of the
preceding style, and was much used in
some buildings, even to excess — as in the
south aisle of Gloucester Cathedral. It is
found in the hollows round doorways, win-
dows, arches, and canopies, and it frequently alternates with the
“ Four-petalled Flower.”

49 D
PERPENDICULAR DETAILS. Plate 19.

CORNICE fROtt BL5HOP BECKItlGTON’3 3HRINE WELL) CATHEDRAL

2

TUDOR FLOWER WESTMINSTER. FROM UFFORD CHURCH SUFFOLK

FRIEZE FROM ROOD SCREEn

TRUPiCH CHURCH PIOLFOLK

1
~ ^
5CREEN TO
IACY CHAPEL
MAnCHESTER
CATHEDRAL
9
iR
agiCffl ggaigg aaQaaiM ag ill gtMgg 1

7 UPPER PART orSOUTH PORCH . LAVENHAM CHURCH.5UrFOLK

tiirnj \s®rol twironl ^Jinn3 \«iwbI ICwnuinl J Vimn3 ViJujiI

FIREPLACEIP! TATTER5HALL CASH

Q LinCOLnSHIRE 1433-55
f

50
 ERPENDICULAR GOTHIC.
Late or rectilinear Gothic is characterized by a
rigidity of line in construction and ornament. The
one exception is the beautiful fan-vaulting, such as
that in the cloisters at Gloucester Cathedral, and in
Henry VIII. Chapel at Westminster, which are not
approached by any Continental example for beauty of craftsmanship
or the scientific precision of their masonry. The many splendid towers,
having elaborate panelled tracery, and capped with pinnacles, open
parapets, and battlements, such as those at Wrexham and S. Mary’s,
Taunton, are also characteristic of this period. The windows, with
vertical mullions running to the window-head, which is frequently a
four-centred arch, have one or more transoms, enriched with battle-
ments or Tudor flowers, to divide the lofty windows horizontally
(plate 15). The many choir screens and stalls, with their canopies,
have panels, friezes, crestings, and finials, and are frequently carved
with an angular treatment of the vine and its tendrils, more or less
conventionalized (figs. 1-7), the Tudor flower being perhaps the most
prevalent. The freedom and flexibility of the modelling and carving
of the middle period of Gothic, was replaced by a stiff symmetrical
arrangement of foliage, and the painted diapers succeeded the carved
ones of the earlier
period. The terminals
of the ends of pews
were frequently en-
riched with foliated
“ Poppy-heads,” often
of great beauty.
Heraldic forms, such
as shields, with their
supporters, together
with badges and
crests, were largely
associated with the
ornament in the richer
buildings of this per-
iod, such as King’s
College Chapel at Cambridge, and Henry VI II.’s Chapel at West-
minster.
The piers of the nave are usually rectangular or lozenge in section,
consisting of a few rounds and double ogee moulds, which are fre-
quently carried round the arch without the intervening capital or ;

an octagonal capital, with the typical square foliated ornament, is

carried by some of the round members of the pier or a series of
;

moulded without enrichment, is employed.

capitals, The only
enrichment in the hollows of the strings and arch-mouldings is a
four-petalled flower, alternate square and circular (figs. 7 and 8).
51
FRENCH GOTHIC Plate 20

52
 ;

RENCH GOTHIC.
French cathedrals show a marked contrast in scale
and enrichment to those of England, being wider,
shorter, and higher in proportion, and the sculpture
bolder, more profuse, and larger in scale than in con-
temporary English cathedrals. The principal door-
ways are also on a large scale, and are usually enriched with
numerous statues, placed under canopies, which cover the whole of
the recessed arch whilst the cen-
;

tral pier of the door, carrying the

figure of the Madonna or a bishop,
supports the tympanum (the space
within the arch), which is also cov-
ered with horizontal bands of sculp-
ture. The figure sculpture of the
late 13th and early 14th centuries
has considerable skill of composi-
tion, and well-arranged draperies
broad and simple in mass, and
vigorous in execution.
The gables of the doors are fre-
quently enriched with crockets and
finials, or with beautiful open tracery
— as in the west doors of Rouen
Cathedral. The Cathedral of Amiens
has a delightful series of sculptured
reliefs of Biblical subjects, called the
Bible of Amiens, enclosed within
quatre-foil panels, which extends
across the lower part of the facade.
The early relief ornament of the
13th century is remarkable for its
vigorous carving and boldness of
relief. It differs from contemporary English work in having a
rounder formof leaf, divided into lobes, with strongly-marked
radiating mid-ribs (compare fig. 1, plate 20, with fig. 1, plate 17).
The capitals, with the foliage clinging closely to the bell (fig. 3),
have not the spiral tendency that characterized English ornament
of the same period. The abacus is generally square (page 153),
and the clustered pillars and the bell-shaped moulded capitals,
without foliage, which are typical of English work, are almost un-
known in France. In the 14th century, the foliage, like contemporary
carving in England, is naturalistic (figs. 4 and 5, plate 20, and page
1
57), with a ribbed tool-mark following the direction of the leaf.
Among the many splendid examples of the 15th century, or flam-
boyant period, are the stalls of Amiens (fig. 2), where flowing tracery
is intermingled with rich cusped-arches, open gables, and crocketed

pinnacles.
53
RENASCENCE ORNAMENT Plate 2 i

INCHES

ENAMELLED TEPsj\A -COTTA OfC DELLA RQB&IAWAAE

BYLUCA DELLA F\OBBlA, 14-50
IN TH^ CHUKCH OF 5 ONOPKIO WOKEjL
PAINTED OAMAMENT EAON THE DUCAL PALACE NVANTUA
BY GIOVANMI DA UDINE AMDJULIO FCOMANO
1530

54
 —

ENASCENCE ARCHITECTURE
& ORNAMENT.
Lombardy, in the north of Italy, had witnessed a
singular blending of the old classic art with the
vigorous traditions and myths of the Longobards,
and the symbolisms of the old Byzantine thus ;

producing the architecture known as Lombardic, with its multiplicity

of small columns and arches, quaint imagery of sculpture, and the
frequent use of a lion or dragon as a support for the columns. These
are features of the early art at Lucca, and at Bergamo, Padua, Verona,
and other towns in Lombardy (see Romanesque, page 33); a beautiful
illustration from Lucca is given in the appendix to Ruskin’s “ Stones
of Venice,” Vol. 1. Contemporary with this period came the Gothic
influence with its clustered columns, pointed arches, its cusps and
crockets, and its strong vitality, impressing the arts and architecture
with a lasting influence; hence, during the 12th and 13th cen-
turies in Italy, this intermingling of styles, traditions, religious beliefs
and myths, produced an art barbaric and vigorous in character, the
imagery full of suggestiveness, and the detail rich and varied in con-
ception. Yet it was but the herald of a style which culminated in
the glorious epoch of the Renascence, a style where symmetry was
to play an important part, as in classic art, where refinement of line
and detail, of culture and craftsmanship, are found and which, though
;

beautiful in proportion, unity of parts, and perfect adaptability, yet

lacked that symbolism, suggestiveness, inventiveness and rugged
strength of the early Byzantine, Lombardic, and Gothic styles.
Italian Renascence is broadly divided into three periods, viz. :

The tre-cento, or transitional, A.D. 1300-1400; the quattro-cento,

1400-1500; and the cinque-cento, 1500-1600.
In the tre-cento period the sculpture and decorative arts are marked
by dignity of conception, and a mingling of Gothic and classic tradi-
tions. One of the earliest examples is the hexagonal pulpit in the
Baptistery at Pisa, and in the Cathedral at Siena, by Nicolo Pisano
(1206-76), where sculptured panels distinctly classic in treatment, are
associated with cusped Gothic arches. Nicolo also executed the
beautiful octagonal fountain at Perugia, and was assisted in much of
his work by his son Giovanni Pisano, who also executed the pulpit
in the Cathedral at Pisa.
A fine monumental work of this period having similar characteristics,
is the tomb of Peter the Martyr, in the Church of S. Eustovgio,
S.
at Milan, by Balducco
di Pisa (1308-47).
In the architecture of this period, Gothic forms prevail, together
with the use of panelling of white and grey marble, lofty pilasters,
pinnacles and gables, enriched with a geometric patterning of marbles
or mosaic, and a frequent use of the slender twisted pillar.
55
 The Cathedral at Florence, with its panelling, pointed arches, and
rich tracery, was by Arnolfo di Cambio (died 1300), and Francesco
Talenti, who completed the nave, choir, and apses in 1321. Arnolfo
and Talenti were also the architects for the Church of Santo Croce
(1294-1442), and the Palazzo Vecchio, Florence, (1290), where, in
1434, Michelozzo added the beautiful cortile, and C. Salviati and De
Faenza, pupils of Vasari, enriched the circular and octagonal pillars
with beautiful stucco ornamentation (fig. 2. plate 22), in 1 565.
The beautiful campanile by Giotto (1336), Andrea Pisano, and
Francesco Talenti, who introduced the upper Gothic windows, is a
noble accessory to the Cathedral of Florence. A charming illustration
of one of these windows is given in the “Seven Lamps of Architecture,”
by John Ruskin.
In 1283 Arnolfo introduced some Prato marble pilasters at the
angles of “ San Giovanni,” the octagonal Florentine Baptistery, an
ancient building where many of the great citizens of the Republic
received their baptism, and it was here that Dante was baptised in
May, 1265.
The last of the tre-cento masters was Andrea Pisano (1270-1345),
who made the first bronze gate of “ San Giovanni,” or the Baptistery
of Florence. This gate has 28 quatre-foil panels in relief, and bears
the inscription “ANDREAS UGOLINI NINI ME FECIT, A.D. MCCCXXX.”
The true Renascence or quattro-cento period is remarkable for
the vitality of the arts, and the naturalism and versatility of its crafts-
men. Brunelleschi (1377-1446), is the first architect (page 64), and
Lorenzo Ghiberti (1381-1465) the ornamentist and sculptor, whose
chief works are the two bronze gates for the Florentine Baptistery.
The first gate (1403-24), has 28 quatre-foil panels similar to the

56
one by Andrea Pisano, and the last gate (1425-59), has 10 rectangular
panels with incidents from the Old Testament in high relief
(plate 43).
The styles or framework of these have a series of single
gates,
figures in niches with circular medallionsbetween them.
The bronze architrave round each of the Ghiberti gates and the
earlier gate by Andrea Pisano, are rich examples of quattro-cento
design. The details are natural fruits, flowers and foliage, banded
together with ribbons, with the introduction of birds, squirrels, etc.
The egg-plant and pomegranate portion (fig. 1) is a familiar example.
Other masters of this period were Jacopo della Quercia (1371-1438),
who executed the beautiful monument shown on the previous page,
to Ilaria di Carretto, in the Cathedral at Lucca. The recumbent
figure of Ilaria is sculptured in white marble with perfect simplicity and
beauty; another famous work of Jacopo, was the fountain at Siena.

THE “CANTORIA,” OR SINGING GALLERY, BY DONATELLO.

Luca della Robbia (1400-82), executed a beautiful organ gallery

in marble for the Cathedral at Florence (1431-40), now in the
museum of the Opera del Duoir.o, Florence, with admirable singing
and dancing figures, in relief. Donatello (1386-1466), was remark-
able for the singular grace and sincerity of his portraiture, especially
of children. The dancing figures in relief on the panels of the
singing gallery of the Cathedral of Florence are perfect examples
of his art.
This frieze of children is a delightful example of one phase of
Donatello’s craftsmanship, showing the vitality and exuberance of
his conception. The peculiar relief, called “ stacciato” of the figures,
57
 which shows a series of almost flat
surfaces, upon which is carved exqui-
sitely delicate reliefs, contrasted with an
abrupt contour giving strongly-marked
shadows, is typical of much of Dona-
tello’s relief-work. An illustration is

also given of the famous S. George,

from the Gothic church or oratory of
Or San Michele, Florence. This church
has niches and canopies on the exter-
nal walls, each with its statue by great
quattro-cento masters. Three statues
in marble of S. Peter (1412), S. Mark
(1412), and S. George (1415), are by
Donatello ;
marble, S. Philip
three in
(1408), Four Crowned Martyrs, and S.
Eligius (1415), by Nanni di Banco; S.
John (1415) and S. Matthew (1422), in
bronze, by Ghiberti Christ and S.
;

Thomas (1483), bronze, by Verrochio;

and S. Luke (1601), in bronze, by
Giovanni da Bologne.
The Monastery of San Marco is one
of the remarkable buildings in Florence.
Built 1437-50 by Michelozzo for
in
Cosimo de Medici, it was enriched
with the most beautiful frescoes by
Fra Angelico (1387-1455).
Savonarola, the great preacher and
reformer, was Prior of San Marco from
1489-98.
The art of the medallist, which had
declined since the Roman period, now
S. GEORGE, BY DONATELLO.
took its position among the arts of
the quattro-cento period, under Vittore
Pisano, called Pisanello (1380-1451). The vigour of his modelling

RELIEFS FROM THE SINGING GALLERY, BY DONATELLO, IN THE MUSEUM OF THE

OPERA DEL DUOMO, FLORENCE.

58
RENASCENCE ORNAMENT. Plate 22

I RCUCF OR-nAMEHT > m MAfVBLE . .SCHOOL. LOM&AFeDI VEMICE. . 1500.

MARBl.e rOHT
BY Pit mo LOn&AWJO 1-

MARjbLE FANElL in THE CHURCH Of 5AT1TA MAKja ..w^noe Wschool

Utf PAMCL FIW 3T n.CHtLC. VCMlCE
.

SRMTa m\aj>ia
OP LOMBARDI 16™ CEnTuKY.'
j

! DE MlflvACOLl, VENICE 1500 BY PIETRO LOMBAfMXJ.

AND HIS 50N5,TULLIC AMD ANTONIO. Dt'PMKAtni t,
vcmice

59
 ;

and the individuality of hismedals of the contemporary princes of

Italy, are exceedingly fine. Among other remarkable medallists,
were Sperandio of Verona (1423-90), Caradossa of Milan (1480-
1545), Vincentine of Vicenza (1468-1546), Benvenuto Cellini of
Florence (1500-71), Lione Leoni (1498-1560), Pompeoni Leoni
(1530-1610), and Pastorino of Siena (15 10-91).
Other names of this period were Desiderio da Settignano (1428-
64), his masterpiece being the tomb of Carlo Marzuppini, in the
Church of Santa Croce, Florence; Mino da Fiesole (1430-84, see
frontispiece); Andrea Verrocchio (1435-88), the author of the fine
equestrian statue of Bartolommeo Colleone at Venice (see Bronzes)
Matteo Civitali (1435-1 501) and the Rossellini, a remarkable family
;

of five brothers, of which the most famous was Antonio Rossellini

(1427-79), who executed a charming tomb to Cardinal Jacopo di
Portogallo, in the Church of the Nunziata, Florence.
The cinque-cento period was the culmination of the Renascence,
when architecture, sculpture, painting, and the decorative arts, were
under the magnificent patronage of the popes and princes of Italy.
Palaces, churches, and public buildings were completed (see Renas-
cence Architecture, pages 64-67), and embellished with beautiful
sculptures and decorations hung with the most sumptuous fabrics
;

of the Venetian, Florentine, and Genoese looms; decorated with

altar paintings and mural decorations by the most renowned of
painters and enriched with the magnificent productions of the gold
;

and silversmiths’ art, and the loveliest of intarsia, or inlaid woodwork.

The Sistine chapel, built for Sixtus
IV., in 1473, by Baccio Pintelli, is
decorated with fresco paintings on
the walls by the great cinque-cento
masters, Luca Signorelli (1441-1 524),
Sandro Botticelli (1447-15 15), Cos-
imo Rosselli (1439-1506), Perugino,
the master of Raphael (1446-1524),
Domenico Ghirlandajo (1449-98), and
Michel Angelo (1475-1564), who
painted “The Last Judgment,” on
the end wall, and the famous ceiling,
with incidents from the Old Testa-
ment, and with the prophets Joel,
Ezekiel, Jeremiah, Jonah, Daniel,
Isaiah, and Zechariah, and the sibyls
Erithraea, Lybica, Cumaea,
Perscia,
and Delphica. These are splendid examples of decorative painting,
where unity and dignity of conception, powerful draughtsmanship,
and marvellous execution are shown in a remarkable degree.
The New Sacristy of San Lorenzo, Florence, designed and executed
by Michel Angelo, having the magnificent tombs of Lorenzo and
60
 Guiliano de Medici,
with the reclining
figures of Dawn and
Twilight, Day and
Night, show his re-
markable versatility,
power, and concep-
tion of art.
Contemporary with
Michel Angelo was
Raphael (1483-1520),
who displayed the
highest capacity for
grace and refinement
in painting. His
chief decorative
works are in the
Stanze of the Vati-
can, a series of four
rooms. His first
Mural painting here
was the “ Disputa ”
(1508), in the Cam-
era della Segnatura,
followed by the
“ Poetry, Philosophy,
or School of Athens”
and “Jurisprudence,”
tomb of lorenzo de medici. ceiling being
painted with figures and arabesques by Sodoma (Bazzi). The
Stanza of Heliodorus (1514) has the “ Expulsion of Heliodorus from
the Temple,” “ Miracle of Bolsena,” “ Leo I. and Attila,” and the
“
Deliverance of S. Peter.” In the Stanza Incendio del Borgo (1517),
are the “ Incendio del Borgo Vecchio,” the “Justification of Leo III.,
before Charlemagne,” the “Coronation of Charlemagne by Leo III.,”
and the “Victory of Leo IV. over the Saracens.” Perino del Vaga
(1500-47) and Giovanni da Udine (1 494-1 564) assisted Raphael in
the last two paintings.
The Mural paintings for the Sala of Constantine, were designed
and commenced by Raphael, but were carried out by his pupils,
Giulio Romano (1492-1546), Francesco Penni (1488-1528), and
Rafifaelle del Colle. The Loggie of the Vatican, by Bramante,
was also decorated by Raphael and his pupils. The then-recent
discoveries of the baths of Titus and house of Livia, with their
Roman Mural painting, influenced in a remarkable degree the
decorative painting of the cinque-cento period. These arabesques
— or as they were termed grotteschi being found in the grottos of
,

61
Roman gardens —
were utilised by Raphael in the decoration of the
and walls of the Loggie. The designs were painted
pilasters, piers,
with a fine range of colour upon white ground, and enclosed within
borders of modelled stucco ornaments. In the panels upon the ceil-
ing, Raphael painted a
series of fifty-two in-
cidents of the Bible.
These are spoken of
as “ Raphael’s Bible.”
Raphael was assisted in
this work by many con-
temporary artists and
pupils ;
Giovanni da
Udine, Giulio Romano,
Francesco Penni, Per-
ino del Vaga, and Pri-
maticcio (1490-1580,)
who completedthe work
after Raphael’s death.
These artists carried the
traditions and methods
to other parts of Italy.
Giulio Romano execu-
ted some fine Mural
paintings at the Villa
Madama, Rome and
;

for Federigo Gonzaga,

Duke of Mantua, he
enriched with beautiful
paintings and arabesques the Palazzo Ducale, and the Palazzo del
Te. These arabesques were upon richly-coloured or parti-coloured
grounds (see plates 86-9, “ Grammar of Ornament,” by Owen Jones).
Perino del Vaga carried the art to Genoa, where at the Palazzo
Andrea Doria he executed many admirable examples of coloured
arabesques (see plates 43-9, “ Palast-Architakur, Genua”).
These painted arabesques show a great inventiveness and skilful
combination of parts, but they are not to be compared with the
refined and beautiful modelling, and harmonious composition of the
contemporary carved reliefs by Andrea Sansovino (1460-1528),
Jacopo Sansovino (1486-1570), Agostino Busti, Pietro Lombardo
(1500), and his sons, Tullio and Antonio. These delicate reliefs
have the traditional Roman acanthus, but treated with a refined
feeling for modelling, and beauty and symmetry of line and mass.
In many examples, vases, masks, shields, and similar accessories
are found in profusion (plate 19). The composition of the cinque-
cento ornament is usually symmetrical, the details being varied and
interesting in the best examples and whilst lacking the vigour and
;

62
symbolism of the Lombardic and Byzantine styles, it excelled them
in its absolute adaptation to architectural conditions, with perfection
of design and craftsmanship.
Magnificent examples of decoration by Pinturicchio are in the
Sala Piccolomini, Siena, and by Perugino in the Sala del Cambio,
Perugia, where some of the earliest painted arabesques are upon a
dark ground.
Andrea Mantegna ( 1 43 1 - 1 5 1 7) executed nine paintings or cartoons
in tempera upon linen, representing
the triumphs of Julius Caesar, which
are a portion of a frieze 9 ft. high
and 80 ft. long, painted for Lodovico
Gonzaga’s Palace of S. Sebastian, at
Mantua. They were purchased by
Charles I., and are now at Hampton
Court. An illustration of this frieze,
from an engraving upon copper in
the British Museum, is given here.
It was also engraved on wood by
Andrea Andreani in 1599.
To Mantegna is also ascribed
the illustrations to the “ Hypnero-
tomachia, or Dream of Poliphilus,”
printed in 1499, at Venice, by Aldus
Manutius.
Good reproductions of many of
these early illustrated books are given in the Book
“ Italian

Illustrations,” by A. W. Pollard, No. 12 of the Portfolio, December

1894; and in “The Decorative Illustration of Books,” by Walter
Crane.
The study of classical architecture was stimulated by the publica-
tion at Rome, in i486, of the treatise by Vitruvius, an architect of
the time of Augustus ;
an edition was also published at Florence in
1496, and at Venice in 1511. In 1570, Fra Giocondo, at Venice,
published “ The Five Books of Architecture,” by Andrea Palladio
(1518-80). Another treatise upon architecture, by Serlio (1500-52),
was also published at Venice in 1537 and 1540.
Beautiful types of the Renascence decorative art were the Venetian
well-heads, situated as they were in most of the public squares of
Venice, and in many of the court-yards of her princely palaces.
Designed with details of the most varied and beautiful character
by such artists as Andrea Sansovino, Pietro Lombardo, and his
sons Tullio and Antonio, the Venetian well-head became a type of
beauty, diversified in its treatment, but never losing its character-
istics or its usefulness. Venetian well-heads display a great variety
of form and decoration, and are a tribute to the vivacity and artistic
feeling of the Venetian Republic.
63
 ;

The Renascence in Italy was distinguished by the many magni-

ficent ecclesiasticaland secular buildings erected during the 15th and
1 6th centuries in the chief cities in Italy. Florence was the first to
show activity, and with Brunelleschi (1377-1446), the history of
Renascence architecture commences. The great dome of the
Cathedral (1420-34), the Pazzi Chapel (with a fine frieze of cherubs’
heads by Donatello and Settigiano) at S. Croce (1420), and the
Church of S. Lorenzo (1425), were his first works, and were followed
by S. Spirito (1433) and the Pitti Palace.
The severe dignity of the bold rusticated stone work, which was
usually varied in each story, the circular-headed windows, and
cornices of great depth and projection, became the type of the
early palaces of Florence and Siena.
The first Renascence palace was the Riccardi, built for Cosimo de
Medici, in 1430, by Michelozzi : and it was followed by the Pitti
(1435) and the Quaratesi (1442), by Brunelleschi; the Rucellai
(1451), by Leon Battista Alberti (1404-72), where pilasters with
their entablature were used for the first time in a Renascence fa£ade
the Strozzi (1489), by M. da Majano and Cronaca the Gondi (1490),
;

by G. da Sangallo the Guadagni (1490), with sgraffito decorations

;

in grey and white plaster; and the Nicolini, by Bramante (1444-

1514); the Pandolfini (1520), by Raphael; and the Bartolini (1520),
by Baccio d’Agnolo. The plan of these palaces was usually a rect-
angle, having an internal cortile, with open arcades on the ground
floor, the next floor having windows, while the upper story was
frequently open.
64
 3 ;

THE FARNESE PALACE, ROME.

In Rome the -palaces were characterized by largeness of scale, the

frequent use of the pilaster or attached super-imposed columns, and
square-headed windows, with triangular or segmental pediments.
The plan is rectangular, with a cortile of one or more stories of open
arcades of semi-circular arches, springing direct from the capital, as
in the Cancelleria Palace.
Thechief palaces are the Cancelleria (1495) and the Giraud (1503),
by Bramante (1444-15 14); the Farnesina (1511), the Massimi
(1529), and the Villa Ossoli (1525), by Baldassare Peruzzi (1481-
1 5 ^) the Palma and the Farnese (1517), by Antonio Sangallo
5

(1476-1546); the Villa Madama (1516), by Raffaello and Giulio

Romano; the Borghese (1 590), by Martino Lunghi the Laterano
;

(1586), by Fontana; and the Barberini (1626), by Maderna, Borro-

mini, and Bernini.
The chief ecclesiastical building is S. Peter’s (plan, plate 53,) com-
menced in 1450 by Alberti and Rossellino for Pope Nicolas V.
then carried on by Bramante and San Gallo (1503), Raphael and
Peruzzi (1514-20), Antonio da San Gallo (1534), Michel Angelo
(1546), Vignola (1556), Giacomo della Porta (1590), and Carlo
Maderna (1608). In 1627 S. Peter’s was dedicated by Urban
VIII., and in 1667 the colonnade in the piazza was erected by
Bernini.
65 E
 THE PALAZZO VENDRAMINI, VENICE, BY PIETRO LOMBARDO.

The architecture of Venice is rich and varied in style, and the

great palazzi of the Byzantine, Gothic, and Renascence periods bear
tribute to the versatility and skill of the Venetian architects and
craftsmen.
The Renascence period may be said to commence with Pietro
Lombardo, who built Santa Maria dei Miracoli (1480), a building
remarkable for the singular grace and refinement of the internal
carved enrichments. Another work by Lombardo was the Spinelli
Palace (1480), which has mullioned windows, grouped centrally as
in the Gothic palace. This feature, together with the use of pilasters
or attached columns, became the type of the later Renascence
palaces, such as the Palazzo Vendramini, also by Pietro Lombardo.
Then followed the rebuilding of the court-yard of the Ducal Palace
by Antonio-Bregni (1485), which was completed in 1550 by Scar-
pagnino the Scuolo di San Marco (1485) by Martino Lombardo;
;

the Palazzo Cornaro (1532), La Zecca (1536), the Loggetta of the

Campanile (1540), destroyed by the falling of the Campanile in
1905, and the Library of S. Mark (1536), by Jacopo Sansovino;
the Grimani Palace (1549) by San Michel the Pesaro Palace (1650)
;

and the Church of Santa Maria della Salute (1631) by Baldassare

Longhena.
66
 PALAZZO VERZI, VERONA.

Andre Palladio (i518-80), of Vicenza, was the most famous of the

later architects of theRenascence. His chief works are the Basilica
Vicenza (1549)) which has a fine elevation of two super-imposed
orders of attached columns, with arched open-
ings and coupled columns in each story the ;

Valmarana (1556), the Chiericati (1560), and

the Tiene (1565) palaces; and the Teatro
Olimpico (1580); all of which are in
Vicenza.
In his later work, which is frequently built
of brick and stucco, he adopted the device
occasionally used by Peruzzi and San Michel,
of an attached column, with or without pede-
stal, reaching throughout the two stories of
the full height of the building, as in the Casa
del Diavolo.
Scamozzi (1552-1616), of Vicenza, suc-
ceeded Palladio. He built the Trissino at
Vicenza (1588), the Procuratie Nuove (1 584)
at Venice, and completed Palladio’s Church casa del diavolo.
of San Giorgio Maggiore at Venice.

67
 . , .

EARLY FRENCH RENASCENCE. Plate 23.

- _23 L

EROnToF COFFER PERIC)D<df LOU 15 XE CLUNY 1AU5EUM

s* t'*v. IKSi.' / ^

EARLY RENASCENCE SCREEN. CLUNYMUSEUM

T
CARVED WOOD PANEL PANELor DOOP S MACLOU
CLUNY /AU5EU M ROUEN. BY JEAN GOUJON

PANEL5 FROM LIMOGES CATHEDRAL.

68
 RENCH RENASCENCE.
It was just at the close of the 1 5th century that the
influence of the Italian Renascence began to be felt
upon the vigorous and beautiful Gothic art of France.
At first this influence was confined to the ornament,
while the chief constructive features were still of the
traditional Gothic (plate 23); but early in the 16th century the
French Renascence became a distinct style, uniting the vigour and
the exuberance of the flamboyant carving, with the classical refine-
ment of the Italian Renascence.
The monument to Charles VIII. (1499), the tomb of Francis, Due
de Bretagne, at Nantes, by Michel Colombe (1507), the tomb of
Louis XII. at S. Denis, by Jean Just (1519-27), and the exterior of
the choir and the north spire of Chartres Cathedral, by Jean Texier
(1514-27), are fine examples of the transitional period.
With the advent of the Italians, Rosso and Primaticcio, to the
court of Francis I., in 1 530, the true French Renascence commences,
and is usually divided into distinct periods, viz. :
—
1. Francois
Premier, 1515-47; 2. Henri Deux and Henri Quatre, 1547-1610;
3. Louis Treize, 1610-43; 4 * Louis Quatorze, 1643-1715; 5. Louis
Ouinze, 1715-74; 6. Louis Seize, 1774-89; and 7. The Empire,
1804-70.
—
Francois Premier. This period is remarkable for the eminent
Italians engaged by Francis I., in 1530, for the embellishment of the
Chateau Fontainebleau. Here the Salle Francis I. is enriched with
stucco and painted ornament by Primaticcio, and wood carving by
Siebecqi. The details of the ornament, though Italian in character,
still retain the squareness of the Gothic period, and are essentially

French in feeling.
The chateaux were characteristic examples of the early architecture.
That of Chambord (1526) has circular towers at the angles and flanking
the entrance, with a roof of cones, cupolas, and high dormer windows
and chimneys. A little later, pilasters were introduced, together
with the square-mullioned window and the high dormer windows
so characteristic of the earlier French Renascence. The Louvre
was commenced by Pierre Lescot (1510-78), who built the south-
west angle, and enriched with sculpture by Jean Goujon (1515-72),
who also executed the beautiful Fontaine des Innocents at Paris, in
1 5 5°> with low relief panels of draped figures.

—
The Henri Deux and Henri Quatre. The prevalence of
interlaced strap work, delicate reliefs, and the use of the cartouche ,

are characteristics of this style, as seen in the Salle Henri II. at

Fontainebleau, by Andronet du Cerceau. These features are also
seen in the Oiron pottery (plate 35), the geometrical interlacings and
arabesques of Grolier (plate 47), and the book illustrations of Orance
Fine, and of Jean Cousin — whose versatility is shown by his designs
69
LATE FRENCH RENASCENCE. Plate 24.

70
for stained glass for Sainte Chap-
elle at Vincennes, and the fine statue
of Admiral Chabot. Of the archi-
tecture of this period, the Tuileries
was commenced in i 564 by Phili-
bert de Lorme (1500-78), De Car-
reau and Duperie continued the
Louvre, and the Luxembourg was
built by De Brosse in 1611.
The Louis Treize. The —
beautiful tooled bindings by Nico-
las and Clovis Eve (plate 47), and
the delicate pointelle tooling by Le
Gascon, are fine examples of the
ornament of this period.
The Louis Quatorze. — The
Palace of Versailles, by Francois
(1598-1666) and Jules Mansard
(1645-1708), is the great repertory
of this period. It is enriched inter-
nally with coloured and gilded
stucco, paintings by Le Brun ( 1619-
90) and Mignard, magnificent
Gobelins’ tapestries, and decorative
furniture of tortoise-shell and brass
marquetry by Andre Boule. The
beautiful Rouen pottery, the splen-
did woven fabrics of Lyons (plate 50), and the decorative compositions
of Le Pautre, are some of the best examples of the period known
as the Barocque. A
fine example of the architecture is the colonnade
and south front of the- Louvre, by Claude Perrault (1666).
—
The Louis Quinze. The Rococo introduced in 1725 by Gilles
,

Marie Oppenord, was paramount in this period, and the ornament was
composed of the scroll, shell, and flowers, showing no restraint or
reticence in composition or in detail. Symmetry was avoided, and
brilliancy and playfulness of effect were sought for (plate 24). The
pastoral scenes by the painter Watteau (1684-1721), and the fine
inlaid furniture made by Jean Francois Ochen (1754-68) for Madame
de Pompadour, are some of the better examples of this period.
The Louis Seize is distinguished by its severity of line and
reticence of detail. Room decorations were frequently in white and
gold, with refined and delicately-painted or stucco ornament. Painted
panels by Fragonard and Boucher, and marquetry furniture by
Riesener and David Roentgen, with bronze or ormolu mountings by
Gouthiere, were executed for the court of Queen Marie Antoinette.
S. Genevieve (the Pantheon) by Soufflot (1755-81) represents the
architecture.
—
The Empire. Purely classical forms and enrichments prevailed,
more pretentious perhaps, but lacking the beauty, refinement, and
vitality of the Louis Seize.
1
7
ENGLISH RENASCENCE. Plate 25.

72
 NGLISH RENASCENCE.
I
The Renascence commenced in England in the
early part of the 16th century, about a hundred
I

years later than in Florence. The first important

j
work was the tomb of John Young, in terra cotta,
I in the Rolls’ Chapel, completed in 1516 by Pietro
Torrigiano, who also executed the fine tomb of Henry VII. (1512-18)
in Westminster Abbey. This consists of a rectangular sarcophagus of
black marble, on which rest the bronze effigies of the king and his
consort. On the sarcophagus are gilded bronze pilasters and circular
panels in relief, surrounded with wreaths of black marble (plate 25).
The tomb of Margaret, Countess of Richmond, and the high altar,
and baldachino of black and white marble in the Abbey are also by
Torrigiano.
Contemporary with Torrigiano was Benedetto da Rovezzano, of
Florence, who was commissioned by Cardinal Wolsey, in 1520, to
make a sarcophagus of black touch-stone, with a recumbent figure of
Wolsey in bronze. On the Cardinal’s fall, Henry VIII. commis-
sioned Rovezzano to alter and elaborate the work but it was left
;

incomplete, and in 1646 the bronze was sold, and this sarcophagus
became the resting-place of Nelson in 1806, and is now in S. Paul’s
Cathedral. Another Florentine, Giovanni di Majano, modelled some
terra-cotta medallions for Wolsey at Hampton Court (1521).
In the work of Hans Holbein (1488-1554, plate 25) the Italian
feeling is still retained, showing but little of the Gothic tradition ;

but in the middle of the century there came a marked change in the
ornamental details, the cartouche and strap work, features common
to the later French, Flemish, and German Renascence, becoming a
pronounced feature of the English Renascence (plate 25).
The chief buildings of the early Renascence are Charlecote (1558),
Longleat (1567), Kirby Hall (1570-75), Montacute House (1580),
Wollaton Hall (1580-88), Hardwicke Hall, and Haddon Hall (1592-
97). Of the Jacobean period there are Holland House (1607),
Hatfield (1611), Audley End (1616), Aston Hall (1620), and Blick-
ling Hall (1620), with their long galleries and rectangular mullioned
—
windows characteristic features of the Elizabethan and Jacobean
period. There are magnificent circular bay windows at Kirby Hall,
Burton Agnes (1602-10), and Filford Hall (1635), and fine octagonal
bays at Astley Hall.
The beautiful plaster ceilings, consisting of geometrical panelling,
fan-tracery, and pendentives were similar to those of the preceding
Gothic period. These richly-moulded pendentives were connected
together with bands of pierced strap-work, or moulded ribs with
arabesques in low relief. From 1615 to 1650 the panels were
composed of purely geometrical forms, such as circles, squares,
lozenges, and interlacing quatrefoils, with delicate arabesques. The
73
ENGLISH RENASCENCE. Plate 25

74
ribs frequently had a repeating pattern impressed while the plaster
was soft. Occasionally a double frieze was used, the lower having
delicate arabesques and strap-work, while the upper one had boldly-
marked cartouches and arabesques. One of the most important
examples of early Renascence plaster is the frieze in the presence
chamber, Hardwicke Hall. It is decorated with classical subjects,
such as Diana and her nymphs, surrounded with forest trees and
foliage. This frieze is 1 1 ft. in height, modelled in low relief,
delicately coloured, and is probably the work of Charles Williams.
With Inigo Jones (1573-1652) the purely Italian Renascence pre-
vailed. He was known from 1604-30 as the designer for the
elaborate scenery for the brilliant masques by Ben Jonson that
were performed by the nobles and court of that period. In 1622
Inigo Jones completed the Banqueting House, Whitehall, the only
portion of his great design which was carried out. He also designed
the Water Gate, York House, executed by his favourite carver,
Nicholas Stone, the earlier part of Greenwich Hospital, and the
great room at Wilton, with its fine mantelpiece and panelling.
Nicholas Stone was an expert and prolific carver. An extract
from his pocket-book is interesting, and throws some light on the
cost of sculpture:
— “1620. I made a monument, to be set up at
Westminster, of Mr. Francis Holies, the youngest son of the earl of
Clare, for which the sayd earl payed for it 50/. My lord of Clare also
agreed with me for a monument for his brother, Sir George Holies,
the which I made and sett up in the chappell at Westminster where
Sir Francis Vere lyeth buried, for the which I was payed from the
hands of the sayd earl of Clare 100/.”
The ornament of Inigo Jones is excellent in proportion, and Italian
in type. The decoration of the panels and friezes consisted of boldly-
designed festoons, masks, and shields. The plaster ceilings have
large rectangular, circular, or oval panels, with moulded ribs enriched
with arabesques, fruit, or flowers in high relief.
The work of Wren, which followed, is on similar lines, the propor-
tions being good, but the details are less refined in type, being largely
under the influence of Grinling Gibbons and his school. Their
wonderful technique and lack of restraint in the hands of less able
men degenerated into the mannerisms and looseness of style which
marked the later 17th and early 18th centuries.
The era of church building began with Sir Christopher Wren
(1632-1723) in 1666, after the great fire of London, in which old
S. Paul’s, ninety-three parish churches and chapels, the Exchange,
the Guildhall, and fifty of the City Companies’ halls were destroyed.
S. Mary-le-Bow (1680), S. Bride’s (1680), S. Clement Dane (1684),
and S. Stephen’s, Walbrook, illustrate some of the typical features
of the fifty-one parochial churches that he designed, and his master-
piece, S. Paul’s (1675-1710), is a noble example of English Renas-
cence (plan, plate 53). Wren also built portions of Hampton Court
75
ENGLISH RENASCENCE. Plate 26.

76
and Greenwich Hospital. Hawksmoor(1661-1736), a pupil of Wren,
built Christ Church, George’s-in-the-East (1723), Spitalfields
S.
Church (1729), and S. George’s, Bloomsbury (1730). Castle Howard
(1714) and Blenheim Palace are by Vanbrugh (1666-1726); S. Philip,
Birmingham (1710), by Archer; Burlington House (1717) by Camp-
bell, who also brought out his great work on English architecture,
“Vitruvius Britannicus,” Vol. I., 1715, Vol. II., 1717, Vol. III., 1725,
while Vols. IV. and V. were issued by Woolfe and Gandon in 1767.
This book gives introductory descriptions, with plans, elevations, and
sections of the chief English buildings erected between 1600-1750.
The Horse Guards (1742), Holkham (1734), and Devonshire House
(1734) were designed by Kent. S. Mary-le-Strand (1717), S.
Martin’s (1721), the Senate House, Cambridge (1730), and the
Radcliffe Library (1747) were by Gibbs (1682-1754).
With Chambers (1726-96) the later Renascence begins, and
Somerset House (1776) is a typical example of this period, accurate
in proportion, with refined details and excellent workmanship and
materials. Chambers also published his “ Treatise of Civil Architec-
ture ” in 1759, and “A Treatise on the Decorative Part of Civil
Architecture” in 1791.
Other architects of this period were George Dance, who built the
Mansion House (1756), and Robert and James Adam, who designed
and built the Adelphi (1768) and many streets and mansions in
London, Bath, Edinburgh, and Dublin. Robert Adam also designed
many accessories, such as console tables and candelabra, and on
the ceilings, pilasters, and panels were classical stucco enrichments
(plate 26). Pergolese, Bartolozzi, and Angelica Kaufmann contri-
buted designs and paintings for the brothers Adam.
Of modern Renascence, the Wellington Monument, in S. Paul’s
Cathedral, by Alfred Stevens (1818-75), is distinguished by its strong
personality and architectonic treatment of composition, and the
beauty and singular grace of its details.

77
MAHOMETAN ORNAMENT. Plate 2 7

WALL DECORATION FRO/S THE ALHAHBRA SPAIN /MORESQUE- (OWEN JONES

78
 AHOMETAN ORNAMENT.
Of mediaeval history as associated with the decora-
tive arts, the rise and development of the Arabs is
the most remarkable. The wide appreciation and
liberal patronage of the arts by the Khalifs ;
the
influence of its religion and precepts upon contem-
porary and later periods of art the distinct in-
;

dividuality and geometrical arrangement of its ornamentation all ;

had a most marked effect upon tradition and craftmanship.

The history commences with Mohammed, A.D. 570-632, who
founded and consolidated the empire, of which, under Omar, A.D. 635,
Damascus became the capital in A.D. 638 Kufa and Bassora were
;

founded in Persia. In A.D. 641 Egypt was conquered, and the

Mahometan capital, Fustat, founded. Persia was conquered in A.D.
642, Spain invaded in A.D. 71 1, Bagdad in Persia became the capital
of the Arabian Khalifs in A.D. 762, and in A.D. 827 Sicily was con-
quered but it was not until the dynasty of Ibn-Tiilun, A.D. 878-914,
;

that the history of Cairene art begins, of which the mosque of Ibn-
Tulun in Fustat, or old Cairo, is the earliest example. Under the
Fatimy dynasty, A.D. 867-1171, Cairo was founded, and the arts,
receiving further encouragement, were now introducd into Sicily and
Europe. In A.D. 997 the Mahometan invasion of India took place.
In A.D. 796-965 the mosque of Cordova was built, and in A.D. 1236
the kingdom of Grenada was founded and the Alhambra was built,
by Mohammed ben Alhamar, A.D. 1 248, and Mahometan art, as ex-
emplified in architectural decorations, arms and armour, woodwork,
ivory, textile fabrics and illuminated books, reached its culmination
under the Mamluk dynasty, A.D. 1250-1516.
Thus the Arabs, from a roving tribe, became, by religious zeal and
conquests, the most powerful and wealthiest nation of mediaeval times,
assimilating and influencing the customs and the arts of the different
nations and provinces.
The term Mahometan Art includes Arabian, Moresque, Per-
sian, Indian, and Sicilian, all having the same characteristics, yet
distinguished by the racial influence and custom. The Arabian is
marked by its flowing, interlacing, and symmetrical lines, geometrical
arrangement (doubtless derived from Byzantine sources), and its
prevalence of inscriptions or texts from the Koran. In Spain a more
complex geometrical arrangement is found, intermingled with a
flowing foliage or arabesque of a purely conventional type. This
style is noticeable for its entire absence of any natural forms and its
abundant use of inscriptions and glazed and enamelled tiles, distinctly
influenced by Persian tradition, though purely geometric and formal.
These tiles cover the lower part of the wall, the upper portion, as
also the ceiling, being decorated with arabesques of modelled plaster
in flat relief, of two or more planes, enriched with red, blue, white,
and gold this is typical of the Moresque style. The Sicilian work
;

is remarkable for its beautiful fabrics of silk and the prevalence in

its ornament of birds, animals, and heraldic forms, showing the

continuity of the traditions of Persia (plate 49 and page 142).
79
PERSIAN ORNAMENT. Plate 28.
 ERSIAN ORNAMENT.
The early art of Persia was similar to that of
Assyria and Babylon, having the same forms, mate-
and traditions. With the accession of the
rials,
Sassanides, A.D. 223, came the introduction of the
elliptical dome, so typical of eastern architecture.
This dome rested on pendentives, which occupied the angles of the
square base. These pendentives and the elliptical dome are dis-
tinctive features in Mahometan architecture.
The by the tradi-
industrial arts of Persia were largely influenced
tional arts of Assyria and Chaldea. This tradition was carried on
with rare skill and selective power by the Persians, culminating in
the splendid period of Shah Abbas, A.D. 1586-1625. The vitality,
beauty, and interest of detail, combined with perfect decorative
adaptation to material, are characteristic of the textiles, pottery,
metal work, and illuminated manuscripts of the 15th, 1 6th, and 17th
centuries.
The Mahometan conquest of Persia, A.D. 632-637, by Abu Bekr,
the successor of Mohammed, largely influenced the development of
the arts of the Persians, who adopted the customs and habits of
contemporary races, yet preserved all the characteristics of their
art;
and there is no doubt that the art of the Arabs was founded
upon the traditional arts of Persia.
Persian decoration is characterised by a fine feeling for form and
colour, and for the singularly frank renderings of natural plants, such

8 F
 ;

as the pink, hyacinth, tulip, rose, iris, and the pine and date. These
are used with perfect sincerity and frankness, and are essentially
decorative in treatment, combining harmony of composition of mass,
beauty of form, and purity of colour. It was doubtless owing to
these qualities, together with the perfect adaptation of ornament to
material, that the Persian style so largely influenced contemporary
work, and especially the European textile fabrics of the 16th and
17th centuries. The illustrations given are of some familiar types
of Persian adaptations of natural flowers, doubtless chosen for their
significance, beauty of growth and form, and appropriateness of
decorative treatment. Purely Arabian forms, as given in plate 28,
are frequently associated with the Persian floral treatment, showing
the influence of the artists of Damascus. Many fine examples of
lustred wall tiles, dating from the 10th and 1 ith centuries, are in the
South Kensington Museum, of which the blue, brown, and turquoise
colouring is of a splendid quality. They often have Arabic inscrip-
tions interspersed with the floral enrichments. Examples of wall
tiles of the 8th century have been found in the ruins of Rhages.
These lustred tiles are a remarkable instance of tradition or heredi-
tary proclivity. This art, beginning with the enamelled bricks of
Babylon, and the later frieze of Susa (page 17) with its brilliant
enamel and fine colour, was continued by the Persians, and, passing
to the Arabs, the tradition was carried to Cairo, Spain, and Majorca
thence into Italy, where enamelled lustre ware was made, differing
from the original Persian in its frequent absence of utility, which
was fundamental to the art of the Persians.
Mahometan ornament has five broad divisions, viz., Arabian,
Sicilian, Moresque, Indian, and Persian and they are all characterised
;

by strongly-marked compartments or fields, which are filled with finer

and more delicate enrichments. These compartments are most pro-
nounced in the Moresque, with its complex geometric interlacing
and entire absence of natural forms (figs. 4, 6, 7, and 8, plate 27).
The Arabian style is somewhat similar, but less formal. The Indian
has a conventional rendering of plants, and the introduction of the
lion, tiger, and the elephant (fig. 2, plate 30) while in the Persian
;

work there is a still less formal constructive arrangement, with floral

forms clearly defined in line and mass, and the introduction of the
human figure with the horse, the lion, the tiger, and birds. Note the
illustration in Textiles, which is taken from a fine carpet in the South
Kensington Museum. In this carpet, animal forms, chosen with rare
selective power and judgment, are combined with the typical floral
enrichment of Persia, with the wealth of colour, admirable detail of
spacing and mass, beauty of incident and vigour, and appropriateness
of treatment. These are features that distinguish the industrial
designs of Persia and it is doubtless due to the interest and vitality
;

of their ornament that we owe the remarkable influence of Persian

art upon the contemporary and latter craftsmanship of Europe.
82
PERSIAN ORNAMENT, Plate 29
iZ IMCHES -\Z IMCHC 3 -

FROM A PER3IAM DRAWING

SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM
POFJIOM OF PERSIAN
VELVET STUFF WITH CARPET
-RAI5EDPATTED of VASES, SOUTH KEN5INCTON
flowers &• fir. comes in M U5EUM
CRJMSON & GREEN. ON A
WHITE GROUND
I TALI AM (OEMOSE)
FROM A PERSIAN
t
DESIGN 16 "Cewtvri
SOUTH
MUSEUM

fAntL OF TILES from THE 5ENARJYEH MOSQUE AT DAMA5CU5. 1360 SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM
Tiles 6 g 10CHE3 SQUAFVg. _ '

83
 *

INDIAN ORNAMENT, Plate 30.

>V%-
'•* * i’i
^4? JK*>#
* % * > V,
«*» >. «*?V V*;

v L*v
'T **v
>
'
V; ’!. .taPVr#^ Ti

ZZZZZZZT777Z7777-

I BEMANE5. 5 K./A.
COLUMN FROr\
«S3%^TC*PLE Of VI5HA. PNIHTED COTTOM BOCK COLLEFCTlOri
bEPiAKEB .
MAMCH EOTEFC .

COTTOn PKIHT WITH FLOWERS in <^A5HA\EKF 5CANE WITH THE PATTERN

the: fokw of a leaf 5 k A
. . .
FOEU^ED OF PIME.5 5Caf\lTT GFOUnD 5 K W\

84
 NDIAN ORNAMENT.
The civilization of India dates from the remote past,
but the oldest remains of its art and architecture are
connected with the Buddhist religion, introduced by
the prophet Sakya Muni (638 B.C.). This influenced
the arts of India till A.D. 250, when the Jaina style
was adopted. The examples of Buddhist architecture consist of
Topes (which were sacred or monumental temples, either detached
or rock-cut), and monasteries. The rock-cut temples usually consist
of a nave and aisles, and a semi-circular recess containing a statue of
the seated Buddha. The hall has square or octagonal columns, with
bracket capitals (fig. 1). The finest examples of these temples are
those at Ajanta, which are richly decorated in colour with incidents
of Hindoo mythology. The fine temples at Ellora, which are cut
entirely out from the rock, are of the Jaina period (A.D. 250). The
pagodas at Chedombaram are of the Brahmin period, as is also the
great hall of 1,000 pillars, which is 190 by 340 ft., containing the
sacred image of the god Siva.
Alexander the Great conquered India 327 B.C., and doubtless left
the influence of the Persian tradition in India. This influence was
still further developed by the commercial intercourse of Persia and

India, and by the Arabian invasion of India in A.D. 71 1, when a

Mahometan dynasty was established (71 1 -1152). This largely con-
trolledand influenced the arts under the Mogul dynasty (1525-1837),
when the decorative arts and the manufacture of the beautiful woven
brocades and silks were fully developed. The splendid carpets and
rugs, printed cottons, metal work, and fine enamels of this dynasty
bear a remarkable tribute to the vitality, originality of ideas, and the
practical utility of the industrial arts of India.
Indian ornament has the typical Mahometan division of spaces,
but is more flowing and graceful than the pure Arabian style. These
divisions are filled with fine conventional floral forms, such as the lotus,
the date or horn, the iris, the rosette, and the pine. This pine is
treated occasionally as a single flower, but more frequently as a
cluster of flowers, which still retains the distinctive form of the pine
(figs. 2, 4, and 6).
Typical also of this period is the judicious treatment of the
elephant, lion, tiger, peacock, and the human figure, as accessories
in the decorative arts of India. They were applied with rare know-
ledge and skill, combined with an artistic perception of applied art,
and show a very strong affinity with contemporary Persian ornament.
Indian ornament has a more conventional rendering of natural
forms than the frank treatment of Persian ornament. Block print-
ing upon silk and cotton fabrics reached a high degree of perfection
during the last century. The inventiveness and significance of
detail, the charm of composition of line and mass, and the beautiful
colour of these printed fabrics, are a reflex of the decorative feeling
for beauty by the people of India.
85
CHINESE ORNAMENT Plate 3 i
 ;

HINESE ORNAMENT.
The early bronzes, enamels, porcelain, and textile
fabrics of China are indicative of the perfection and
luxuriance of the decorative arts of that ancient
empire. This perfection is shown by a splendid
technique and a fine appreciation of colour and
ornamentation, differentiated from the western nations by myths,
traditions, and the remarkable persistency of a few typical forms
through many centuries, doubtless owing to the profound ancestral
worship and veneration for the past. The dragon was represented
under many aspects, frequently forming vigorous lines of composi-
tion (figs. 3, 4). The beautiful flora of the country largely influenced
Chinese art. The peony and chrysanthemum (frequently highly
conventionalized) are typical examples, forming the elements of
decorative design. Geometric forms, such as the hexagon, octa-
gon, and the circle, enriched with flowers or the fret, are largely
used. The many splendid examples of bells, gongs, and incense-
burners in bronze and iron the carvings in wood, ivory, and jade
;

the beautiful woven silks, richly patterned with the conventional

chrysanthemum, the peony (fig. 2), or with geometrical forms, filled
with the fret or rosettes (fig. 1); the magnificent fabrics, embroi-
dered with dragons, birds, and conventional flowers, excellent in tech-
nique and colour and the richness and purity of their porcelain, more
;

especially the old blue and white of the Ming dynasty, A.D. 1568-
1640 (plate 36, fig. 4), all testify to the versatility and vitality of
the Chinese decorative arts in the past.
Their architecture was distinguished by complexity and quaint-
ness of form, rather than beauty
of proportion and detail. Their
pagodas, or temples, of which
numerous examples are still ex-
tant, were of wood, iron, brick, or
marble and one, the Nanking
;

Pagoda, A.D. 1412-31, destroyed

in 1854, was encased with yellow
and green porcelain tiles, and had
1 50 bells pendant from the roof.
Pagodas are from 3 to 13 stories
in height ;
that at Peking has
13 stories and is 275 ft. high, the
Nanking porcelain pagoda was
250 ft. high, and a fine brick one
of 7 stories on the River Yangtsze
BASE OFsllALL
is 140 ft. in height. PAGODA. CAM TOM
The roof of each story curves
outwards and upwards, and usually
supports a balcony. An illustration is given here of the lower
story of the small pagoda at Canton, which is richly carved with
figures and floral forms.
87
JAPANESE ORNAMENT. Plate 32.
JAPANESE ORNAMENT.
The arts of Japan, though doubtless owing their origin to China,
are differentiated by a keener observation of nature and a more literal
treatment of landscape, bird and animal life, and the beautiful flora
—
of the country the “ kiku ” or chrysanthemum, the “ botan ” or
peony, the “ kosai ” or iris, the “ yuri ” or lily, the “ kiri ” or paula-
wina imperialis (somewhat resembling our horse chestnut), the
“ matsu ” or fir, and the “ take ” or bamboo —likewise the peacock,
the crane, the duck, the pheasant, and many smaller beautiful birds,
together with reptiles, insects, and fishes ;
all are elements in the

decorative arts, being rendered with remarkable fidelity and delicacy

of touch, united with a fine feeling for composition of line.
Physical phenomena, such as the snow-clad mountain, Fujiyama,
have always exercised considerable influence upon the Japanese mind.
This may be readily seen in the thirty colour prints by Hiroshige,
and the hundred views of this mountain by Hokusai. The cherry
and plum blossoms, emblems of the beauty and purity of spring, are
also intimately associated with the life and the ornament of the
people. It is this literal treatment of natural types, the marvellous
technique, and especially the significance of the forms chosen, that
constitutes the charm of the earlier Japanese art. It is singular that
the materials used by the Japanese should be of little intrinsic value.
Having no jewellery, they use little of the precious metals iron, ;

bronze, enamels, clay, wood, and lac being the chief materials utilized
in the decorative arts of Japan. Bronze is one of the earliest materials
used in the arts of Japan, and their large statue of Buddha at Kama-
kura, cast in A.D. 748, rests upon a lotus flower with fifty-six petals,
10 ft. by 6 ft., and the height from base to top of figure is 63 ft.
Pottery made but little development until the 13th century, when
a coloured earthenware, having but little decoration, was produced
at Seto, in Owari, and it was not until 1513 that porcelain was
introduced from China into Arita, by Shondzui ;
and at the com-
mencement of the 17th century a fine porcelain, decorated with birds
and flowers in blue, red, and gold, now known as “Old Japan” or
“ Old Hizen,” was produced. Kioto, Seto, and Arita were also noted
for the production of a fine blue-and-white porcelain.
Cloisonne enamels, introduced in the 17th century, reached a high
degree of technical excellence, but never quite reached the beauty,
purity, and harmony of colour that characterized the old Chinese
cloisonne.
Lacquer, of which some fine examples are reputed to date from
the 7th century, was at its best in 1490 and 1709, when some beauti-
ful examples with raised gold on a gold ground, or gold or silver foil
on silver, black, or red grounds, were produced.
Japanese ornament frequently consists of the irregular distribution
of powderings, or circular and fan-shaped medallions, often over-
lapping, or of hexagonal or honeycomb diapers and fret patterns.
89
Plate 3 3

TRAJAN.

OF

FORUM

THE

FROM

SCROLL

ROMAN

90
 ART II.

The Applied Arts.

WOODCUT FROM THE GROTESQUE ALPHABET OF 1 464

(FLEMISH), BRITISH MUSEUM.

ENGRAVED PANEL BY HEINRICH ALDEGREVER, ONE OF THE

LITTLE MASTERS OF GERMANY.
MOSAICS Plate 34.

92
 ,

OSAICS.
the art of forming patterns by means of
Mosaic is

variously-coloured materials, fitted to-

pieces of
gether, and is broadly divided into Opus Tesselatum ,

of small cubes, like dice Opus Sectile of slices

; ,

of marble
'

and Opus Musivum or glass mosaic

; ,
:

apd may be subdivided into Opus Figinum or ceramic mosaic Opus , ;

Vermiculatum with (a) majus black and white marble (b) medium
, , ;

all materials and colours and (c) minus of minute tesserae, used
; ,

for furniture inlay. Opus Alexandrinum is an inlay of porphyry and

serpentine on white marble.
It was in Rome that the art of mosaic was brought to its greatest
perfection. The finest example is from the House of the Faun,
Pompeii, and represents the battle of Issus, between Alexander and
Darius. This mosaic, of the 3rd century B.C., is probably a copy of
a Greek painting. A magnificent example of this period is the so-
called “ Pliny’s Doves,” a representation of four doves upon a basin.
Many fine Roman mosaics have been found in England, at Ciren-
cester, London, Lincoln (fig. 6), Leicester, and at Brading.
Magnificent examples of Opus Misivum are found at Ravenna,
Constantinople, and Venice, where the Opus Muisvum reached its
culmination. Of the Ravenna (page 31) mosaics, those of the
Baptistery, A.D. 450, S. Apollinare, and S. Vitale are typical exam-
ples of the earlier Byzantine mosaics, having dark green and blue
backgrounds, with tesserae about in. square. ^
The beautiful frieze
of male and female saints in S. Apollinare extends along both sides
of the nave, and is 10 ft. high. The vaulting and domes of S. Mark
are entirely covered with the characteristic 11th century Byzantine
gold ground mosaic, formed by fusing two pieces of glass together
with gold leaf between. At Santa Sophia, Constantinople, and in
the Cappella Palatina, Palermo, are other fine early mosaics.
Splendid examples of Opus Alexandrinum are found on the pave-
ment of the Pantheon, Rome (A.D. 1 18-38). Other examples, dating
from the 8th century, are in Rome, in the nave of the Basilica of San
Lorenzo fuori le Mura, having interlacing circular bands of geometri-
cal mosaic on white marble. In Santa Maria in Trastevere, the
pattern is formed of hexagons and stars of six or eight points. A
beautiful design of a large eight-pointed star of porphyry, with the
triangles between the points of the star filled with small geometric
Opus Alexandrinum, is in the Church of S. S. Giovanni e Paolo.
In the 13th and 14th centuries in Italy, the Cosmati (a family of
mosaicists) produced some fine geometrical inlaid mosaics upon the
vertical and twisted pillars in the cloisters of San Giovanni Laterano,
and on the splendid “ Ambone,” or pulpit, in Santa Maria, in
Araceli, Rome. On the tombs of Edward (a.d. 1270) and Henry
III. (1280), in Westminster Abbey, are some good examples of this
“ Cosmati ” mosaic.
93
 . .

GREEK CERAMICS. Plate 35.

TV P CAL FOFRWS OF GKEEK VA5E5
l

HYDKIA . CRAT EFR CArrTH A FkOS AMPHOKA. OinOCHOF .

FOR CARRY ri C foryviximg wine wime Cup FOR. CARRYinG FOR POURIMG
WAT EFR
1

.
An D WATEFR w 1 ne . WIME .

M°2 3.4-
5 6 fc>7
n\on the
nAnCHE5TF^— FRO/Rati ANPhORA 6 C .

Collection. __ 400.

TWO-HANDLED
VA5E. CEDIPU5.
JOCA5TA AMD
THE 5PHinX E> C 4-00-
.

RED El CURED PERIOD OlMOCHOE.OR WATEfRJUG

6 C 500.

RED FIGURED PERIOD

94
 REEK CERAMICS.
It is difficult in modern times to realise the impor-
tance of vases in ancient times. To the Greeks a vase
was a receptacle for food or liquid, and was used for
the adornment of the home ;
it was used in the
daily life of the living, and buried with the dead.
vases found in Etruscan tombs are of Greek work-
-

manship, imported from Greece or Grecian colonies some black

;

unglazed Etruscan vases have been found, but painted vases of

Etruscan origin are rare.
Early Greek pottery, dating probably from the loth century B.C.,
has been found in Greece, the colonies of Rhodes, Cyrene in Africa,
and Naucratis in the delta of Egypt. These, showing a historic
development, are arranged in groups, each with its distinctive
characteristic, (ist) Primitive Vases, simple in shape, handles
small or absent, decorations in simple line, punctured or incised, or
in raised slip. (2nd) Mycenae or COLONIAL (B.c. 900-700) vases,
often covered with a creamy slip, the designs, painted in brown and
black, being derived from geometric patterns with marine and animal
forms. (3rd) Dipylon or Geometric (b.c. 700), with fret pattern
enrichment, and panels with rude figures of men and animals in
black and brown. (4th) PHALERON Ware (b.C. 700-550), with
continuous bands of animals, probably derived from Phoenicia or
Assyria (fig. 4). Among the animals depicted, are placed portions
of the fret pattern, a survival of the previous style. The details are
incised through the black or brown figure, showing the colour of the
clay body. A development of this Phaleron ware was the introduc-
tion of the rosette, taking the place of the fret pattern between the
figures or the animals. (5th) Black Figure Period (b.c. 600-
480) vases, fine in profile, and with good handles, the body of the
vase, in red ware, being painted with subjects of Grecian mythology
in black, and the details incised ;
the faces, arms, and legs of the
female figures were afterwards painted in white or red slip and fired at
a lower heat. The Amphora (fig. 5) was the chief form of this black
figure period — some fine examples are signed by Exekias and
Amasis. (6th) The Transitional Period (b.c. 500-470), when
the black silhouette figures on a red ground gave way to the Red
Figure Period on a black ground. Artists of this style were
Epiktetos, Pamphaeios, Nicosthenes, and Pythos. Many of the vases
by Nicosthenes resemble contemporary metal work in their shape
and handles. The 7th group (525-400 B.C.) was the culminating
period of Greek vase painting, the chief form employed being the
KYLIX. A fine series of these Kylikes with red figures on a black
,

ground, signed by Cachrylion, Euphronios, Duris, Pethenos, and

Hieron, are in the British Museum.
The later vases (400-200 B.C.) are the polychrome sepulchral
“ Lekythi,” covered with white slip, and enriched with paintings, and

the elaborate vases, decorated with subjects from the Greek drama,
which were produced in the Greek cities of southern Italy.
95
CERAMICS Plate 36

96
 —

ERAMICS.
The antiquity of ceramic art and its scientific and
artisticqualities, render this subject one of con-
siderable interest to art students.
The plasticity of clay and its hardening qualities
under the influence of intense heat, its adaptability
to the most refined forms, its affinity for the beautiful
glazes and enamels so often associated with pottery, and its splendid
traditions of craftsmanship, of colour, form and decorations, so
beautiful and varied in character, all combine to invest the subject
with a charm or fascination of its own. Intrinsically valueless in its
natural state, it is capable of being rendered almost priceless by
scientific workmanship and artistic skill. The history of this material,
and of its easy adaptation to the most refined and intricate, as well
as the simplest of forms, affords invaluable lessons for present day
students.
Pottery clay may be classified under three divisions or headings:
(i) Earthenware, (2) Stoneware, (3) Porcelain. Under the
firstare grouped the largest number of ceramic wares. The pottery
of Egypt, the faience of Assyria and Persia, the Greek and Etruscan
vases, the famous red ware from the Isle of Samoa, and its counter-
part the Roman Samian ware, the beautiful Maiolica of Spain and
Italy, and the Rouen, S. Porchaire, Delft, and most of our
English pottery are earthenwares the paste or body consists of
;

natuial clays selected for their plasticity, their hardening qualities,

their fusibility or their colour, which when burnt have a porous opaque
body, usually dull in colour. This dulness was usually overcome by
coating the ware with a slip of fine white clay, which, whilst not
possessing inherent qualities to form pottery by itself, would adhere
to the coarser coloured body of the earthenware, thereby forming a
smooth white ground. The early Greek vases of Naucratis, the
later Lekythos of the Greeks, the faience of Persia, the Mezza
Maiolica and the Sgraffito of the early Italian Renascence, and our
English slip ware are examples of this method of giving a smooth
white surface to coarse coloured earthenware. A
similar result to
the slip covering was also produced by the use of a silicious glaze,
rendered white and opaque by the addition of oxide of tin. Early
Assyrian faience, Della Robbia ware, the Maiolica of Spain and Italy,
and the wares of Delft and Rouen are earthenwares coated with a
tin enamel.
The silicious glaze here referred to is prepared by fusing silicious
materials with soda or potash, and is known as Vitreous, or glass
glaze. Plumbeous, or lead glaze, produced by the addition of
is

oxide of lead to the silicious glaze, rendering it more fusible, and

still transparent. A white opaque enamel formed by using oxide of
tin with the vitreous glaze, is termed Stanniferous, or tin enamel.

97 G
These different processes of covering the porous body of the earthen-
ware largely influenced the decorations and scheme of colouring.
The beautiful faience of Damascus and Rhodes is covered with the
silicious slip or glaze, and painted with rich blues, produced by cobalt,
turquoise and green, by cobalt and copper, and purple by the use of
manganese, and then covered with an alkaline glaze.
In the Rhodian ware the same scheme of colour prevails, except
that the purple is replaced by a fine opaque red of great body, called
Rhodian red, produced from Armenian bole. On the Italian Maiolica,
with its tin enamel and plumbeous glaze, there are fine blue, turquoise
and green, but red is very poor in colour, and is generally replaced
by rich yellow from antimony, and orange from iron. This white
tin enamel was undoubtedly introduced into Europe by the Moors,
as some tiles in the Alhambra date from 1273-1302.
A large number of bowls and dishes, known as Samian ware, but
now called Terra Sigillata (seal clay), of Roman importation have been
found in England. The paste is usually of a fine sealing-wax red,
with a good glaze. These bowls are enriched with a series of hori-
zontal bands, containing the festoon, the scroll, birds, animals, and
figures. The bands, or friezes, are often divided by the traditional
egg and tongue moulding (fig. 1). Clay moulds, impressed with
stamps, were made and then fired. The red paste having been
pressed into the mould, the interior was smoothly turned in the lathe.
A mould of this character was found at York in 1874, so it is possible
that some of this ware was made in England, by Roman potters.
Roman pottery has also been found at Castor, near Peterborough,
doubtless made at the former place, kilns for firing having been found
on the same site. This Castor ware is usually brown, with a black
glaze, being ornamented with indented tool marks, and raised slip
patterns of pipeclay (fig. 3). Many Roman dishes and vases of a
dark grey colour, ornamented with incised lines and raised bosses of
clay, have been found in the Upchurch Marshes in Kent. Little
artisticpottery of the mediaeval period, however, is known to exist.
Early in the 13th century beautiful encaustic tiles were made for the
great monasteries, abbeys, and cathedrals.
About 1500, the production of tiles was introduced into Holland,
quantities of small blue and white ones, decorated with scriptural
subjects being made at Delft, and thence exported to England for
the lining of fireplaces, etc. Some fine painted tiles or Azulejos
were made at Valencia about the 17th century.
In the 1 6th century, the porcelain of China was introduced into
Europe by the Dutch and Portuguese traders, and much of the Delft
and Rouen ware subsequently produced was in imitation of this
oriental porcelain. “ Delft ” ware, which takes its name from the

small town of that name in Holland, dates from A.D. 1500, and is a
ceramic coated with stanniferous enamel, decorated with a full and
liquid brush upon the absorbent enamel ground, and then glazed with
98
a plumbeous glaze. Some of this Delft ware is very fine in quality,
the cobalt blues under the glaze being remarkably soft and rich in
colour. Early examples were decorated with historical subjects, often
containing numerous figures, the middle period being notable for its
imitation of Chinese porcelain, and the application of coloured enamels
on coloured grounds. Vast quantities of this kind of ware were
manufactured up to 1760, and exported to all parts of Europe. The
production of Delft ware was first introduced into England at
Lambeth by some Dutch potters in 1676, being subsequently extended
to Fulham, Bristol, and Liverpool.
The use of stanniferous enamel was introduced into France by
Girolama della Robbia, son of Andrea della Robbia, during the reign
of Francis I., 1516, and enamelled ware similar to the later produc-
tions of Urbino was made at Nevers, where also was produced a fine
ware decorated with Persian motifs in yellow and blue. At Rouen,
also, a fine earthenware covered with a tin enamel was manufactured,
the decorations consisting of the lambrequins or scallop pattern,
symmetrical in arrangement, and converging to the centre of the
plate or dish. The ornament was based upon Chinese examples,
influenced by the contemporary woven fabrics of France. The
decorations were usually in blue and with overglaze painting, i.e.,
after the white enamel was fired, finer and more delicate detail being
obtained by this process, but at the cost of the purity and liquid
softness of colour which is so characteristic of Delft and oriental
underglaze painting.
In Rouen ware, the ground is generally white, but some fine ex-
amples at South Kensington have a soft yellow ground, a rich Indian
yellow belftg sometimes introduced with the blue decoration. It was
under the directions of Louis Poterat (1673), that this most beautiful
faience was perfected.
Bernard Palissy (1510-90), by repeated experiments discovered
the stanniferous or tin enamel. His first productions were Jasper
ware, warm and brilliant in colour, and richly enamelled. In the
second period, rustic dishes, elaborately decorated with carefully
modelled fishes, reptiles, and plants or natural foliage, covered with
an enamel of great brilliancy and purity, were the chief productions.
The later pottery of Palissy consisted of saltcellars, inkstands, ewers,
etc., the elaborate figure decorations of which were probably executed
by some contemporary artist.
Henri-Deux or S. Porchard’s ware, now more properly described
as Oiron ware, originated at S. Porchard in 1524, perhaps by the
hand, certainly under the patronage of Helene de Hangest, widow of
A. Gouffier, a former governor under Francis I. This Oiron ware,
of a pale straw colour, is enriched with inlays of yellow, blue, green,
and brown coloured pastes, the interlacing and arabesque ornamenta-
tion, carried out under the direction of Jehan Bernart and Francois
Charpentier, being similar in type to the contemporary bookbinding
of Grolier which was probably executed with similar tools.
99
 Many early examples of Staffordshire slip ware are to be found in
England, consisting chiefly of candlesticks, cups, tygs, posset pots,
piggins and plates, the slip decorations being in yellow, white, and
brown. This ware was made at Wrotham as early as 1649, and by
Thomas Toft, at Shilton, 1660 (fig. 9). Marbled, combed, and tor-
toise-shell ware were formed by using colour slips or clays. Agate
and onyx ware were formed by layers of different coloured clays,
crossed, cut, and pressed into moulds. These methods were perfected
by Thomas Wheildon (1740-98), and Josiah Wedgwood (1730-95),
who perfected both the Queen’s and the variegated ware. Queen’s
ware of a creamy colour was made chiefly for dinner and dessert
services, being decorated with painted flowers in enamel.
In 1781, Wedgwood introduced his famous Jasper ware, and Jasper
dip or washed Jasper. This latter ware was dipped into admixtures
of metallic oxides, producing blue, lilac, pink, sage green, olive, yellow,
and black as desired. The decorations in low relief are of
the purest white (fig. 10), and in the traditional classic style, the
figures being arranged as cameo medallions, or in bands with the
scroll, the festoon, and the vine in delicate relief. Many of these
beautiful cameos were designed or modelled by Flaxman (1755-1826),
Pacetti and Angelini (1787), Bacon (1740-99), Hackwood (1770),
Roubiliac (1695-1762), Stothard (1755-1834), Tassie (1735-99), and
Webber (1782).
Stoneware differs from earthenware, owing to the presence of a
larger percentage of silicia in the plastic material, which, being fired
at a greater degree of heat, vitrifies the body or paste into a kind of
glass, thus ensuring a closeness and hardness of material not possessed
by ordinary earthenware. Stoneware is usually glazed during the
firing by throwing common salt into the kiln, which being volatilised,
re-acts upon the silicia in the body, forming with it a silicate of soda
or glass, having a minute granular texture. The usefulness and the
artistic character of stoneware was perfected by the Flemish and
German potters of the 16th century.
The principal varieties of this ware are the grey and white “Canette”
of Siegburg, near Bonn, and the pale brown or grey ware of Raeren,
near Aix-la-Chapelle, with its incised and stamped enrichments,
sometimes with blue decoration. Frechen, near Cologne, probably
supplied the “ Bellarmines ” or “ Grey beards,” largely imported into
England under the name of “ Cologne Pots.” Examples of this
Frechen ware were frequently ornamented with a raised scroll of oak
leaves. Grenzhausen, in Nassau, produced a beautiful grey ware,
having delicately moulded reliefs filled in with blue and purple.
Many grey jugs ornamented with the initials of William III., Queen
Anne, and George I., were imported into England from the Nassau
kilns.
A peculiar kind of stoneware, also termed “ Cologne ware ” was
produced at Fulham by John Dwight, about 1670. Some fine jugs
100
and a few cleverly modelled unglazed statuettes, believed to have
been made at this place, are to be seen in the British Museum (fig. 1 1).
Another peculiar red stoneware, porcelain, or Red China as it was
called, was made near Burslem by the brothers Elers (1688-1710),
the ornamentation being obtained by pressing sharp intaglio copper
moulds upon pieces of clay attached to the shaped ware. Fine ex-
amples, characterised by beauty of outline and delicacy of enrichments,
are exhibited in the Museum of Geology, Jermyn Street. Astbury
(1710-39), continued the traditions of Elers, producing a fine white
stoneware, which largely influenced the Staffordshire pottery of
that period. A
stoneware was also made at Nottingham from
1700-1750.
”
Porcelain is technically known under the terms “ hard paste
(“ pate dure”) and “ soft ” (“
pate tendre ”). Hard porcelain is made
from clays containing muchaluminia and felspar or decomposed granite,
having but little plasticity, which necessarily influenced the shape or
profile of the vessel. The beauty of form which is so typical of the
Greek earthenware vase, is absent in porcelain, where the cylindrical
or octagonal form is principally used. “ Pate tendre ” is a soft and

vitreous porcelain, having a great affinity for the beautiful coloured

glazes and enamels used in the early examples of Sevres.
Porcelain was known in China about 200 B.C., and it was in common
use during the 16th century. During the Ming dynasty (1568-1640),
porcelain reached its highest development in the perfection of its
body, ornamentation, colour and glazes, blue and turquoise being the
chief colours of this period this limited range of colour was owing
;

to the intense heat required to fuse the felspar glaze upon the hard
porcelain.
It is uncertain at what date Chinese porcelain was first brought to
Europe. Amongst the earliest known pieces in England are some
bowls given by Philip of Austria to Sir Thomas Trenchard in 1506.
But whatever the date, it was inevitable that attempts should be
made to imitate this beautiful Florentine or Medician
ceramic.
porcelain was made 1575-80. It was not, however, until 1690 or

1700, that a similar manufacture was established at Rouen and

S. Cloud. In 1709, Bottcher commenced making hard porcelain at
Meissen, in Saxony, subsequently producing some excellent examples
about 1715. This was the commencement of the well-known
Dresden china. In 1768, the manufacture of hard porcelain was
adopted at Sevres, replacing that of “ pate tendre ” which had been
in use from 1670. Both “ patre dure” and “pate tendre” were
made at Buen Retiro in Madrid (A.D. 1759,) all the porcelain manu-
factured for the first twenty years being kept for the exclusive use of
the Royal family. There are some finely modelled Buen Retiro tiles in
the Royal Palace at Madrid.
About the year 1740, the manufacture of porcelain was established
at Bow, Chelsea, Derby, Plymouth, Bristol, and Worcester. The
101
shapes and ornamentation of these English porcelains, having no
traditions beyond the oriental influence, were of a low artistic order,
being simply copies of natural forms, without any controlling influence
as regards design or harmonious arrangements. A lavish use of
gilding was also characteristic of this period, the ornament being
very largely misapplied. This continued to grow worse until the
middle of the last century, when it reached its culminating point of
absurdity and extravagance of form and decorations. The best ex-
amples of English porcelain of this period are obviously copies of
oriental porcelain, chiefly Persian and Chinese. A great advance in
the technique of the porcelain produced in this country took place after
the discovery of Kaolin in Cornwall, by William Cookworthy (1755).
Transfer printing over the glaze was adopted at Worcester about
1757, the transfers being taken from copper plates engraved by
Robert Hancock, a pupil of Ravenet, who was employed at the
Battersea enamel works, about 1750. Sadler and Green in 1756 also
adopted over glaze printing on the Liverpool delft. About 1770
under-glaze printing on the biscuit ware superseded the over-glaze
process.
Of early English porcelains, those of Derby are, perhaps, the most
refined in form and treatment of decoration, the plates, cups, and
in
saucers having borders of blue or turquoise, with enrichments of
festoons, leaves, and flowers many of the cups were pressed with
;

fluted, ribbed, or imbricated patterns. The Derby works were

founded in I757 by William Duesbury, who in 1769 purchased the
Chelsea works and carried on the two simultaneously until 1784,
when the Chelsea plant was transferred to Derby. From 1769-73
the ware called “ Chelsea Derby ” was produced, and between 1773-82
“ Crown Derby” was introduced.
Porcelain of an excellent quality was made at Nantgarw about
1813, and at Swansea 1814-17, the decorations in enamel colours
consisting of a natural rendering of flowers, birds, butterflies, and
shells, chiefly painted by Richard Billingsley.
Porcelain was also made about 1800 at the Herculaneum potteries
at Liverpool. Rockingham, in Yorkshire, produced during the years
1 759-88 a brown china, which, however, was but a fine earthenware,
of a hard and compact body, covered with a rich brown or chocolate
glaze. In 1820, porcelain was made at Rockingham comprising
dinner and dessert services, richly enamelled and gilt, together with
vases, flower baskets, and busts in white biscuit ware. In 1832, a
dessert service of 200 pieces was made for William IV., at a cost
of ^5,000, the decorations consisting of natural fruit and flowers, with
landscapes and the royal arms in enamel colours.
In some of the earlier Rockingham ware the outlines of the flowers
and butterflies were in transfer printing, and the colouring was added
by hand.
The illustrations given on plates 28, 29, 35, 36, and 37 show the
102
universality of the potter’s art, which may be traced through man
beautifulexamples differentiated by racial customs and material.
The beauty of form in the Greek vase (plate 34), was but the
natural outcome of a fine earthenware in the hands of an artistic
people, with traditions and architecture of the highest order. In
Persian pottery, form is subservient to colour, blue, turquoise, and
white being used in charming combination, together with a frank yet
decorative treatment of natural forms.
The Hispano-Moresque and Maiolica (plate 37), are
Italian
remarkable for the technical excellence of their white enamel, rich
blue, yellow, and orange, the iridescence of their gold and ruby lustre,
and their high technical skill in painting.
English earthenware of the 17th and 1 8th centuries, though tradi-
tional, showed a remarkable diversity in treatment and conception.
The picturesque platter of the Toft school, with its quaint enrichment
of trailing lines and heraldic forms in coloured slip, the fine red stone-
ware of Elers, with its graceful enrichments in delicate relief, and the
varied and beautiful jasper ware of Wedgwood mark a distinct phase
of the potter’s art, and bear a tribute to the vitality and personality
of the founders of the “ Potteries .”

103
 .

MAIOLICA. Plate 37
5ALTIMG COLECCTlOrii
S.K.fA.

portiom or border or a
miOLICA PLATE ITALIAM 1550. -
IHCI5ED oaSGRArFlATO ORMAMEMT
S KM
PLATEAU FOR AM EWEfR
BLUE ARABE5QUE5.0M ORANGE
CPDUMD FAtMZA.1500
5.K.M.

•
^VASE
9
BY
MAESTRO
"GIORGIO.
GOLD fcrRUBY LU5TRE. 5.K.PV-

BOWL.GUDBIO WAKE BY
MAESTRO GIORGIO.

DRUG
VA5E
S K t\
£>OWL GUBBIO WARE .
CA5TEL DURANTE WAKE
PAinTED in GRISAILLE CASTEL DURAP1TE 1556- BYMAESTRO GtORGiO. 3 K M

104
 AIOLICA.
Maiolica or Italian faience is an earthenware, coated
with a stanniferous or tin glaze, termed enamel.
This is formed by the addition of oxide of tin to
a silicious glaze or slip, thus rendering it white and
opaque, hence its name, enamel.
The origin of this beautiful ceramic art may be traced to Chaldea
and Persia, with their magnificent enamelled bricks, such as the
<l
Frieze of Archers” from the Palace of Susa (455 B.C.), and now in
the Louvre. From Persia the art was carried by the Arabians to
Fustat, or old Cairo, which was destroyed A.D. 1168, and amongst
the ruins many fragments of gold or copper lustred ware have been
found. This enamelled ware was introduced into Spain in the 13th
century, and perfected there by the Moors, giving rise to the Hispano-
Moresque ware. This ware was enriched with central heraldic arms,
surrounded by concentric bands of foliage, arabesques, or inscrip-
tions in blue, with a copper lustre. This Ftispano-Moresque
ware was manufactured chiefly at Malaga, Talavera, Triana, and
Valencia, and dates from the Moorish occupation of Granada (a.D.
1235-1492).
In the Island of Majorca, from which this beautiful ware derives
its name, fine examples were manufactured at an early date by
Persian and Arabian potters. After the conquest of Majorca by the
Pisans (A.D. 1 1 1 5), many of these examples were introduced into
Italy, the art being subsequently cultivated in some of the smaller
central states.
Theearly Italian Maiolica was usually covered with a thin white
“ slip ”or engobe of clay, which served as a ground for the coloured
patterns. It was then coated with a lead glaze, and was known as
mezza or mixed Maiolica. In some examples the design was scratched
or engraved through the upper layer or white engobe, showing the
darker body underneath. This type of ware, known as sgraffito was ,

also glazed with the lead glaze, forming, when fired, the beautiful
iridescent lustre.
Few remains of a tin enamel of Italian workmanship have been
found in Italy prior to the time of Luca della Robbia (1400-1481),
who discovered an enamel of peculiar whiteness and excellence.
The secret of its composition was kept by him, his nephew Andrea,
and his great-nephews Giovanni, Lucca, and Girolamo, until 1 507.
The mezza Maiolica was then superseded by the true Maiolica, or
the tin enamelled wares of Caffaggiolo, Castel Durante, Urbino,
Pesaro, Faenza, Forli, Diruta, Siena, and Gubbio — cities all within a
limited district, lying towards the east coast of Italy, and renowned
centres of the Maiolica fabrication.
The Gubbio ware is noted for its metallic ruby and golden lustre,
and was signed by Maestro Georgio (Georgio Andreoli, 1518-1537):
105
the finest period of this master was about 1525. The same artist
also lustredmany wares made by the potters of Urbino and Castel
Durante. Other examples of Urbino ware are signed by Niccola
da Urbino (1490-1530) Orazio Fontana, the head of a noted family
;

of potters, consisting of father, son, and grandson (1510-1600);

Francesco Xanto Avelli (1530-40). Faenza ware was produced at
the Casa Pirota Botega, and Siena ware was signed by Maestro
Benedetto.
The chief characteristics of Caffaggiolo ware are arabesques and
figures in white, grey, or yellow on a rich dark-blue ground. Urbino
has small medallions with figures and blue and yellow arabesques on
a white ground, called Raffaelesque, being from designs by Raffaelle
del Colle. Faenza has a yellow ground with blue arabesques.
In brief, the number of colours that could be used on the absorbent
tin enamelled ground with its lead glaze was somewhat limited,
consisting of blue, turquoise, yellow, and orange. These colours are
of great depth and translucency, and are only equalled by the blues
and turquoise of China, Persia, and India.
Gubbio ware is frequently enriched with a raised curved fluting
called gadroons, a most effective method of enhancing the beautiful
ruby lustre of Maestro Giorgio. This Gubbio tradition was continued
by Giorgio’s son, Vicentio, called Maestro Cencio, and many beautiful
lustre works are signed by him.
This lustre was produced by exposing the ware to the action of
smoke during the firing in the kiln the smoke, being carbon in a
;

highly-divided state, reduces the metallic salts of the pigment or

glaze, forming a thin film of metal upon the surface, the beautiful
iridescent lustre resulting from the relative thickness of the film.
Castel Durante was frequently enriched, on white or grey borders,
with delicate raised scroll-work in white slip or enamel, a process
called Lavoro di sopra bianco or bianco sopra bianco.
Faenza Maiolica has, frequently, the whole surface of the ground
covered with a dark-blue enamel, enriched with dancing amorini
and arabesques in blue, heightened with white Sopra Azzurro.
A frequent form of enrichment upon plates was to have small
medallions painted with portraits and appropriate inscriptions,
and doubtless intended as lovers’ presents. They are known as
A matorii Maiolica.

106
 .

ERRA COTTA.
Terra cotta is usually made from pure clay, which
burn to a white or yellow colour, or from
will
impure, which will burn to a red colour owing to
the presence of oxide of iron. Pure clay is a
hydrous silicate of alumina, containing 47 parts
per cent, of silica, 40 of alumina, and 13 of water. Clay in this
proportion is the Kaoline or china clay.
Fire clay, which is found in the coal measures, has a larger pro-
portion of silica than Kaoline, and from it much of the terra cotta is
made. When first dug out, it is hard and compact, and of a greenish-
grey colour, deepening to black. It is often weathered before using;
this causes it to “ fall,” and facilitates grinding. Old fire-clay,
previously burnt (“ grog ” as it is called), is added to the new clay
to counteract the excessive shrinkage to which all close-grained
clays are liable.
The coarser the GREEK
clay, the less the TERRA
shrinkage. Pure COTTA
clay contracts as
SELENE b,

PAN
much as one-eighth
from the size of the
mould one-half of
:

this contraction
takes place in dry-
ing, the other half
in burning.
The colour of the
clay varies accord-
ing to the quantity
of lime, iron, or
bitumen it contains.
The moulds for
terra cotta are usu-
ally piece-moulds, made of plaster of Paris, which absorbs much of
the moisture of the clay. Sheet clay about two inches thick is used.
This is carefully pressed into the mould, and supported by webs of
clay of the same thickness. It is essential that the clay be uniform
throughout, or the shrinkage would be unequal. It is then placed
upon a flue to dry, for from two to six hours, when the clay will have
contracted sufficiently to allow the mould to be taken off. It is then
dried for a further period, and burnt in a kiln. For fine work, the
kiln is “ muffled ” —
the “ muffle ” being a lining of bricks to keep the
clay from actual contact with fire and smoke. The dry or semi-dry
process is the pressing of clay-powder into metal moulds, which
obviates the excessive shrinkage of the wet process. Encaustic tiles
107
are made in this way, the ornament being run into the incised
pattern with “ slip.” Many tiles are decorated in the same way
as ordinary earthenware, that is, painted and glazed.
Terra cotta was largely used by the nations of antiquity, especially
by the Assyrians, whose clay tablets or books
throw so much light upon Assyrian history.
With the Greek, terra cotta was extensively
used for “ antefixae,” and the many beautiful
Tanagra figures now treasured in our museums
show the exquisite modelling by the Greeks, in
such a material as terra cotta.
This material was used by the Etruscans for
their sarcophagi and recumbent figures. The
Pompeians tiled their roofs with terra cotta. It
was used for votive statues and offerings, and for
lamps, some of which were dipped in molten glass.
During the revival of art in Italy in the 15th
and 6th centuries, terra cotta was extensively
1

used by the Della Robbia family. Luca della Robbia (1400-82)

produced many beautiful terra cotta reliefs, coated with the white tin
enamel, and enriched with coloured enamels. Among his numerous
works was the marble “ Cantoria ” or Singing Gallery (1431-40), with
its ten panels of
singing and danc-
ing figures in relief,
which was placed
by the organ of S.
Maria del Fiore, or
Cathedral of Flor-
ence. Donatello’s
“Cantoria” was also
placed here (page
57). They are now
both in the museum
of the Opera del
Duomo. Lucca also
executed five mar-
ble reliefs, in 1437,
for the Campanile,
from designs by
Giotto, and the two
kneeling angels
holding candelabra,
in the Sacristy of the Cathedral, Florence, are the only figures
in the round by this master.
Among his many beautiful examples of terra cotta are the
“ Resurrection ” and the “ Ascension,” over the doors of the Sacristy
108
in the the splendid monument to Bishop Federighi, with
Cathedral ;

its recumbent figure of marble, in the Church of S. Trinita,

beautiful
Florence; the Tabernacle of Peretola ;
the Madonna of Or San
Michele and the many fine heraldic medallions, with the arms or
;

emblems of the
various Guilds,
that enrich this
beautiful Oratory
of Florence (see
page 58).
Other heraldic
medallions in Flo-
rence are the Pazzi
and Serristori arms
for the Quaratesi
Palace, and in the
South Kensington
Museum are some
fine medallions
with the arms of
King Rene d’An-
jou, and twelve me-
dallions represent-
ing the months.
Most of these ex-
amples have the
typical quattro-
cento borders of
fruit, flowers, and
foliage or fir-cones
(fig. 8, plate 21),
and are enamelled
in brilliant colours.
Ottaviano and
Agostino Duccio,
contemporary scul-
TERRA COTTA ptors of repute,
RELIEF BY
also collaborated
ANDREA DELLA ROBBIA
with Lucca in the
production of this ware. Andrea della Robbia (1435-1525), the
nephew of Luca, carried on the traditions with rare selective power
and artistic skill. Among his early works are the medallions with
the bambini for the Loggia of the Spedale degli Innocenti, or
,

Foundling Hospital, at Florence, in collaboration with his uncle,

Lucca, and Brunelleschi, the architect. The Adoration and the
Annunciation were familiar subjects with Andrea. There is a
splendid “ Adoration ” in the South Kensington Museum.
109
GLASS. Plate 38

AKADIAH EriAMELLED
LA/AP • 5 K M
. .

THL POPJLAMD VA5L

PvjD/AAH TABLET lh BELIEF BODY OE DAf\K BLUE GLA55
WHfTE CAttEO OIT BLUEOf^OunO
/^ADE in A MOULD. 5.K n

I IO
 1 ;

LASS.
The purity of glass, its adaptability to colour, and
its remarkable ductility while hot for blowing,
twisting, or drawing into threads, differentiates it
from all other materials and methods of treat-
ment. Its tradition dates from the remote past,
for glass-blowing is represented on the tombs at
Thebes (b.C. 2500). It was also used in Egypt for vitreous pastes
for bronze and gold cloisonne jewellery, and for the small bottles or
Stibium, with chevron patterns, in yellow, turquoise, and white on a
coloured ground. Similar patterns, colours, and forms were used by
Phoenicia and her colonies. Many remains of bowls were found in
Assyria, one of transparent green glass having the name of Sargon
(B.C. 722). Greece seems to have imported most of her glass from
Phoenicia, but the Romans carried on the tradition, producing fine
Mosaic or Millefiori. This was made by fusing rods of white
and coloured glass together, then drawing it out to fine threads, and
slicing it transversely the section is then placed in a mould and a
;

bubble blown, uniting the mosaic, which is then blown into various
shapes. The Romans also used the interlacing of white and coloured
rods, called Laticinio, but they excelled in the Cameo Glass, of
which the Portland vase is the finest known example. This vase is
of dark blue glass, covered with white opaque glass, which was
ground away with the wheel, leaving the figures in delicate relief.
It was found in 1644 in the sarcophagus of Alexander Severus
(a.d. 325), the subject of its relief being the myth of Peleus and
Thetis. Another Roman example of cameo glass in the British
Museum is the Auldjo vase or Oinochoe, with beautiful reliefs of

vine leaves. Frequently these reliefs were blown or pressed into

moulds (fig. 6). The tradition then declined until the 14th century,
when the Venetians in the Island of Murano perfected the art of
glass-making.
The earliest examples of Venetian Glass were massive, richly-
gilt, and enamelled in colours. One fine example in the British
Museum is signed by its maker, “ Magister Aldrevandini.” In the
15th and 16th centuries, the most delicate and beautiful blown glass
was made, often uncoloured, and with enrichments of knots and
wings in blown and shaped blue glass. The Venetians used with
equal skill all the old methods of glass-making —
the MILLEFIORI
the Laticinio, or threads of opaque white enclosing pattern
Reticelli, a network of white lines enclosing at the intersections
a bubble of air; and the beautiful Vitro DI TRINA, filigree or lace
glass, formed by canes or threads of white or coloured glass being
placed in a mould, a bubble being then blown in, and the glass after-
wards taken from the mould and blown or twisted to the shape
required. The artistic bronze mirrors of ancient and mediaeval
times now give way to the glass mirrors of the Venetians (a.d. i 500).
1 1
STAINED GLASS Plate 39.

I 12
 TAINED GLASS,
With its depth and translucency, owes its intrinsic
qualities to metallic oxides, such as cobalt, giving
fine blues, silver, pale and deep yellows, pink from
iron and antimony, and ruby from gold and copper,
which also yields fine greens. When these oxides
are mixed with the glass in its fused state, it is termed “ pot metal,”
but if the coloured oxides are applied to the surface of the glass only,
it is termed “ flashed
” or “ cased glass.” Ruby, owing to its depth
of colour, is usually cased glass. Fine blues are often flashed, and
splendid effects are produced by flashing ruby over yellow or blue
pot-metal glass. Cased glass is of the greatest value, owing to the
variety of tint that can be produced on a single sheet of glass, and
also because the colour may be removed by grinding or by the use of
fluoric acid.
The
tion
rationale of the glass painter is :
—
(i) The scheme of composi-
and colour shown on a small scale (2) a full-sized cartoon in
;

charcoal or monochrome, with all the details carefully drawn, and

showing the lead lines and positions of the iron stanchions for
strengthening the window (3) a tracing on cloth showing the lead
;

lines only, called the

cut line, on which
are cut the selected
pieces of glass (4) a ;

tracing of the details

from the cartoon,
with brown enamel,
on each piece of
glass, the pieces after
firing being then fix-
ed in the leading, and
kept together with
H-shaped leads.
The brown ena-
mel, which is used
entirely for outline,
detail, or shading, is
a fusible glass in
combination with
opaque manganic or
ferric oxide and tar
oil. With this ena-
mel, smear shading or stipple shading is worked. This may be
removed as required, before firing, by means of a pointed stick or
quill, so as to give the details of embroidery or of heraldic forms.
Silver stain (oxide of silver), introduced at the beginning of the
1
13 H
 —

1 4tb century, is largely used in stained glass, and usually on the

back thereof. According to the different degrees of heat in the firing,
a pale yellow or deep orange of great transparency is produced.
Coloured glass was made by the Egyptians 4,000 years ago, but
the earliest stained glass windows re-
corded were those at Brionde (A.D.
525). None, however, are known to
be still in existence prior to those of
S. Denis (A.D. 1108). The early exam-
ples found in Norman windows have
small medallions of figures and orna-
ment of a decided Byzantine type,
extremely deep in colour, being, by
their style of treatment, termed mosaic
glass. The 13th century, or early
Gothic period, has single lancet lights,
with medallions containing small figures
surrounded by the typical 13th century
foliage; or the windows were entirely early grisaille glass, Salisbury.
of ornament in grisaille arranged sym-
—
,

metrically or with a flowing treatment of the vine growing from

the recumbent figure of Jesse, and called the “Tree of Jesse”
with narrow bands of ruby or blue, and wide borders. These
grisaille windows are of a greenish-white glass, with the ornament in
outline, and the ground hatched
with brown enamel in fine cross
lines (figs. 1 and 2). The north
transept window at York Cathe-
dral, called the “ Five Sisters,”
is typical of this grisaille glass.
The examples, however,
finest
are at Canterbury,
Salisbury,
and Chartres Cathedrals. Later
in the period, single figures
were introduced under a sim-
ple canopy or gable, plain or
crocketed, with an ordinary
trefoil arch.
“ Quarry ” glass, square or
diamond in shape, with brown
enamel details, was frequently
used where simple masses were
desired.
In the 14th century, the figures were larger and placed under
canopies in each light of the mullioned windows such figures in
;

rich colours form a bright belt across the window, surmounted by

the canopies, cusped and crocketed, and in strong yellow pot metal,
1
14
 1

or yellow-cased glass. The borders were narrow, with a somewhat

natural rendering of the rose, the maple, and the oak.
In the 1 5th century a further change took place, figures became
more numerous, and the canopy or shrine larger, and chiefly in white
glass, with the crockets and finials tipped with yellow stain a good :

illustration is that given from All Saints’ Church,

York. The coloured border of the earlier glass is
entirely absent, its place being taken by the shaft
of the canopy, and the crockets, finials, and orna-
ments are square in treatment, and based chiefly
on the vine leaf.
Fairford Church perhaps contains the finest series
of late Gothic glass (a.d. i 500-30). Like the con-
temporary architecture of the 16th century, stained
glass was now influenced by the Renascence. The
canopy still survived, but was horizontal or pedi-
mental in form, with purely classical columns and
details. Good examples of this period are the
windows of King’s College Chapel, Cambridge
(1520), where rich Renascence work is introduced
into late Gothic mullioned windows. These win-
dows are probably similar to those by Barnard
Flower, glazier, placed in Henry
the Seventh’s
Chapel at Westminster Abbey, as in Henry the
Seventh’s will it was expressly provided that “ the
walles, doores, windows, archies, and vaults and
ymagies of the same, of our said chapell, within
and without be painted, garnisshed, and adorned
with our armes, bagies, cognoisaunts, and other
convenient painteng, in so goodly and riche manner
as suche a werk requireth, and to a King’s werk
apperteigneth ” :
—
“ that the windows of our said
chapell be glased with stores [? stories], ymagies,
armes, bagies, and cognoisaunts.”
Of this glass little remains, but we know that
a contract was made in the- time of Henry the
Eighth to complete the windows of King’s College
Chapel, Cambridge, “ with good, clene, sure, and
perfyte glasse, and oryent colors and imagery of
LATE GOTHIC WINDOW,
NORTH AISLE, ALL the story of the old lawe and of the new lawe,
SAINTS CHURCH, YORK. after the forme, maner, goodenes, curiousytie, and
5

clenelynes, in every poynt of the glasse windowes

of the Kynge’s new Chapell at Westminster.” This glasse was by
Francis Williamson and Simon Symonds, glaziers, of London, and
its cost was to be sixteen pence per foot. Galyen Hoone, Richard
Bownde, Thomas Reve, and James Nicholson also agreed to execute
eighteen windows of the upper story of King’s College Chapel,
1
5
similar to those at Westminster by Barnard Flower, six of the
windows to be set up within twelve months, and the bands of leads
to be at the rate of twopence per foot.
At Warwick, the windows of the Beauchamp Chapel were glazed
by John Pruddle, of Westminster, “with the best, cleanest, and
strongest glasse of beyond the sea that may be had in England, and
of the finest colours of blew, yellow, red, purpure, sanguine, and
violet, and all other colours that shall be most necessary and best to
make and embellish the matters, images, and stories that shall be
delivered and appointed by the said executors by patterns in paper,
afterwards to be traced and pictured by another painter, in rich
colours, at the charges of the said glazier.”
About 1540, transparent enamels were introduced with skill and
reticence, but gradually glass painters began to vie with pictorial oil
painting in effects of light and shade, the ground work or material
losing that beautiful translucent or transmitted colour which is the
chief glory of stained glass. An example showing the degradation
of this art is the west window of New College, Oxford, painted by
Jervas, in 1 777, from designs by Sir Joshua Reynolds.
In the 14th century, the English craftsman attained a thorough
mastery over his materials, and consequently the type of ornament
followed English contemporary architecture more closely.
To sum up, stained glass changed through the different periods
from the rich coloured mosaic of the Normans, the equally rich
coloured medallions and grisaille glass of the early Gothic, the
decorated Gothic, with glass in lighter colours and a prevalence of
yellow stain, culminating in the later Gothic period, when largeness
of mass, lightness, and silvery colour were the characteristics.
A beautiful treatment of stained glass, dating from the 15th
century, was used by the Arabians. This glass, which has a singular
gem-like quality and is without enamel or stain, was let into a frame-
work of plaster, which had been cut and pierced with geometrical or
floral patterns.
Modern stained glass has attained a high degree of perfection in
design and material under Burne Jones, Walter Crane, Frederic
Shields, and Henry Holiday, with glass such as that produced by
Morris, Powell, and Sparrow, and the American opalescent glass of
La Farge and Tiffany. The individuality of their work, appropriate-
ness .of treatment, based upon the splendid tradition of the past,
mark a distinct epoch in the history of stained glass.
Splendid heraldic glass by A. W. Pugin may be seen in the
Houses of Parliament, Westminster and in the hall and staircase
;

of the Rochdale Town Hall there is a fine series of windows by

Heaton, Butler, and Bayne, remarkable for dignity of style and
unity of conception.

6
 NAMELS.
Of the many decorative arts, enamelling is one of
the most beautiful, having a singular charm of
limpid or opalescent colour of great purity, richness
and durability, and being capable of a most refined
and varied treatment for the enrichment of metals.
Enamel is a vitreous or glass compound, trans-
lucent or opaque, owing its colouring properties to mineral oxides,
or sulphides, a fine opaque white being produced by oxide of tin.
These enamels require different degrees of heat in order to fuse them
and to cause their adhesion to the metal. Enamels are divided into
three classes :
—
CLOISONNE, CHAMPLEVE and PAINTED ENAMELS.
Cloisonne enamel is that in which the cloisons or cells are formed
by soldering thin, flat wire of metal upon a plate of copper, the
cloisons being filled with the various enamels, in powder or in paste,
then, in order to vitrify the enamel, it is heated in a kiln, if upon
a flat surface, or by the aid of a blow-pipe if upon a curved surface.
Cloisonne was in use from the early dynasties in Egypt, many fine
large pectorals having been found in the tombs. These usually have
the form of a hawk and are of gold or bronze with well-defined
cloisons, which were filled with carefully fitted coloured paste or glass,
and this undoubtedly was the origin of the true or vitreous cloisonne
enamel. Byzantine enamel is invariably cloisonne, and one of the
most beautiful examples of this period is the Pala d’Oro of S. Mark’s
at Venice (A.D. 976, see page 123). Perhaps the Chinese and
Japanese have carried this cloisonne to its greatest perfection in soft-
ness of colour and beauty of technique. The earliest Chinese cloisonne
is of the Ming dynasty (1368-1643); this has heavy cast metal

grounds with low toned colours and deep reds and blues. Under the
Ch’ing dynasty, which commenced in 1643, the colours became
brighter and the designs more refined.
Early Japanese cloisonne or “ Shippo ” was doubtless derived from
Chinese or Persian sources, and it is characterised by extremely thin
beaten copper grounds and the frequent use of a dark green ground
in place of the dark blue of the Chinese cloisonne.
The Japanese cloisonne reached its culmination during the last
when many splendid examples of refined and delicate enamels
century,
were produced, remarkable for their beautiful opalescent and trans-
lucent colour. Gold cloisons with opaque and translucent enamels
were frequently inserted in iron or silver objects by the Japanese of
this period.
An early example of English cloisonne is the jewel of King Alfred
(page 1 21). A fine Celtic cloisonne treatment may be seen in the
Ardagh where the cloisons were cut out of a plate
chalice (page 121),
of silver and embedded in the enamel while soft. The Celtic crafts-
men also had a beautiful treatment of enamelling by engraving or
11 7
pressing a pattern in intaglio or sunk relief, on an enamelled ground,
and then filling these intaglios with other enamels.
A most exquisite kind of enamel called “ Plique a Jour ” was used
by the Byzantines this was composed of open filigree cloisons, filled
:

with translucent enamels.

Champleve enamel is formed by engraving, casting or scooping
out the cloisons from a metal plate, leaving a thin wall or boundary
between each cloison, which is then filled with the various enamels
as in the cloisonne method. This Champleve method was practised
in Britain before the Roman Conquest, and was probably derived
from the Phoenicians, who, centuries before the Romans came to
England, had traded with Cornwall for tin. The beauty of colour
and perfect adaptability of these early enamelled brooches, fibulae
and trappings of horses of the early Britons and Celts, are remarkable,
showing a fine sense of colour and a harmony of line and mass. A
splendid bronze Celtic shield (fig. 6, plate 13), now in the British
Museum, is enriched with fine bosses of red enamel. These Champ-
leve enamels upon bronze have usually an opalescent or cloudy
appearance caused by the fusion of the tin in the bronze alloy during
firing. Champleve enamels were used with rare skill and refinement
to enhance the beautiful art of the goldsmith during the Middle Ages ;

the Chalice, the Paten, the Reliquary, the Thurible, the Crozier, and
the bookcovers of the Churches, especially, were enriched with beau-
tiful enamels. Classed among the Champleve enamels is that method
called Jeweller’s Enamel or “ Baisse Taille in which the plate is
engraved in low relief or beaten up in repousse and then flooded with
translucent enamel. The Lynn cup of the time of Richard II. is one
of the oldest pieces of corporation plate and is covered with fine
translucent blue and green enamels (plate 40).
In India, where fine colour is a splendid tradition, Champleve
enamel soon attained a remarkable perfection of technique and purity
and brilliance of colour almost unknown to the Western nations.
The Champleve enamels of Jaipur have most beautiful lustrous and
transparent blues, greens and reds laid on a pure gold ground.
Pertubgpiur is renowned for the fine green or turquoise enamel
fired upon a plate of gold ;
while the enamel was still soft a plate of
pierced gold was pressed into the enamel. This pierced plate was
afterwards engraved with incidents of history or hunting. In RATAIN,
in Central India, a similar enamel is made having a fine blue in place
of the Pertubghur green.
The fine monumental brasses, of which many still remain in our
English cathedrals and churches, are a survival of the Champleve
process, the cloisons, being usually filled with a black NIELLO, but
occasionally the heraldic shields are enriched with coloured enamels.
During the 11th and 12th centuries, LIMOGES was renowned for its
Champleve enamels, but early in the I 5th century PAINTED ENAMELS
were introduced and Limoges became the centre of this art, called
late Limoges or Grisaille Enamel.
1 18
 The enamel colours were now used as a pigment, and were painted
and fired upon a copper plate. The enrichments in grisaille, or grey
and white, were used upon
a black, violet or dark blue
ground, the grisaille after-
wards being enriched with
details of fine gold lines.
These Limoges enamels have
asplendid technique, but they
lack the charms of the lumin-
ous colour and judicious use
of enamels of the early
Champleve period. The most
renowned masters of the
painted enamels of Limoges were Penicand (1503), Courtois (1510),
Pierre Raymond (1 530-1 570), and Leonard Limousin (1 532-1 574).
About 1600-1650 Jean Toutin and his pupil Petitot produced some fine
painted miniatures in opaque enamels
upon gold, remarkable for delicacy
and perfection of enamelling. In
1750 painted enamel was introduced
into England and produced for about
thirty years at Battersea by Janssen.
The enrichment consisted of flowers
painted in natural colours on a white
ground. A similar enamel was also
produced at Bilston in Staffordshire.
The finest enamels undoubtedly
are those in which the enamel is
used in small quantities, such as in the Celtic jewellery, the book-
covers, and the Church and Corporation plate of the Gothic and early
Renascence period, and the early Byzantine cloisonne, such as the
Hamilton brooch in the British Museum, and the Pala d’Oro of
S. Mark’s, Venice, which was made at Constantinople for the Doge
Orseolo in A.D. 976, and has 83 panels of fine cloisonne enamel set
in a framework of gold.
The “ Plique a jour" the “ Baisse taille ” and the Pertubghur enamels
are fine examples of appropriateness of treatment with translucency
or opalescence and richness of colour.
The Japanese cloisonne with its literal treatment of natural forms,
and the painted enamel portraits of Francis I. and contemporary
princes by Leonard Limousin, clever as they undoubtedly are, lack
the depth and purity of colour obtained by the early methods.
Frequently, however, the Penicauds, Nardou, and Jean I. and II.
obtained some richness in the painted enamels by the use of
“ Paillons ” or pieces of metallic foil which were afterwards flooded
with translucent enamel.
1
19
 .

GOLD AND SILVER Plate 40

ROMAN
SILVER. CUPS,
FROM THE TREASURE TRpVE
OF HI LDE5HEIM BERTHS.
,

OCTAOOMAL
GOLDVE5SEL.PAPJ
OF THE TREASURE OF PETROSSA
BUKARE5T MUSEU^\

THE TARA
BROOCH.
lCT'CETITUKX
DUBLIM

THE
Limerick
CROSJLER
SiLVEROJLLT
PASTORAL
STAFF ,
1

4^;
EHRJCHED WIIH 1

TRATiSLUCEEIT
EHAMELS.
IRISH.
EARLY
\y" CENTURY.

I 20
 OLD AND SILVER,
With ductility, and beauty of
their intrinsic value,
colour, have long been associated with the decorative
arts of the past, and the many splendid examples
still in existence are a tribute to the culture and
personality of the craftsman.
Beautiful early examples were found in 1859 with
the mummy of Queen Aah-Hotep (1800 B.C., Cairo Museum), and
consisted of bracelets, armlets, rings, chains, a diadem, a small model
of a war galley, and a poniard, all of exquisite workmanship and of
pure gold, enriched with jasper and turquoise vitreous pastes. At
Petrossa, in 1837 (Bukarest Museum), some splendid gold objects of
Byzantine workmanship were found, consisting of two neck-rings or
Torques, a large salver, hammered and chased, a ewer, a bowl with
figures in repousse, four fibulae enriched with precious stones, a
gorget, and two double-handled cups (plate 40). At Guarrazar, in
Spain, ten gold votive crowns of Gothic workmanship were found :

one inscribed with the name of King Suintila (A.D. 630) is now in
the Museum at Madrid ;
the others are in the Hotel Cluny, Paris, the
largest having the name of King Rescesvinthus (A.D. 670) in pendive
letters.
Of silversmiths’ work, the most important is the “Treasure of
Hildesheim,” found in 1868 (Berlin Museum),
consisting of cups, vases, and
thirty objects,
dishes, beautiful in contour and admirably en-
riched with delicate repousse work of the Greco-
Roman period (plate 40).
Of the gold and silver vessels used by Solomon arch op
in the temple, we have only a representation of
the seven-branched'* golden candlestick on the
T * TU5
i ^
(%
Arch of Titus, at Rome.
English work of an early date is rare, but there are two very
beautiful examples, one, the gold ring of Ethelwulf, enriched with
blue Champleve enamel, now in the
British Museum, and Alfred’s jewel of
gold, with cloisonne, opaque, and trans-
lucent enamels, with the inscription
“ Alfred me has worked ” this is, with
:

SILVER. BOWL
fLEPOU5?E
the single exception of the S. Ambrose
pl a quels altar-frontal, the oldest signed enamel
of GOLD
extant (871-901, Ashmolean Museum,
the Af\DAGH CHALICE Oxford).
IM THE R.OYAL 1RJ5H ACADEMY
Contemporary Irish work was even
more skilful, and the Ardagh chalice of silver, with gold filigree and
enamel enrichments, and the Tara brooch (plate 40) are fine examples.
The wealth and elaborate ritual of the mediaeval church called
I 2 I
GOLD AND SILVER Plate 41

122
forth the finest effort of the craftsman, more especially the gold and
silversmiths, who England, perhaps more than in other countries,
in
produced abundant examples of ecclesiastical plate. Altar-frontals
of gold, used only on rare festivals, are some of the richest relics of
the past. An example (iith century) was given by the
early
Emperor Henry II. (Cluny Museum).
to the Cathedral of Basle It
is of gold, 3 ft. high and 5 ft. 6 in. wide, and has many figures in

relief. At S. Ambrose, Milan, is an altar-frontal of silver-gilt, set

with precious stones and enamels, and signed by “ Wolvinus,” an
Anglo-Saxon, and dated A.D. 838. The great altar-frontal or Bala
d’Oro of S. Mark’s, Venice, was commenced in 976 at Constantinople.
It is 9 ft. 9 in. wide, and 6 ft. 6 in. high, consisting of 83 plaques of
gold, on which are figures of our Saviour, angels, and saints in cloi-
sonne enamels, and set with precious stones.
The early two-handled chalices were frequently very large, and it
is recorded that Charlemagne gave one of pure gold, set with precious

stones, and weighing 53 lbs., to S. Peter’s at Rome. From the 12th

century the chalice became smaller and without handles, and the
bowl semi-ovid or conical. The knob or boss on the stem, together
with the base, are usually lobed or hexafoil, and enriched with
repousse work and enamels (plate 41).
The pax, introduced in the 13th century, was a small rectangular
plaque, used in the celebration of the Mass to convey the kiss of
peace. The cross, the shrine, the reliquary, the pix, the ciborium,
the monstrance, the thurible or censer were of gold and silver,
enriched with jewels and enamels or delicate repousse work.
The pastoral staff, or crosier, was first a staff of wood, capped by
a ball or knob with a simple volute then later the knob developed
;

into tabernacle work, with canopies and figures, and the volute or
crook, enriched with crockets, frequently enclosed the Agnus Dei
(Lamb of God) or other sacred group. The early crosiers (12th or
13th centuries) were usually of copper, gilt and enamelled, and of
Limoges workmanship. From the 14th century, gold, silver, and
ivory were the materials generally used, The Limerick Crosier is a
good illustration of this period (plate 40).
Contemporary with this splendid ecclesiastical work was the
college and corporation plate, of which the Lynn Cup (plate 40) is
perhaps one of the most beautiful among many magnificent exam-
ples extant. The Leigh Cup (plate 41, fig. 1) and salt-cellar (fig. 2)
are also of the Gothic period, but with the first half of the 16th cen-
tury, the Renascence appears in the works of the great goldsmiths,
such as Benvenuto Cellini, of Italy, Etienne de Laune, of France
and Jamnitzer, of Germany. With Holbein’s design for a gold cup
(plate 40) the English Renascence appears, and civic plate was en-
riched with strap-work and cartouches, with foliated pendants of
fruit and flowers (figs. 3 and 4, plate 41). In the 17th century, the
acanthus foliage, with delicate chasing and relief, is the chief feature.
123
 5

WROUGHT IRON Plate 42.

GRILLE. T PAULS
7 EmRANCC GRl L UL .WYMYARD PARK DATE 164-8 CATH C DRAL - WfMDOW G U C. BRESCIA.
;

BEAT EM WC'« * fe.5HIE!D\

BOLT CD TO THE BA«5.

124
 ROUGHT IRON.
The decorative qualities of iron, with its strength,
durability, and comparative cheapness, have ren-
dered it one of the most useful metals in the applied
arts. Many fine Norman hinges of wrought iron
are still in existence, having a straight central bar
or strap, with small scroll terminations ;
these central straps were
strengthened with crescent-shaped pieces, terminating in small serpent
forms, probably a survival of the Viking traditions. This form of
hinge was succeeded by the early Gothic hinge, which was a series of
spirals springing from the straight bar or strap, the spiral being
welded or fastened with collars these spirals were enriched with a
;

three-lobed foliage, or trefoil, typical of the early Gothic period fine

;

examples of this hinge occur on the west door of Notre Dame, Paris,
where this typical spiral has the trefoil leaf, with birds, dragons, and
small rosettes in stamped iron. This stamped characteristic may be
seen, but in a less degree, in the fine hinges of Leighton Buzzard
Church, Eaton Bray Church, Bedfordshire, and the Eleanor grill in
Westminster Abbey, by Thomas de Leghton, in 1294. In the 14th
and 15th centuries, when panelled doors took the place of the earlier
doors, this early Gothic style of hinge was not needed (fig. 5), so that
we find no trace of it in that period, but the art of wrought iron was
continued with the hammered and chiselled hinges and lock plates of
the most varied and delicate workmanship, which enriched the beautiful
Gothic chests of the 14th and 15th centuries. The simple wrought
screen, which was so largely used in the 13 th century was now
elaborated, especially in Italy, and fine examples of quatre-foil grilles
with massive wrought framing and a rich frieze of foliage, cupids, and
animals in pierced and hammered iron are to be seen at the cathedrals
of Orvieto, Prato, and Siena, dating from about 1337 to 1350, and at
Santa Croce, Florence (1371) but it was in Spain and France that
;

the screen reached its culmination. The Spanish screens or “ Rejas”

in the cathedrals of Seville, Toledo, and Granada have a fine range of
turned and chiselled vertical bars some 30 to 50 feet high, with an
elaborate frieze and cresting.
Beautiful wrought and chiselled gates were erected in France about
1658, for the Louvre and Royal Chateaux of Anet and Econeu.
There are some fine wrought gates at S. Paul’s and at Hampton
Court by Jean Tijon, who published some drawings of them in
1694, and many good simple gates of the last century are still in
existence in many parts of the country.
The wrought iron gate piers in St. George’s Chapel, Windsor,
with their architectural treatment of open panelling, cresting, and
massive buttresses, are filed, bolted and riveted, and are splendid
examples of Flemish workmanship, probably by Quintin Matsys
(1450-1529).
25
BRONZES Plate

one of the
BRONZES v f*T^CS7 <D*
INCISED or 5IRJ5 . HEIGHT
DESIGN ON ETRU5CAN MIRROR PORTION or GREER ARMOUR
ATHEfiA.HEP.ME5 g> PERSEUS. BRONZE REPOU55 E.
p-mtish muscum. bronze tripod prom pompei BRITISH MUStUM

KNOCKER FORMED -OF DOLPHINS & 5ATrR£

Italian. 1570. S.k museum
or. candlestick
LflrtP
ITALIAN .1570. SOUTH KEMSinCTOn MU5CUM
CANDELABRA
PROA KERCULAHEUM.
NAPLES MUSEUM
CANDELABRA fROM
HERCULANEUM. 79 AD
MU5EUM AT MAPLES
IM THE

BRONZE KNCCKEfG.
FROM THE PALAZZO TREVISANO BRONZE GRJLLf. IN THE .

vcmcc. I6" Cchtu«y. SUSPENDED LAPTP CATHEDRAE PRaTO. FROM,

.
.

!<t^l c,
'
7

in ?i5A CATHEDRAL. a DESIGN PY BRUNELLE5CHI

i5tACC A
1 lt>00
% .

126
 RONZES.
Bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, has been in
use from a remote period its adaptability for
;

casting, its durability and colour, render this

material one of extreme beauty and usefulness.
Among the many examples of antiquity are
the 1,000 statues of Osiris, found in the temple
of Rameses III., and the bands of figure sub-
jects in relief from the Assyrian Balawat gates, now in the British
Museum. In Greece, bronze was wrought with exquisite skill and
refinement, and the name of Lysippos (340 B.C.), is usually associated
with the finest statues.
Two beautiful repousse bronzes (fig. 4), probably by Lysippos,
found in 1820 near the river Siris, in Italy, are admirable examples
of this period. Many Greek statues have been found in Pompeii and
Herculaneum, of which the beautiful statuette of Narcissus is the
best known, and many bronze heads are still extant with the eyes
formed of ivory or beautiful stones and jewels.
Etruscan bronzes have a most expressive treatment of incised lines,
which differentiates them from the repousse work of the Greeks.
The bronze mirrors with an incised treatment of classic mythology
(fig. 2), and the cistae, or toilet caskets, all found, with but few

exceptions, at Palestrina, are typical of Etruscan bronzes. The

finest example known is the “ Ficoroni Cista ” of the 3rd century,
B.C. Its cylindrical sides are enriched with a representation of the
“ Argonauts,” by Morion Plantios, and it is now in the “ Collegio
Romano” (see “Magazine of Art,” 1880, and “ Murray’s Handbook
of Greek Archaeology”). Of small decorative bronzes, Naples museum
alone has over 14,000 examples, consisting of candelabra, tripods
(figs. 3,7, 8, and 11), tables, chairs, and couches, which eighteen
centuries ago were used by wealthy Roman citizens.
Early bronze equestrian statues are the “ Nero ” found at Pompeii
(Naples museum), and the Marcus Aurelius at Rome (a.d. 175, plate
44). The four bronze horses, now in front of S. Mark’s, at
Venice, are probably of the time of Nero. Later examples are the
“ Gattamelata ” at Padua, by Donatello
(1453), the magnificent
“ Colleone ” at Venice (plate by Verrochio and Leopardi, and the
44),
“Louis XIV.” by Girardon, cast by Jean Baltazar Keller in 1699,
and destroyed in the French Revolution. Many fine bronze effigies
are still extant, which replaced the earlier effigies of Purbeck marble,
such as the Earl of Salisbury at Salisbury (1227), and the earliest
recumbent figures in gilded bronze are those of Henry VI. (1272),
and Queen Eleanor (1291), in Westminster Abbey, by William
Torell, goldsmith of London. In Canterbury Cathedral is the fine
effigy of the Black Prince (1376). The Richard II. and his Queen,
in Westminster Abbey, are by Nicholas Broker and Geoffrey Prest
(
1
395 )> and at Warwick is the magnificent Earl of Warwick, by
William Austin and Thomas Stevens (1453).
127
 .,

BRONZES. Plate 44 '

EQUE5TRIAH STATUE
OF BARTOLOMEO
COLEONE
BY ANDREA
VERROCCHIO
% ALESSANDRp
JLEOFARDO.
A.D.1488
VENICE-

OME GATE OF BAPTISTERY STATUE OF PERSEUS

AT FLORENCE , BY BY CELLINI
lDfqcnzo oumiiRTi. Florence .

128
 The Florentine Torrigiano in 1512, made the beautiful recumbent
effigies of Henry VII. and his Queen (see page 73), and also the
Countess of Richmond, which are in Westminster Abbey, where there
are also the gilded bronzes of the Duke of Buckingham (1628), and the
Duke and Duchess of Richmond (1623), by an unknown artist. The
statue of Charles I. by Le Sueur, and the Charles II. at Chelsea, and
the James II. at Whitehall, by Grinling Gibbons, are later English
examples of bronzes.
In Rome, the recumbent effigies of Sixtus IV. (1493), and
Innocent VIII., which are the finest of Renascence bronzes, were by
Antonio Pollajuolo. In 1508 Michel Angelo made the colossal
seated statue of Pope Julius II., which was over the door of S.
Petronio at Bologna. Benvenuto Cellini (1 500-70), was the great
Florentine goldsmith his “ Nymph of Fontainebleau,” a relief in
;

bronze for the lunette over the door of the Palace, is now in the
Louvre, but his masterpiece is the “ Perseus ” (plate 44), in the Loggia
dei Lanzi, at Florence, where the “Judith and Holofernes ” by Dona-
tello is also placed. Another eminent master was Giovanni da
Bologna, who executed the beautiful fountain with the figure of
Neptune, at Bologna.
The Shrine of S. Sebald at Nuremberg, by Peter Vischer (1508-9),
and the figure of the Emperor Maximilian at Innsbruck, by Lodovico
Scalza of Milan, which is enclosed by an elaborate grille, and sur-
rounded by twenty-eight large bronze statues of men in armour, are
excellent examples of German Renascence.
Many of the early historical buildings still retain their original
bronze gates. Those of the Pantheon (A.D. 118-38), are still in
position, also those of the cathedral at Hildesheim, with the panels
of scriptural subjects in high relief, and the name and date of Bishop
Bernward (1015). Early Byzantine gates cast in Constantinople by
Staurachios, are at Amalfi (1066), and at S. Salvator, Atrani (1087),
enriched with figures in silver damascening.
The west door of San Zeno, Verona (12th century), is of wood,
covered with panels of repousse work (see plates 1 -3, “ Arata Pentelici,”
by Ruskin). Early cast bronze gates in Italy are those of S. Ambroise,
Milan (1170), and at Trani, Ravello, and Monreale Cathedral (by
Bonanno, 1 1 86), having relief panels and bosses upon the style of the
door. In 1150, Bonanno cast some gates for the cathedral at Pisa,
which were destroyed, with the exception of one, by fire in 1596,
the west door being replaced in 1600 by a fine work by Giovanni da
Bologna.
Of the Renascence bronzes, the Baptistry gates are the most
remarkable (see page 44), while others are those of S. Peter’s, by
Simone and Filarete (1439), the door of the old Sacristy of the
cathedral at Florence, by Lucca della Robbia (the only bronze by
this master, 1464-74), and the “ Baldacchino ” of bronze, 95 ft. high,
covering the high altar of S. Peter’s, and cast from the ancient bronze
enrichments of the dome of the Pantheon, by order of Pope Urban
VIII., in 1633.
1
29 I
FURNITURE Plate 45

^ ^V- —- ‘
7- . ^ . -Ci ~

130
 ECORATIVE FURNITURE.
Caskets, chests, and cabinets, chairs, tables, couches,
and bedsteads have been of universal use during
many ages, differentiated in design and craftsman-
ship according to the culture, wealth, and customs of
the people, and the versatility, inventiveness, and
skill of the craftsman. Many materials have been used for furniture,
the chief being wood of various kinds, which was selected for its
constructive qualities, beautiful texture, grain, and colour, and its
adaptability to carving and inlay.
The universal use of the chair has doubtless tended to preserve its
typical form through many centuries, and though undergoing various

modifications, it has still retained its essential character as a seat.

Numerous found on the carved reliefs
illustrations of early chairs are
of ancient Egypt and Assyria, and there are in the British Museum
some early Egyptian chairs, one of which is of ebony, with uprights
turned in the lathe, and inlaid with ivory. Many
Greek chairs, remarkable for their simple and beauti-
ful form, are shown upon the early Greek vases and ;

the Roman “ Sella Curulis,” or chair of senators and

consuls, is represented on the Byzantine ivories (plate
46, fig. 9).

The Chair of S. Peter, of the 1st century A.Di,

which has enrichments of ivory and gold, is purely
architectonic in form, and the same may be said of
the coronation chair (fig. 7), which is the earliest
example extant in England. The Gothic chairs,
few of which remain, were of the box form, with
carved linen-fold panels. During the age of Eliza-
beth, chairs were of oak, with turned supports, the
back having an arcade in low relief or in open work.
This form of chair was continued during the reign of
James I., when the “ Farthingale Chair” (chair with-
vtnmonc_majiv
out arms) was introduced.
16
In the period of Charles
I., walnut was introduced, and the chairs had twisted

supports and rails, the back and seat being covered with pigskin
131
or with stamped and coloured Spanish leather. In the reign of
Charles II. and James II., the twisted or the carved and scrolled
form of legs were common, with the seat and portion of back in cane,
and the back, cresting, and rails in richly-carved open work, similar
to fig. io. In the time of William and Mary, the long supports were
turned, and the front supports and arms turned and scrolled, the back
of the chair being of open work, or covered with plain or patterned
velvets. The chairs with simple curved or cabriole front legs, the
arms, seat, and back upholstered with cut velvets, are characteristic
of the Queen Anne period.
With George II. and III., we come to the use of mahogany and
the work of Thomas Chippendale, who published a work on furniture
in 1754, 1759, and 1762. His chairs have
frequently straight legs, with shallow sunk
carving, or the carved cabriole leg and claw
foot the back is of open work of scrolls,
:

strap-work, or ribbon-work, with delicate

carving. Mathias Lock published a book on
furniture in 1765 and 1768. In 1789 and
1794, A. Hepplewhite published a set of
designs, which largely influenced contem-
porary furniture. Much of his work is
CHIPPENDALE. SHERATON.
refined and delicate in treatment and
distinctive in form, such as his chairs with the shield-shaped backs.
M. A. Pergolesi published a and made some beautiful
folio in 1777,
chairs for Robert Adam, with and refined scrolled
straight fluted legs
arms and back. Excellent chairs were made by Thomas Sheraton,
with straight legs, turned, fluted, or enriched with delicate carving,
or an inlay of coloured woods, and having a delightful reticence of
form and treatment. Sheraton published in 1791 and 1793 a work
on furniture.
Early Gothic tables were of the trestle form, the ends being of two
pieces, connected by the upper frame and a lower stretcher. The
Renascence table retained this form (figs. 1, 2, 4, and 5), which was
but a survival of the Greek and Roman marble table (fig. 3). The
Elizabethan table had legs of a bulbous form, gadrooned or carved,
with upper and lower rails. The oval Gate-leg table, with spiral or
turned legs, is characteristic of the early Stuart period. Chippendale
frequently used the straight legs and carved or open rails, with a
raised fret-work edge round the edge of the table. Sheraton’s
tables were frequently inlaid with different coloured woods, or of
satin-wood veneer, painted with flowers or wreaths, and polished by
hand. The ornament of Sheraton is seldom original, but founded
upon that of Adams (plate 26), consisting of rosettes, urns, scrolls,
and festoons. The artists Cipriani, and Angelica Kauffman, are
known to have decorated furniture for the brothers Adam.
Early cupboards were of oak, with pierced and carved tracery
132
panels, which were followed by the linen-fold panel, a favourite mode
of enrichment from 1480 to 1560. In the early Renascence (plate
23), the Gothic and classic styles were intermingled, but a little later
the panels were carved with medallion-heads and wreaths. This was
followed by the classic furniture designed by the French architects
Philibert de l’Orme, de Cerceau, who published a book on furniture in
1 5 50 (fig. 2), and Jean Bullant, and the famous master ebenistes of the

Renascence, of whom the best known is Andre Boule (1642-1702),

who used a fine inlay of tortoise-shell and brass (“ Boule work ”)
upon ebony or mahogany, enhanced with gilded bronze mounts.
In Louis XV.’s reign, Charles
Cressent (1685-1768), a pupil of
Boule, produced fine examples of
“ Boule work ” and applique bronze

enrichments. Other great ebenistes

of this Rocaille period were Juste
Aureli Meissonier (1695-1750),
and the brothers Slodtz, also
Jacques Caffieri, a craftsman of
extraordinary dexterity and cap-
rice in metal mountings for fur-
niture. Magnificent mahogany
cabinets, enriched with marque-
try, and Sevres porcelain plaques
were characteristic of this period,
as was also some beautiful furni-
ture by Robert Martin (1706-70)
and his brothers, lacquered with a transparent green and
gold lac (“Vernis Martin”).
With Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette, a reaction set in
for more restraint in ornament and severity of line and form,
and the beautiful cabinets by Reisner and David Roentgen
were remarkable for refined craftsmanship and beauty of
ornamentation, with a marquetry of flowers, festoons, and
diaper borders of rosewood, tulip, pear, and lime upon mahog-
any and ebony they were enhanced with bronze mountings
;

by Gouthiere, who was a renowned and skilful craftsman.

The Elizabethan and Jacobean periods were famous for
their tester bedsteads,which have richly-carved panelled or
arcaded backs, the tester also having elaborate panelling and
carving. The baluster pillars at the foot usually have square
bases, with pierced or open arcadings, and the slender pillars
above have wide bulbous divisions, gadrooned or carved.
In Italy, during the 16th century, many beautiful cassone ,

or chests, were produced, enriched with carving (fig. 6),

Gesso, and gilding, or painted by the great masters of the Renas-
cence. Intarsia (an inlay of wood) was universal in Italy for the
enrichment of the beautiful choir stalls of the 15th and 16th centuries.
133
WOOD CARVING. Plate 46.

134
 OOD CARVING.
Wood carving is perhaps one of the earliest and
most universal of the industrial arts. The splendid
carved statues and statuettes found in the early
tombs of Egypt, the vigorous reliefs of the spiral and
dragon from the Scandinavian churches (plate 14),
the intricate spirals of New Zealand (plate 1), the pierced and carved
screens of India, the beautiful carving on the furniture of the Renas-
cence (plate 45), and the delicate and skilful work of Grinling Gibbons
bear tribute to the universal skill of craftsmanship, which reached
its highest point of excellence in the later Gothic and Renascence
period.
The choir stalls of Amiens Cathedral (plate 20) by Arnold Boulin,
Alexander Huet, and Jean Turpin (1508-22), are magnificent ex-
amples of the versatility and skill of the flamboyant carver. But
France was not alone in the excellence of this craft, for almost con-
temporaneous are the beautiful doors of the Stanza della Incendio
and the Stanza della Eliodoro in the Vatican at Rome (see page 60),
by Giovanni Barili, and the choir stalls in the Cathedral at Siena by
Antonio and Giovanni Barili. The magnificent candelabra and the
delicate carvings and intarsia in the choir of Sante Marie in Organo,
at Verona, by Fra Giovanni da Verona, and the stalls and screen in
Sante Maggiore, Bergamo, by Stephano da Bergamo, are some of the
finest examples of wood carving in Italy. The richly carved oak
stalls by Jorg Syrlin (1464-74) in the Cathedral at Ulm, indicate
the beginning of the intricate and florid scroll-work, which became
the type of the later German Renascence. The hanging screen and
crucifix of S. Lawrence, and the crucifix at S. Sebald’s at Nuremberg
(1518), by Veit Stoss (fig. 2), are admirable examples of the skilful
and florid carving of the German school during the early part of the
16th century.
In Flanders, the splendid chimney-piece in the Palais de Justice,
Bruges, with carvings of Charles V. and his ancestors, by Guyot de
Beaugrant, from designs by Blondell (1 529-31), is rich, yet restrained
in treatment, but in the pulpit of the Cathedral at Brussels, by
Verbruggen (1699), carved with figures and foliage, representing the
expulsion from Paradise, and in the pulpit by Van de Voort in the
Cathedral of Antwerp, carved with naturalistic birds, trees, and
figures, extraordinary technical skill is attained, but with a loss of
dignity and appropriateness of treatment.
Admirable examples, good in design and technique, abound in
English cathedrals, in the screens, canopies, and misereres of the choir
stalls (plates 19, 25, 45) of the 14th and 15th centuries.
With Grinling Gibbons (1648-1721) wood carving reached its
culmination in delicacy and skilful craftsmanship (fig. 4), his principal
works, consisting of flowers, festoons, and birds, are carved chiefly in
lime, of which fine examples are at Belton House and Petworth ;
and
in collaboration with Sir Christopher Wren he executed splendid
carvings in the library at Trinity College, Cambridge, S. Paul’s
Cathedral, S. James’s, Piccadilly, the vestry of S. Lawrence, Jewry,
and at Hampton Court Palace.
35
IVORIES. Plate 47
FIG I

hf LEAF OF n
FORK FROM
J/AConsULARj,
7 nURMBERC
BYZAMTinE DIPTYCH
T
4- c E m xAF diptych MUSEUM
OFTHE COH5UL AMA5TA5IU5 CEMTUR.Y.
OMC LEAF OFA ROMAH DIPTYCH. S^CEFiTUTO T o
1
1
7
SOUTH K.EH5IH0T0H MUSEUM THE LARGEST
!
KrTOWM BYZAMTIME 6™CEMTUf\Y.
THE COMPANlOH LEAF in THi CLUHY MUSEUM IVORY PLAQUE, SOUTH AEn5inGTOn /AU5EUM

136
 VORIES,
Doubtless owing to their beautiful texture, colour and
adaptability for delicate carving, have been in use from
a remote period. Egypt, Assyria, and India have
each contributed many beautiful examples of fine
craftmanship, indicative of the artistic culture of the
centuries preceding the Christian Era.
In the Periclean age of Greece, ivory was used for the figure of
Athene Parthenos by Pheidias, placed inside the Parthenon. This
statue of the standing goddess, 40 ft. high, was of gold and ivory
(called chryselephantine sculpture ), the drapery being of beaten gold
and the exposed parts of the figure of carefully-fitted pieces of ivory.
A seated chryselephantine figure of Jupiter, about 58 ft. high, in the
temple of Olympia, was also by Pheidias. Pausanias, the Roman
traveller, enumerates some ten chryselephantine statues which he saw
in his travels (a.d. 140).
The Roman period is noted for the many beautiful Consular
diptychs, which may now be seen in our national museums. They
consist of two ivory leaves usually 12 by 5 in., the inside having a
slightly sunk plane covered with wax for writing upon, the outside
being enriched with delicate carved reliefs (figs. 7, 8, and 9). These
diptychs were given by new consuls on their appointment, to their
friends and officers of the state. The consul is usually represented
seated on the cushioned curule chair, or chair of state, and his name
is generally written across the top of one leaf.

The Byzantines enriched the covers of their manuscripts with ivory,

of which an illustration is given in fig. 6 the ivory throne of
;

Maximian, Archbishop of Ravenna (A.D. 546-556), is also of this

period. A beautiful treatment of ivory was used in the 13th and
14th centuries by the Saracens of Egypt they frequently worked
;

a fine geometric inlay of ivory upon ebony in other examples ivory

;

panels were pentagonal, hexagonal, or star-shaped, and carved with

delicate arabesques, the framing of the panels being of cedar or ebony.
In India ivory carving reached a high degree of perfection, especially
in the many ivory combs, with pierced and relief work representing
the figure of Buddha surrounded with foliage and richly caparisoned
elephants.
In the Carlovingian period, 8th to 10th centuries, ivory was largely
used for coffers or small chests. During the early Gothic period in
Italy and France, ivory crucifixes, pastoral staffs, croziers, statuettes,
and triptychs were made in large numbers and the ivory combs and
;

mirror cases of the Renascence period have fine reliefs of legendary

or allegorical subjects. Of pictorial ivories the modern Japanese
craftsmen show the highest technical skill, combined with a keen
perception of nature and movement, yet their ivories lack the beauty
and dignity of composition and the decorative treatment of the early
and Mediaeval ivories.
37
BOOKBINDINGS. Plate 48.

PORTION OF A DURHAM
IVOKY BOOKCOVER.K Ccmuuv BINDING IN BROWN LEATHER
NORTH TALY
.

I
BENEDICTINE MONASTERY. DURHAM STAMPED PANEL BTJEHAN NORJNS
.

4 , . ... J52JL.

STAMPED LEATHER BlNDinO. S^OEORGE BOUND FOR TOMMASO MAJOLI Tooled in gold Gdolier binding
BY JOHN REYN E5. 1520. ENGLISH ===============:==
T T + V* +
9
.

1 . 1 'it
4'
*
t
T >’
t
^
4. 1

,f
tliVtTt i- t
t*t t!t ItftH
v
TfHtt
f
?T*V t

#;?
! ??*?

iWr}
T ;
'»*
• T .

RED MOROCCO *
RED MOROCCO BirtDIHG, PORTION OF BLUE MOROCCO
BINDING. TOOLED |®'
IN COLD BY * TOOLED WITH THE ARMS BinDlNO BOUND AND TOOLED
NICHOLAS EVE CYPHER OF LOUIS xm IN GOLD by ROGER PAYNE, 1795

138
 OOKBINDINGS.
The covers used to protect manuscripts and printed
books have always offered a suitable field for deco-
ration, hence ornamental covers of various periods
and materials are numerous. Ivory carved in relief
or cut in open work, was frequently used for early
Byzantine MS. (fig. i). The chief material in use since the ioth
century is leather, stamped with dies or tools. An early example
dating from the ioth century is of red leather, with a raised interlacing
Celtic design, and is now at Stonyhurst. Four remarkable leather
bindings were executed at Durham for Bishop Pudsey (1153-95),
stamped with small dies, of which there are over 50 varieties. Con-
temporaneous with these were similar stamped covers of the
Winchester Domesday Book, produced at Winchester, and the Libre
Sapientiae, at London. This tradition was continued in the 15th
century at Oxford, and by Caxton (1477-91), who frequently used
intersecting diagonal lines, between which small dies were placed.
In the Low Countries and in Germany many beautiful bindings were
produced by the panel stamp. The earliest English example has
the Arms of Edward IV. impressed. Other fine examples are by
F. Egmondt (1493), Richard Pynson (1520), and Jean Norris (1528),
who used the acorn panel (fig. 3), and the S. George by John Reynes
(fig. 4), who was binder with Thomas Berthelet (1542) to Henry VIII.

The introduction of the roll in 1530 superseded the panel, and with
the exception of those by Nicholas Spering, of Cambridge, these
designs with Renascence figures and arcades are not to be compared
for vitality and beauty of detail with those of the earlier period.
The gold tooling, which superseded the “ blind tooling,” was
introduced from Saracenic sources into Europe at Venice, where,
in 1488, Aldus Manutius commenced his fine series of printed books,
and his early bindings (1500-10) had parallel lines and slight Arabian
enrichments at the corners. Then followed the beautiful interlacing
patterns that were executed for the famous book collectors, Tommaso
Maioli (1 507-59) and Count Grolier (1 5 10-65, figs. 5, 6). The Royal
bindings for Francis I. and Henry II. were by Peter Roffet, Philip
le Noir, and Geoffrey Tory, who probably was also responsible for
the Grolier bindings. The 17th century famous French binders were
Nicholas and Clovis Eve (1578-1631, fig. 7), Mace Ruette, and Le
Gascon, famous for his pointille work. The 18th century binders
were Boyet, N. and A. Padeloup and the Deromes, while the bindings
of red morocco with broad tooled borders, executed for the Earl of
Oxford (17 10-41), known as the Harleian style, and the beautiful
and refined bindings by Roger Payne (1795, fig. 9) are of contem-
porary English work.
The early Grolier tools were distinctly Arabian and solid or barred,
while the bindings of “ Eve ” have interlacing circular and square
panels with sprays of foliage. Some French bindings for Henry IV.
are tooled with a semis of monograms or flowers.
Examples 5 to 9 are in the John Rylands Library, Manchester.
139
TEXTILE EABRICS. Plate

SILKDAMA5K SICILIAN |3~CENTUW SICILIAM . VENETIAN. Fiw A PEKSIAN DESIGN

wtSiwmnuKuiSL '
bock collection! nAncnt-iTEA
. . i5"Centuey.

140
 —

EXTILE FABRICS.
The utility, universality, construction, texture, orna-
mentation, and colour of textile fabrics are full of
interest and suggestiveness, for in the remarkable
development of textile fabrics we may trace the
continuity of style and tradition, the intermingling
of races and customs, and the grafting of religious ideas with the
wealth and luxuriance of the past. All fabrics wrought in the loom
are called textiles. They are broadly divided into three classes :

(i) Plain fabrics in which the warp and weft alternate equally; (2)
those fabrics in which a pattern is produced by the warp and weft
intermingling in different proportions or colours, figured cloths and
tapestries being included in this class; (3) those fabrics in which
the plain textile No. 1 is enriched with the needle or by printing,
termed embroideries or printed fabrics.
Owing to their perishable nature few remains of ancient textile
fabrics are in existence. The oldest examples are found in the tombs
of Egypt, where, owing to the dryness of the climate, some fabrics of
the early dynasties still remain. They are usually of fine linen, and
without enrichment, yet upon the same tombs are many painted
patterns that undoubtedly show a woven origin. The oldest figured
fabrics found in Egypt are of the 6th century A.D., and they show a
remarkable similarity to the early patterns of Persia and Byzantium,
for it was in India, Persia, and Arabia that textiles reached their
perfection of workmanship, and their wealth of material. This
splendid tradition was carried from Persia and India to Byzantium
in the 5th century, and in the 8th century the Arabians absorbed
and assimilated the arts of Persia, India, Egypt, and Spain, and
brought the art of weaving to its culmination during the 14th and
15th centuries.
The ornamental designs of textile fabrics of different nations and
periods are characterised by well-defined forms, differentiated by
racial influence, climatic conditions and the myths and traditions of
the people. Yet the traditional Eastern origin may be traced through
many textile designs, for there is no doubt that India, Persia, and
Arabia influenced the designs of textile fabrics more than other
nations. This was due no doubt partly to the Eastern weavers
carrying their art and traditions with them to various parts of
Europe, and also to the exportation of their splendid fabrics, but
principally to the beautiful and interesting designs, which were
perfectly adapted to the process of weaving. It is due no doubt to
this frank adaptation of natural forms and their appropriateness to
the technical necessities of woven fabrics, that has rendered this
Eastern influence so persistent through many centuries in different
parts of Europe. It is remarkable that even in Italy during the
whole of the Renascence period, with the characteristic scroll forms
141
and acanthus foliation of its architecture and decorative arts, the
textiles are quite distinct in style, having the characteristics of the
Sicilian, Persian, and Indian ornament
In the 1 2th century, Roger II., the Norman King of Northern
Sicily, took Corinth and Argos, and carried many weavers and
embroiderers from Greece to Sicily,
and established them at Palermo,
where they quickly assimilated the
Sicilian style, and produced many
fine fabrics during the 13th and 14th
centuries.
The crusades now began to in-
fluence the arts. In 1098, Antioch
was taken, and the spoil distributed
through Europe. In 1204, Constan-
tinople was taken by Baldwin, Count
of Flanders, and the Venetian Doge,
Dandolo, and the vast spoil of tex-
tiles distributed. It was doubtless
under the influence of the crusades
that the Sicilian weavers of the 13th
and 14th centuries produced the
many beautiful fabrics enriched with
winged lions, foliated crosses and
crowns, rayed stars, harts and birds
linked together, and with the intro-
duction of armorial bearings. Early
SICILIAN FABRIC.
in the 14th century this splendid
tradition was introduced into Italy, and at Lucca many beautiful
fabrics were produced, having the same characteristics and technique
as the Sicilian fabrics.
The cloak upon the recumbent bronze figure of Richard II., in
Westminster Abbey, has a pattern of foliage, with couchant harts
and rayed stars, and was most probably copied from the original
silk made for Richard at Lucca or Palermo.
The beautiful materials and designs of Indian textile fabrics are
indicative of the love of nature and the splendour of colour of a
remote antiquity. Though influenced at various times by Greek,
Persian, and Arabian traditions, India still preserved an indigenous
ornamental art of remarkable freshness and vitality, the designers
choosing their own flora and fauna with rare selective power and
adaptive qualities. With an instinctive feeling for ornamental art,
aided by the splendid colourings of the native dyes, they produced
textile fabrics of silks, brocades, and gold and silver lace remarkable
for richness and perfection of material, beauty of design, and harmony
of colour.
The Indian pine is a familiar form of enrichment, differentiated
142
Plate
from the cypress of Persia (fig. i, plate 29) by the spiral at the apex.
This typical pine is treated with a wonderful diversity of detail (figs.
4, 5, and 6, plate 30). The splendid carpets of India were doubtless
influenced by the Persian tradition, and they follow the same
methods and ornamental arrangements, adapting, conventionalizing,
and emphasising plants, flowers, and seeds, and rendering them with
a fine feeling for form and colour. Block printing was largely used
for silks and cottons, and many splendid examples are now treasured
in our museums. An illustration of a printed cotton Palampore
from South Kensington is given on the previous page, showing the
beautiful floral treatment, diversity of detail, and contrast of line and
mass. The gold and silver brocades, or “ Kincobs,” of Ahmedabad
and Benares, with patterns of animals, flowers, and foliage richly
spangled, the delicate muslins of Dacca, the gold and silver printed
muslins of Jaipur, and the woollen shawls of Kashmir with the well-
known pine pattern, are splendid examples of richness of material,
delicacy and skilfulness of technique, and beauty and appropriate-
ness of ornamentation.
The pile carpets of Persia, especially those of Kurdistan, Khoras-
san, Kirman, and Ferahan, are the finest in the world, being magnifi-
cent in colour and having bold conventional patterns of their beautiful
flora, with birds and animals interspersed with the ornament, giv-
ing a largeness of mass and interest and vitality of detail. The
hyacinth, tulip, iris, and the pink are frequently introduced, together
with the horn, or tree of life. An illustration is given (fig. 2, plate
29) of a Genoa fabric, but of Persian design, showing the typical
“ pink ” with its simplicity and beauty of line. This traditional art
of Persia had a most marked influence upon the textile fabrics of
Europe from the 12th to the 17th centuries. This was no doubt due
to many causes but the perfect adaptability to the process of weav-
;

ing, the interest, inventiveness, and beauty of the ornament, and the
singular frank treatment of form and colour, doubtless appealed to
the craftsmen of Europe, and hence we find many Persian designs
produced in Sicily, Spain, Italy, France, and Flanders.
The finest silk velvets and damasks produced from the looms of
Florence show a distinct Persian influence in their bold artichoke
and pomegranate patterns of the 16th and 17th centuries. In Genoa,
similar patterns in many coloured velvets were produced, and it is
singular how largely this persistency of type prevails in all
countries.
In 1480, Louis XI. introduced the art into France, when looms
were established at Tours, and in 1520 they were established at
Lyons by Francis I., and the art of weaving rapidly spread. The
earliest fabrics of these looms have patterns similar to the Persian
and Italian fabrics; but soon the vase pattern, which no doubt
had its origin in Byzantine textiles and which had been used by the
Persians and Italians, began to influence French designs.
144
 However, this rapidly gave place, towards the middle of the 17th
century, to the imitation of ribbons and laces in textile fabrics,
together with a more naturalistic treatment of floral forms, and the
beauty, suggestiveness, and interest of the early patterns now gave
way to prettiness, affectation, and a naturalistic treatment which
culminated in the period of Madame Pompadour.
The remarkable invention of perforated cards for facilitating the
weaving of figured fabrics was introduced by Bonchon (1725), and
continued by Falcon in 1728, by Van-
canson in 1745, and perfected by Joseph
Marie Jacquard (1752-1834).
The revocation of the Edict of Nantes
in 1685 by Louis XIV. caused numbers
of weavers to come to England, bring-
ing their art and tradition with them, and
many established themselves at Spital-
fields, which soon rose to some impor-
tance. The patterns, necessarily, were
purely French in treatment, consisting
of natural arrangements of flowers.
The textile fabrics of Flanders reached
a high degree of perfection in the 16th
and 1 7th centuries, Bruges being famous
for its silk damasks and velvets, the patterns showing the traditional
Persian, or the pomegranate and artichoke type of the Florentine
textiles.
Block printing had been introduced into Flanders in the 1 5th
century, and many fine patterns with Indian motives were pro-
duced up to the 17th century.
At Ypres, fine diapered linen was manufactured, and Ghent was
famous for its woollens, but the remarkable prosperity of Flanders
was destroyed by the Spanish occupation (1556-1648).
Then large numbers of Flemish weavers came to England and
settled in many parts of the country, bringing their traditions and
craftsmanship, which have undoubtedly had a most marked in-
fluence upon the production of cotton and woollen textile fabrics in
England.
Tapestry, of which many fine examples of the 16th and 17th cen-
turies are treasured in our museums and palaces, differs from most
woven fabrics in its method of production, which consists of inter-
weaving and knotting short pieces of coloured wefts, which form the
pattern, to a strong warp, a ground weft being thrown across each
pick to bind the material well together.
This is almost the same method as that used in the manufacture
of the Indian and Persian carpets. It was during the 14th and 15th
centuries, at Arras in Flanders, that storied tapestries were brought
to their culmination, and the tapestry workers became a most powerful

145 K
guild. From about 1480, Brussels produced many magnificent
hangings from designs by the great masters of the Italian Renascence.
Raphael’s famous cartoons, which are now in the South Kensington
Museum, are the original designs for the ten tapestries manufactured
at Brussels for Pope Leo X., for the enrichment of the Sistine Chapel
in the Vatican the seven cartoons, three being lost, were purchased
;

by Charles I.

Many of the great Flemish painters also designed for the Brussels
tapestries,such as Van Orley, Van Leyden, and Jan Mabuse.
Francis I. caused tapestry looms to be set up at Fontainebleau in
1339, under the direction of the Italian, Serlio, but it was not until
the Gobelin tapestry manufactory was established in 1603 i n the
Faubourg Saint Marcel by the Fleming, Marc de Comans, and
Francois de la Planche, that French tapestry reached any importance.
Under the Minister Colbert in 1667, the Royal Gobelin manufactory
produced many fine tapestries designed by the head of the establish-
ment, Charles le Brun.
About 1590, some carpets, called Savonnerie, were made in the
Louvre, the technique being somewhat similar to the Persian carpets,
but the patterns were more pictorial and naturalistic in treatment.
Fine tapestries were also produced at Beauvais and Aubusson.
Tapestry had been manufactured in England as early as the reign
of Edward III., but it was not until the time of James I. that it
assumed any importance, when a tapestry manufactory was estab-
lished at Mortlake by Francis Crane.
Some fine Flemish tapestries are in the South Kensington Museum,
and eight large pieces by Bernard Van Orley are in the Great Hall
of Hampton Court. The coloured cartoons by Mantegna in Hamp-
ton Court, representing the Triumph of Caesar, were to be reproduced
in tapestry for the Duke of Mantua. There are some fine Gobelin
and Beauvais tapestries in Windsor Castle which were gifts from the
Court of France, and they all show the most consummate technique,
beauty of material, and harmony of colour. The well-known
Bayeux tapestry is embroidered in coloured wools upon a white
linen ground. It is 214 ft. in length and 22 inches in width, and
divided in 72 compartments, with incidents representing the Norman
invasion of England by William I. Though reputed to be the work
of Queen Matilda, the probability is that it is the work of English
hands some few years after the invasion. This embroidery or tapes-
try is still preserved in the Cathedral of Bayeux.
The remarkable civilization of the Incas or Peruvians is shown in
the many splendid objects of the industrial arts now treasured in our
museums. Of these relics of a vanished civilization, the textile
fabrics are perhaps the most instructive and interesting. The high
technical skill of the craftsmanship, the fine spinning of the wool and
cotton, and the perfection of the dyeing of the yarn, together with
the skilful weaving of the figured cloths and tapestries, are a tribute
147
 6 .

TEXTILE FABRICS. Plate 52.

51 MOLE A\ULLIOn PATTERN. FLOWER- VA5E PATTER. LATE

FLEMISH 16™ CENTUMT I6 TH CENTUMYVENETIAN.
BOCK COLLECTION nANCHE5TEfV

DROCATELLE ITALIAN I6™CEMTURJ

S.K.^A

DOUBLE MULLION PATTER • ITALIAN

^CENTURY. MAM CHESTER BOCK COLLECTION
Jn.

VELVET FROM OEMOA FK.O/A A PERSIAN

DESIGN Ife™ CEMTUKy. 5 .K.M
.

th
VELVET. ITALIAN CENTURY
£
I

MU5EE DE5 APT5 DECOMVTI F5 PAM 5

i
I .
 and civilization of a people remote from all Asiatic or
to the vitality
European influences.
These Peruvian textiles are remarkable for the absence of the
beautiful flora of Peru
MMUMIIftiilllilM
as elements for decora-
tion. The fret is a fre-
quent form of enrich-
ment. The wave scroll
so typical of Greek work
is also a remarkable ele-
ment in Peruvian orna-
ment, and illustrates the
singular development of
the same ideas and as-
pect of form among
people so remote from
each other as the Greeks
and Peruvians. But the
patterns that sharply
differentiate Peruvian
examples from all other
r styles are the conven-
biiiiimiiiiiiwimniiiiii

KEY PATTEKM tional treatments of fig-

DOUBLE CLOTH in BKPWM t>YELLPW. M pRowrit^EUC'.
ures, birds, fishes, and
animals. The llama
conspic- is

uous in many patterns, but the

bird forms are the most remark-
able, having many variations of
type and treatment.
It is difficult to fix any date
for these Peruvian examples,
but as it is known that during
the reign of Inca Pachacutic
(circa 1390) the ceramic art
was at its best, we may assume
that the sister art of weaving
reached its perfection about the
same period, and continued until
the Spanish Conquest in the
1 6th century.
Many of the fabrics are of
M2 double cloth, of deep brown and
biouvMtniXHMmiiuiuHiiiiiiimmiriiiiiiiii

liminuiif iurnl|ir>IUIllll , !ilitiCllllMllllllllll>(IIBIIIIIillRlil

1
pale straw colour, and show the
double clpth in br^wn yellow. same colour and pattern on both
sides of the cloth. Some of the
fabrics are tapestry woven, having short strands of coloured wool
inserted into the fabric by the aid of the needle, and they somewhat
resemble the Gobelin tapestry in their method of production.
149
 — ;

ERMS USED IN ORNA-

MENTAL ART.
Ornament is the means by which Beauty or Sig
nificance is imparted to Utility. It is either
Symbolical or ^Esthetic. Symbolic ornament con-
sists of elements or forms chosen for the sake of
their significance —^Esthetic ornament consists of
forms or elements chosen for their Beauty alone, or their power of
appealing to the senses.
Of the historic styles of ornament, the Egyptian, Assyrian, Byzan-
tine, Scandinavian, Persian, Indian, Gothic, Polynesian, and much of
the Chinese and Japanese are symbolical, having elements and orna-
mental details chosen for their significance while in the Greek, ;

Roman, and Renascence ornament the purely aesthetic motive is

characteristic.
Ornament, again, may be natural or conventional Imitative or —
Inventive. The terms “natural” and “imitative” have the same
significance viz., the exact copying of natural forms, so that they
become principal, not secondary as perfect ornament should be.
Conventional ornament is the adaptation of natural forms to orna-
mental and technical requirements, and is seen in its greatest beauty
in the frank treatment by the Indians and Persians of their flora and
fauna for the decorative enrichment of their textile fabrics, pottery,
and jewellery.
Inventive ornament is that which consists of elements not derived
from any natural source the Moresque style is a good example of
;

this type.
The elements of ornament are the details or forms chosen for orna-
mental motives, and the principals of ornament are the arrangement
of these forms and details they comprise repetition, alternation,
;

symmetry, radiation, balance, proportion, variety, eurythmy, contrast,

intersection, complication, fitness, and utility.
Repetitioyi is the use of elements in a continuous series Alternation ;

is the repetition of an element at intervals, with others intervening

Symmetry : when the leading lines are equal or similar (or reciprocal)
on both sides Radiation when the lines spring from a centre, for
;
:

example, a bird’s wing and the flower of the daisy Balance and ;

Proportion when the relation and harmony of parts is based upon

:

natural laws Variety implies difference in the details, with respect to

;

form or type Eurythmy signifies rhythms or harmony in ornament

;

Contrast is the arrangement in close proximity of colours or forms of

opposite characters, as the straight line with the curve, or light with
dark Intersection is the crossing of the leading lines, the Arabian,
;

Moresque and Celtic styles are examples of this principle Complica- ;

tion is the effect produced by elements so arranged as to be more or

less difficult to trace with the eye alone: as in the Japanese key and
the Moresque star pattern. Fitness and utility as their names imply
are essentials in all good periods of ornamentation.
150
 RINTED INITIAL LETTERS.
The
initial letter, with its beauty of line and colour,
emphasis and distinctive character, was a frequent
its

form of enrichment to the beautiful early manuscripts,

and when, in the latter part of the 15 th century, the
printed book began to supersede the MS., the “Illumi-
nator, ” or rubricator, was still called upon to enrich the printed page
with his beautiful initials. Frequently, however, the rubricator was
not called upon, with the result that many of the early printed books
are still without their intended initial letters, as we find in many of the
magnificent folios issued from the Aldine Press at Venice about 1 500.
When the printed initial first made its appearance, it necessarily
followed the type and character of the illuminated examples, as in
the fine B (page 31), from the Mainz Psalter 1 in red and black, and
which is the earliest example known (1457), printed with the text,
and this initial is distinctly based upon the earlier illuminated capital.
Illustrations are given on pages 5, 7, 9, 21, 81, 93, 107, 13 1 of
eight beautiful printed initials from the “ Suetonius” of 1740 1 by the
Germans, Conrad Sweynheym and Arnold Pannartz, who in 1456
introduced the art of printing into Italy, at the Benedictine Monastery
at Subiaco, near Rome. These initials, with their distinctive and
refined Roman type, and delicate interlacing scrolls, are admirable
examples of the early printed initial. They were afterwards acquired
by Riessinger, who used them in 1480-98 for his printed books at
Rome. The five examples, with well-designed interlacings, given on
pages 35, 37, 53, 85, 91 are taken from the fine “ Euclid ” by Ratdolt,
of Venice, printed in 1481. 1 Three excellent initials from the beau-
tiful printed books by Aldus Manutius, at Venice, 1 are given on
pages 3, 87, 1 1 3.
Well-designed Gothic initials are given on page 13 from the
“ Fasciculus Temporum” (1481) by Ratdolt of Venice, the D (page 49)
by Antonios Campigollis (1475), and the N from the “ Life of Cam-
panus,” by M. Feronis, at Milan (1495, page 38). Eight beautiful
Gothic initials given on pages 25, 73, 125, 135, 141, 153, 154,
and preface, having well-spaced convential foliage and flowers, are
taken from “ Froissarts Cronycles,” printed in London by Richard
Pynson (1523). 1 Other examples are the two from the Golden Bible
(pages 33, 95) and the C on page 97 from the “ Missale Traijectense”
(1515), showing an intricate interlacing of the letter itself, the same
characteristic appearing in the Romaunt of the Rose given on pages
69, ill, 1 17, 139, and in the preface.
Two rich examples of foliated initials by Israel van Meckenen
(1500), are given on pages 55 and 79. The P on page 29 is from
Venice (1498); the N, page 45, is dated 1510; the G, page 121, is
from the Flemish woodcut alphabet of 1464 (British Museum); and
the T on page 1 50 is from the Basle woodcut copy of this alphabet.
The Italian examples on pages 127 and 1 5 1 illustrate the decora-
tive use of the figure in the early 6th century initials.
1

1
From the original editions in the John Rylands Library.
FRETS. Plate 53.

152
 RETS.
The remarkable universality of the fret, the simplicity
and rhythm of and usefulness
detail, its adaptability
for surface enrichment, have made the fret one of the
best known forms of ornamentation. It was used in
the surface decorations of the tombs of Egypt, the
temples of Greece, and the civic and domestic buildings of Rome.
The Greek form with its right-angular and equally-spaced keys,
was used on the simple abacas and plain fascias of the Dorian archi-
tecture, in bands upon the painted vases, and in a concentric form
when used in the interior of the red-figured circular cylix. The
Romans, without imparting freshness used the same right-angled
key-pattern, chiefly as borders for mosaic pavements and upon the
horizontal soffits of their architecture. The Byzantine, using the
same type in conjunction with the cross and circle, gave more signifi-
cance to the fret.
The Arabian fret differs in the use of the oblique line, together with
. the right angled key, obtaining a won-
j
derful degree of complexity and richness.
The Celtic fret is chiefly a diagonal one
but the recurrent angle is rounded to a
curve.
Chinese and Japanese frets are usually
right-angled, and are used in great pro-
fusion, often in a secondary field or
background.
The Japanese key or
“ Fret diaper” is

used in the greatest profusion it is used ;

wall.a\o5aic.of colouPvEd a like on silks and brocades, damascened

in metal, in cloisonne enamel and in lacquered work, and is frequently
arranged in irregular shaped compartments or medallions.
The Greek continuous fret border is rarely used by the Japanese
who generally use the disconnected or
irregular fret. A similar irregular fret
border was used by the Peruvians (page
io i and 147), by the Mexicans, and by
the natives of Polynesia.
The Assyrian and Byzantine guilloche
is but a curved fret, but additional in-

terest is given by the introduction of

radiating forms in the principal interstices
of the fret.
The simplest form of construction for
frets, or key pattern, is to use squared or ruled paper. The Chinese
or Japanese key is comparatively simple to construct by making
the double T 17 squares in length with arms at each end of 1 3 squares,

and placed alternately at right angles to each other.

153
 HE ARCHITECTURAL
CAPITAL.
The form and enrichment of the Architectural
Capital offer one of the most interesting and instruc-
tive fields of study in the history and evolution of
architecture and ornament. The remarkable persistency of the capital
as a distinctive feature in architecture may be traced through many
centuries, though differentiated by climatic conditions and racial
influences, yet still preserving a remarkable similarity of form and
enrichment among the various nations of the earth.
The function of the capital is to sustain and transmit to the
columns the weight of the entablature or archivolt, and the beauty and
appropriateness of the capital depends (i) upon this functional treat-
ment of strength (2) upon the beauty of profile or mass (3) upon
; ;

the enrichment and proportion of the capital.

The dignified Doric capital of the Greeks illustrates these functions
and conditions by its perfect adaptability, simple functional strength,
beauty of profile, appropriateness of enrichment and proportion and
harmony of parts, qualities which are essential to beauty of architec-
ture. In the Parthenon (B.C. 438) we have the finest treatment of
—
this capital a treatment full of dignity, reserve, and unison of profile
(plate 4). The many examples of the Doric Order in Greece and her
colonies attest to the esteem in which this order was held by the
Greeks. The Indian capital (plate 30) exhibits the same functional
treatment by the use of brackets or modillions, which undoubtedly
are a survival of a wooden construction, and which are typical of
Eastern architecture.
The remarkable persistency of the profile and enrichment of the
capital extending through a period of 4,000 years may be illustrated
by a series of diagrams of typical examples. The profile of the capital
has not varied to any appreciable extent in the examples here given,
and the enrichment of the bell is remarkable for its persistency, though
differentiated by racial influences. The
Corinthian capital, with its volutes and
acanthus foliage, is but the architectural
continuity of the Egyptian capital. The
only pure Greek example of this order
is from the monument of Lysicrates, but

the Romans continued the tradition, as-

similating and elaborating until they
produced the magnificent capitals of the
portico of the Pantheon and the temple
of Castor and Pollux. In these examples
the leaves are arranged in series of two
rows of eight leaves each, the volutes
springing from sheaths and stems
between the leaves which support the angle of the volutes. The
154
example of early French Gothic has similar characteristics and illus-

trates the continuity of style.

The Ionic capital (page io), though one of the most persistent in
the history of architecture, never reached the architectonic perfection
of other capitals. This was un-
doubtedly owing to the wooden
origin being incompatible with
the necessitiesof stoneand marble.
There is a want of unity between
the volutes and ovolo of the capi-
tal ;
in brief, it has neither coher-
ence nor harmony of parts. The
exquisite craftsmanship of the
capitals of the Erectheum, with
their anthemion enrichment of the
greatest purity, the beauty of the
ovolo and the subtility of the volutes compensates to some extent
for the lack of unison (plate 4). The enrichment of the architectural
capital is no doubt a survival of the primitive custom of binding floral
forms round the simple functional
capital, these forms being after-
wards perpetuated in stone or
marble.
In early Corinthian examples
these floral forms were frequently
of beaten metal, which, in turn,
gave place to the beautiful marble
foliage of the Greeks and Romans.
That the ancients used metal
work in their capitals we have
abundant proof. In the descrip-
tions of the building of Solomon’s
Temple we read of “Two chapiters
of molten brass to set upon the pillars, and nets of chequer work and
wreath of chain work to set upon the top of the pillars.”
The composite capital is deficient
in coherence and unity of parts, having
the same defects as its prototype the
Ionic. The annexed illustration from
Ancient Rome gives an unusual treat-
ment by the introduction of the hu-
man figure in the centre of the face of
the capital.
The Byzantine capital differs from
those of the Greeks and Romans in
its marked symbolism of detail and
the prevalence of the cushion form.
Functionally, this type of capital is admirable, yet it lacks the vigorous
upward growth of the Egyptian and earl) Gothic capitals.
7

155
 The Byzantine capitals have a wonderful complexity and variety
of detail, such as interlacing circles and
crosses with their mystic symbolism,
basket work, chequered details, and the
traditional sharp acanthus foliage of the
Greeks.
These features are seen in the greatest
profusion at S. Sofia at Constantinople ;

S. Apollinare and S. Vitale at Ravenna,

and S. Marco at Venice. These splendid
capitals of a splendid period are exceed-
ingly beautiful in fertile inventiveness of
enrichment, and show the assimilative power of the Byzantine crafts-
men. The abundant use of chequer work, wreaths of chain work,
and of lily work in Byzantine capitals, many
of which are figured in Ruskin’s “ Stones of
Venice,” show the continuity of style and
tradition in architecture.
The Byzantine capitals have the square
abacus, usually consisting of a simple fillet
and chamfer enriched with the billet, dentil
or star pattern. The Dosseret, a singular
adjunct to the capital, was introduced
during this period it was a cushion-shaped or cubicle stone placed
;

upon the abacus of the capital to give

additional height (plate 11).
The Byzantine influence is seen
upon the Norman capitals with their
square abacus of fillet and chamfer, and
the cushion profile of capital. Some
remarkable Siculo-Norman capitals are
in the cloisters of the Benedictine
Monastery of Monreale in Sicily (a.d.
1174-1184). The great fertility of
inventiveness the 200 capitals,
in
their storiation, the intermingling of
figures, birds and animals with the
classic and Byzantine foliage makes
this cloister one of the most remark-
able in the history of the world.
The Arabian capital, which frequently
shows the traditional volute, differs
from the typical bell-shaped form in
its marked squareness of profile
with flat or low reliefs enriched with
colour.
The early Gothic capital is one of the most vigorous and beautiful.
156
 The perfect adaptability of its foliage to stone carving, the signifi-
cance of its detail as emble-
matic of the Trinity, the spiral
growth of its foliage, and the
vigorous contrast of light and
shade are the chief character-
istics of this period. Lacking,
perhaps, the delicacy or variety
of detail of the Byzantine
period, or the later Gothic
work, it excelled them in the
appropriateness of its enrich-
ment, which is more beautiful
in the early English examples with their circular abacus than in
contemporary French capitals
where the square abacus was
prevalent The transition from
the circular column to the
square abacus was always felt
to be a difficulty, and was
rarely overcome, but in the
circular abacus of the early
English capitals we have a
break in the continuity of the
style of the capital.
The English foliage of this
period differs from the French in the use of a deep mid-rib and simple

trefoil leaf. The French examples have

a less pronounced mid-rib,
and the leaf convex in form and divided into three lobes, and the
is

foliage adheres more closely to the bell, consequently the brilliant

play of light and shade which is so characteristic of early English
work, is generally absent from French examples (fig. 12, plate 17).
157
 The decorated Gothic capitals differ essentially from those of the
early Gothic period, a more natural type of foliage being used, con-
sisting of the briony, maple, mallow, and oak. This foliage was
carved with singular delicacy of touch and
grace of profile, and is beautiful in its
modelling and play of light and shade, yet
frequently the capitals are trivial in con-
ception and arrangement, lacking that archi-
tectonic character which is so essential to

all architectural constructive features.

The
perpendicular, or late Gothic capital,
was usually octagonal in form with square
conventional foliage of the vine, showing
a marked decadence in tradition and craftsmanship.

The Renascence capital was frequently marked by a fine feeling

for profile, splendid craftsmanship,
diversity of enrichment, and vitality
of conception, more especially in
Italy, where the tradition of archi-
tecture culminated in the works
of such remarkable men as Leon
Battista Alberti, Bramante, Bald-
assare Peruzzi, San Micheli, Serlio,
Palladio, and Sansovino.
The tradition was worthily car-
ried on in France by Pierre Lescot,
Jean Bullant, Philibert de Lorme, and De Brosse, and in England by
Inigo Jones, Wren, and Chambers.

158
 *

PLANS OF HISTORIC BUILDINGS. Plate 54.

HEKISTYLIUM
* * • • • • •
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A
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• PAH r M
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PL AM OF THE
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pfatrimrflqcffabn.cticcfi i fttrnslfaotrom jfi(n
tubfe alaoimutetmf.fc { drtin.ifiln tfmtibly
leg ((tons. lesttfams.»(cg (uvh rtftatetts.fim
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PAGE FROM ONE OF THE HARLEIAN MANUSCRIPTS,

BRITISH MUSEUM,
FRENCH, EARLY I5TH CENTURY.
160
 CLASSIC SCULPTURE— GOTHIC SCULPTURE
A COMPARISON.

CARYATIDE
FROM THE
ERECTHEUM.

CENTRAL PIER R
j

PART ofTYMPANIH
FROM THE SOUTH !

DOOR OFANIENS FIGURES FPO/H THE WEST

CATHEDRAL FRONT OF CHARTRES
l.ycurHTi'ny. i
CATHEDRAL .
12™ Century

i 6i L
 — , , , —

TEXT-BOOKS UPON ARCHITECTURE

AND ORNAMENT.
S. d
.

Architecture of the Renascence in Italy W. J. A nderson ,

12 6

Gothic and Renascence ....

Classic and Early Christian Architecture

....
Roger Smith,
Roger Smith ,
5
5
0
0
Glossary of Architecture
History of Architecture
Introduction to Gothic Architecture
.... J. Parker
Fletcher
J. Parker
, 7
21
5
6
0
0
Three Manuals of Gothic Ornament J. Parker, each 1 0
Classic and Early Christian Sculpture . G. Redford, 5 0

English Architecture .....

Gothic and Renascence Sculpture Leader
J.
Scott,
D. Atkinson,
5
3
0
6
Handbook
History of Greek Art .....
of Greek Sculpture,

....
2 vols. Ed. Gardner,
Tarbell ,
10
5
0
0
Analysis of Ornament
Handbook of Ornament
Pattern Design
....
......
J. JVornum,
Meyer,
Lewis F Day
8
12
7
0
6
6
Ornament and its Application >>
8 6
The Bases of Design
Line and Form ...... . Walter Crane, 6
6
0
0

Principles of Ornament ....

History of Art (Revised by Russell Sturgis )

Bibliotheque de l’Ensignement des Beaux-

. Lubke,
G. W.Rhead,
36
6
0
0

Arts (various subjects) Paris, each vol. 4 0

An excellent series of illustrated hand-books upon the Industrial Arts, by
writers of repute, published by the Science and Art Department, and may
is

be obtained at the bookstall of the South Kensington Museum, at a cost of

is. each part (paper covers), or they may be purchased through Messrs.
Chapman and Hall, at 2s. 6d. each part, bound in cloth. They include :

Each in two parts. Complete in o?ie part.

Bronzes.
The Industrial Arts of
College and Corporation Plate.
India.
Furniture.
Spain.
Gold and Silversmith’s Work.
Denmark.
Glass.
Scandinavia.
Stained Glass.
The Saracens of Egypt.
Ivories.
Early Christian Art in Ireland.
Japanese Pottery.
English Earthenware.
,,
Colour Prints.
,,
Porcelain.
Maiolica.
French Pottery.
Persian Art.
Wrought Iron Work. Textile Fabrics.
Tapestry.
The Industrial Arts.

The illustrated articles in the Transactions of the Royal Institute of British

Architects may also be studied with advantage ; they include Byzantine : —
Architecture, 1892 ; Casting in Metals, 1892 ; Decorative Plaster Work,
1891 ; Heraldry, 1897-8; Mosaics, 1894; Metal Work, 1906; Precious
Windows of Chartres, 1906; Romanesque Architecture, 1901 Sculpture in ;

relation to Architecture, 1891 ;

Woodcarving, 1896-1906 ;
Wrought Iron
Work, 1891.
162
 WORKS OF REFERENCE.
Architecture.
A History of Architecture . Fletcher.
A History of Renascence Architecture in England . Reginald Blomfield.
Analysis of Gothic Architecture . R. Sr J. Brandon.
Antiquities of Athens
Antiquities of Rome ......
. . Stuart and Revett.
Taylor Sr Cresy.

in Italy
:
.......
Architecture and Decoration of the Renascence

Architecture East and West . . . .

Schutz.
R. Phene Spiers.
Architecture for General Readers . . . .H. H. Statham.
Architecture of Greece and Rome . W. J. Anderson Sr R. Phene Spiers.
Architecture of the Renascence in England J. A. Gotch.
Architecture of the Renascence in Italy . A
W. J. riderson.
Architecture Toscane
Byzantine Architecture
,, ,,
.....
Constantinople
4. Grandjean de Montigny Sr Famin.

.
Texier S Pullan.
Salzenberg.
’

Dictionnaire Rai sonne de P Architecture Frangaise Viollet le Due.

Early Renascence in England J. A. Gotch.
Examples of Greek and Pompeian Work J. Cromar Watt.
Fragments de PArchitecture Antique H. DFspouy.
,, ,,
Renascence . . „
French
Gothic
Renascence Detail
Architecture ......
.

....
The works of Daly, Sauvageot
T. Rickman.
Rouyer.

Gothic
Gothic ....
Architecture in England

.....
Architecture in France
Francis Bond.
F. Corroyer.
Gothic Details and Foliage
Gothic Mouldings ......
.....
J. K. Colling
F. A. Paley.
History of Architecture
....
.....
History of Gothic Art in England
Later English Renascence
T. Ferguson.

E. S. Prior.
Belcher 6° Macartney.

Mansions of England
Old English Mansions
......
London Churches of the XVII. and XVIII. Centuries

......
G. H. Birch.
J. Nash.
C. Richardson.
Orders of Architecture .
.
J. M. Mauch, C. Normand Sr R. P. Spiers.
Palast Architektur, Toscana, Venedig
,, ,,
Genua .

Parallels of English Abbey Churches

.... . . Raschdorff.
.

R. Reinhardt.
E. Sharpe.
Renascence Architecture in Spain
Rome, Renascence Buildings
Rome, Baudenkmaeler des Alten
....
....
. . A. N. Prentice.
.

Letarouilly.

Seven Lamps of Architecture ....

Seven Periods of English Church Architecture
Strack.
J. Ruskin.
E. Sharpe.
.

Stones of Venice
Venezia
.......
Some Architectural Works of Inigo Jones

.......
H. I. Triggs Sr H. Tanner.
.

J. Ruskin.
Cicognara.

The Decorative Arts and Sculpture.

A History of English Furniture Percy Macquoid.
A History of Old English Porcelain Solon.
 — .

Alfred Stevens
Alphabets .
.......
.
Works of Reference

. .
( continued).

Hugh
Lewis
Stannus.
F
Day.
Alphabets
Armour in
.

England
.

...... .

Art in Chaldea and Assyria, Egypt, Persia,

. . . .

etc.
E. Strange.
J. Starkie Gardner.
Perrot 6° Chipiez.
Art in Needlework . Day.
Bases of Design . . . IF alter Crane.
Bookbindings in England and France IF. Y. Fletcher.
Catalogue of the Spitzer Collection.
Comment discerner les Styles
Architecture, Decoration, Ameublement . Roger Miles.
XVIII. Century Art
....
in

....
Dictionnaire de Y Ameublement
France . .

Havard.

Eastern Carpets .......

Dictionnaire du Mobilier Frangais Viollet le
V. J.
Due.
Robinson

Farbige Decorationen ......

Essays on the Art of Pheidias

XV. Century Italian Ornament (Painted)

C. IValdstein.
Ewald.
Vacher.
XV. Century Italian
French Colour Decoration .....
Ornament . . . . Nicolai.
Gelis Didot.

Fresco Decoration ......

French Woodcarvings from the National Museums

.......
. E. Rozve.
Gruner.
Glass Painting
Grammar of Ornament
Greek and Roman Sculpture
......
.....
C. I Fins ton.
Owen Jones.
Ji: G. Perry.

Greek Vase Painting ......

Greek Terra Cotta Statuettes.

Hand-book of Greek Archaeology

.

. . . .
Marc~us B. Huish.
[ane Harrison.
A. S. Murray.
Histoire de la Ceramique Grecque Rayet 6° Collignon.
History of English Porcelain . . . . IV. Burton.
History of Face , Mrs. Palliser.
Illuminated Ornaments from
Keramic Art of Japan
Fa Broderie
......
.......
MSS. H. Shaw.
Audsley
De Farcy.
Bowes.

Fe Costume Historique .....

Fe Musee de Cluny (Stone and Wood).

....... Racinet.
Fine and Form
Mediceval Art
Mediaeval Iron Work
.......
......
1 1 Alter

IF. J.
Heftrier
Crane.
Lethaby.
Alteneck.
Old English Plate
,,
Glasses
Oriental Carpets from
...... the Austrian Imperial
IF. J. Cripps.
Harts home.

Museum.
Ornament of Textile Fabrics.....
..... Dupont- A uberville.
Ornamental Arts of Japan
Ornamental Metal Work
Ornamental Textiles
.....
......
Audsley.
Digby Hyatt.
Fischbach.
Pictorial Arts of Japan . . . . . Anderson.
Polychromatic Ornament Racinet.
Pompeian Ornament
Stained Glass .....
Windows
. Zahn.
Lewis F. Day.
 —

The Alhambra
The Cabinet-maker and
.......
Works of Reference ( continued).

Upholsterer’s Drawing
Owen Jones.

Book, 1793 . • T. Sheraton.

The Cabinet-maker and Upholsterer’s Guide, 1778 . A. Hepplewhite.
The Decorative Work of Robert and James Adam.
The Gentleman and Cabinet-maker’s Director, 1754 T. Chippendale.
Trocadero Museum
Tuscan Sculptors ......
Sculpture, Illustrations of.

C. C. Perkins.

Excellent illustrated articles are in the Portfolio Monographs, e.g.

1893. English Enamels J. Starkie Ga?’dner.
Greek Terra Cotta Statuettes.
1898. Greek Bronzes A. S. Murray.
1894. Josiah Wedgwood A. H. Church.
1894. Italian Book Illustrations A. JV. Pollard.

Many excellent “ Cantor Lectures,” by experts, upon the practical appli-

1891.
cation of the Industrial Arts, will be found in the Society of Arts Journal and ,

have been separately published.

1891.

The following lectures may be studied with advantage

Cloisonne. 1899-1891. Enamels.
1885. Carving and Furniture. 1892. Indian Art.
Decorative Treatment of 1897. Material and Design in Pot
Natural Foliage. tery.
1898. Decorative Bookbinding. 1904. Maiolica.
1894. Decorative Treatment of 1893. Mosaics.
Artificial Foliage. 1891. Plaster Work.

In the Builder there are the Royal Academy Lectures upon Architecture
,

given by George Aitchison, R.A. The}' include :

1891. Roman Architecture. 1894. Renascence Architecture.

1892. Saracenic Architecture. 1896. Romanesque Architecture.
1893. Byzantine Architecture.

In the Transactions of the Rochdale Literary Society for 1891 (Aldine

Press) is a most instructive and well-illustrated article on “The Ornamental
Art of Savage People,” by Dr. Hjalmar Stolpe, translated by Mrs. H. C.
March.

The Transactions of the Lancashire and Cheshire Antiquarian Society

(1891) contain an excellent article upon “The Pagan Christian Overlap in
the North,” by H. Colley March, M.D.

165
 . 11 . . 1

INDEX
Abydos ....
Adam, Robert and James
PAGE

77
5 Callicrates
Cambio, Arnolfo di
PAGE
1

56
3

Agnus Dei 123 Caryatides 9

Alberti, Leon Battista 64 Castor Ware .
98
Aldegrever
Aldus Manutius
Alhambra
l

•
39, I

78, 79
91
5 I
Cavo Relievo
Caxton
Cellini,
....
Benvenuto .
39
60 129
,
I
5

Amphora 95 Celtic Ornament 35

Andrea Pisano
Andreani, Andrea
Anthemion
.
57
63
17
Ceramic Art
Chairs
Chaldea.
.... .
97
132
7
Apollodorus . 27 Chambers, Sir William .
77
Arabesque 62 Champleve Enamels 117
Arabian 79 Chateau 69
Arch of Constantine 2 Chinese Ornament . 87
,, Septimus Severus 2 Chippendale, Thomas 132
,,
Titus 2 Chryselephantine Ivories i37
,,
Trajan 2 ,,
Sculpture *5
Architecture — Capitals . i54 Cinque-Cento Ornament 55
,,
English 73 Classification of Classic Terniples 10
,, French 53 Clearstory 39? 4o, 4 2
,,
Florentine 64 Cloisonne Enamels. 89 117
,

,, Gothic 38 Coins of Greece 1

9
,, Greek 9 Colleone, Bartolomeo 127
,, Italian 64 Column of Marcus Aurelius 27

,,
Norman . 38 ,,
Trajan . 27

,,
Romanesque 33 Conpluvium . 23

,, Roman 2 Cosmati 93
,,
Venetian . 66 Cressent, Charles . J
33

Atrium
,,

....
Balducco di Pisa
Veronese

.
. 67
23

55
Crockets
Crosiers
Decorated Gothic .
47
123
49
Ball Flower .
49 Delft Ware . 98
Baptistry at Florence 55 Desiderio da Settignano . ' 60
„ Pisa 55 Donatello 58 127
,

Barili,
Basilica
,,
....
Giovanni

of Trajan .
i35
2
23
3
Early English Details
Earthenware
Egyptian Ornament
.
47
97
5
Bible of Amiens 53 Elgin Marbles 14
Black Figure Vases 95 Elizabethan Ornament 73
Bookbinding . i39 ,,
Mansions 73
Boule,Andre 1
33 Enamels 1
7
Bramante
Bronzes
Brunelleschi
.... .
65
127
64
English Cathedrals
,,
Renascence
Erectheum
. 38
73
16
Bubastes 5 Fiesole, Mino da . Frofitispiece
Byzantium 3i Flamboyant .
53
Caffieri i33 Flaxman 100
166
 . 6
1 .. — 1

Index ( continued).

Fontainebleau
Fontana Orazio
PAGE
69
106
Kylix
Lacunaria
.... •
19, 2 5
PAGE

95

Forum of Trajan 27 J
Lancet Period 40
Frangois Premier . 69 Lescot, Pierre 69
French Cathedrals .
43 Lombardo, Pietro . 62
Frieze of the Parthenon .
14-U Louis Treize .
69
,,
at Phigaleia . 15 ,,
Quatorze 69
,,
at Susa 17 ,,
Quinze 69
Furniture X
3 X ,,
Seize .
69
Gadroon
Georgio Maestro
Ghiberti, Lorenzo .
106
106
56
Lucca
Luxor ....
della

Mahometan Ornament
Robbia

.
57 ,
io 5

79
5

Giotto ....
Gigantomachia

Giovanni da Udine
1

55
62
Maiolica
Maioli, Tommaso
Mantegna, Andrea
.

.
105
I
39
63
Giulio
Glass ....
Romano

Gobelin Tapestry .
hi
i
62

47
Marcus Aurelius
Marquetry
Mausoleum .
2 7 ,

T
I2 7
33
16
Goldsmith’s Work . 1 2 Melanesia 3
Gothic Architecture 38 Memphis 5
Goujon, Jean . 69 Michel Angelo 60
Greek Architecture 9 Michelozzo 58
,,
Ceramics 97 Mino da Fiesole 60
,,
Coins . T
9 Moresque 79
Grisaille Enamels . 118 Mosaics 93
„ Glass hi Nike Apteros 16

Grolier
Hathor
....
Grinling Gibbons

....
.
L35
139
5
Nineveh
Opus Alexandrinum
,,
Musivum
93
93
7

Henri Deux Period 69 ,,

Tesselatum .
93
„ „ Pottery 99 Order of Architecture
,,
Quatre Period 69 Corinthian 10
Plepplewhite 123 Composite 32
.

Herculaneum
Hispano-Moresque Ware
Hokusai
29
io 5
89
Osiris
Pagoda
....
Ionic

....
32

87
5

Holbein,
Horus ....Hans

Illuminated Books .
73

35
5
Painted Enamels
Palaces in Italy
„
Florence
,,
—
.

Rome .
65
1

64
7

Indian Ornament . 85 ,, ,, Venice 66

Inigo Jones .
75 „ ,, Verona 67
Initial Letters U 1 Palissy, Bernard 99
Impluvium
Iris
Ivories
....
.... i
23

37
5
Palladio, Andrea
Panathenaeic Frieze
Pantheon
. •
63, 67
14
22
Jacobean
Jacopo della Quercia
Japanese Ornament 89
73
57
Parthenon
Pax
Payne, Roger
.... I2 3
x
13

39
Jacquard, Joseph M. i45 Penni, Francesco . 62
Jewellers’ Enamels . 117 Perino del Vaga . 62
Jones, Inigo .
75 Perpendicular Gothic 42 1
•
, 5
167
 . 1 1

Index ( continued ').

PAGE PAGE
Peristylium 2 3 Silversmith’s Work 12
Pergolesi 132 Sistine Chapel 60
Persian Ornament .
•
79-8i Stanze of the Vatican 61
Peruvian Textiles .
149 Stevens, Alfred 77
Peruzzi, Baldassare 65 Stained Glass II 3
Phidias . 1
3 Stacciato 57
Piers 40 Staffordshire Ware 100
Pisanello 58 Stoneware 97
Pisano, Andrea 56 Stoss, Veit 1
35
,,
Giovanni .
55 S. Mark’s — Plan . . T
59
,,
Nicolo 55 S. Paul’s ,, i59
Plans of Buildings . I
59 S. Peter’s ,, I
59
Polynesian Ornament 3 S. Sophia ,, T 59
Pompeian ,, 29 S. Vitale ,, 1
59
Pompeii 2 9 Sweynheym, Conrad *
5 *

Poppy-heads .
5 1 Tablinum 23
Porcelain
Portland Vase
Primaticcio
hi
97

62
Tanis
Tapestry
....
Talenti Francesco .

'
i45
55
5

Printing in Italy 1
39? 1
5 1 Tara Brooch .
35
Pyramids 5 Terra Cotta . 107
Quarries 114 Thebes 5
Quattro-cento 69 Tijon, Jean . I2 5
Quercia, Jacopo della • 56 Toft, Thomas 100
Raphael 61 Tooth Ornament .
46
Ratdolt
Red Figured Ware
Renascence — English
.
151
95
73
Trajan
Tre-cento
....
Torrigiano, Pietro .
73, I2 9
2 7

55
,,
French 69 Triclinium 23

,,
Italian 55 Triforium 39 40-42
-

,,
Palaces • 64 67 ,
Tudor Flower 5 1

Ravenna •
3 1 ,93 Udine, Giovanni da 62
Robbia, Andrea della 108 Venetian Glass hi
Rococo .
7 1 Verrochio, Andrea del .
58 127
,

Romano Giulio 62 Vestibule . 23

Romanesque Ornament 23 Viridarium 23

Roman Ornament . 25 Vitruvius 63

Rouen Pottery 99 Vitruvius Britannicus 77
Samian Ware 98 Watteau. 7i
Septimus Severus . 2 Wedgwood 100
Serlio 63 Wheildon, Thomas. 100
Sgraffito 64 97, io 5
,
Woodcarving . i35
Sheraton, Thomas . 132 Wren, Sir Christopher 75
Sicilian Fabrics 142 Wrought Iron I2 5
Sicilian 142 Zormorpic Ornament 35
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