Thermodynamics 1

Thermodynamics
- the study of energy and the relationships among the properties of
matter
- therme – heat ; dynamics – power
- conversion of heat to power
 UNIT AND DIMENSIONS

UNIT – The magnitudes assigned to the dimensions

DIMENSION – Any physical quantity

CONCEPTS IN THERMODYNAMICS:

The concept of time is well established. The basic unit of time is the second
(s) which in the past was defined in terms of the solar day, the time interval
for one complete revolution of the earth relative to the sun. Since this period
varies with the season of the year, an average value over a one-year period
is called the mean solar day, and the mean solar second is 1/86 400 of the
mean solar day.
The measurement of the earth's rotation is sometimes made relative to a
fixed star, in which case the period is called a sidereal day.

In 1967, the General Conference of Weights and Measures (CGPM)

adopted a definition of the second as the time required for a beam of cesium-
133 atoms to resonate 9 192 631 770 cycles in a cesium resonator.

For periods of time less than a second, the prefixes milli, micro, nano, or pico
are commonly used. For longer periods of time, the units minute (min), hour
(h), or day (day) are frequently used.
The concept of length is also well established. The basic unit of length
is the meter(m). For many years the accepted standard was the
International Prototype Meter, the distance between two marks on a
platinum-iridium bar under certain prescribed conditions. This bar is
maintained at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures,
Sevres, France.
In 1960, the CGPM adopted a definition of the meter as a length equal
to 1, 650, 763.73 wavelengths in a vacuum of the orange-red line of
krypton-86.
Then in 1983, the CGPM adopted a more precise definition of the meter
in terms of the speed of light(which is now a fixed constant): the meter is
the length of the path traveled by light in a vacuum during a time interval
of 1/299, 792, 458 of a second.
Temperature scales enable us to use a common basis for temperature
measurements, and several have been introduced throughout history. All
temperature scales are based on some easily reproducible states such as the
freezing and boiling points of water, which are also called the ice point and the
steam point, respectively. A mixture of ice and water that is in equilibrium with
air saturated with vapor at 1 atm pressure is said to be at the ice point, and a
mixture of liquid water and water vapor (with no air) in equilibrium at 1 atm
pressure is said to be at the steam point.
The temperature scales used in the SI and in the English system today are the
Celsius scale (formerly called the centigrade scale; in 1948 it was renamed after
the Swedish astronomer A. Celsius, 1702–1744, who devised it) and the
Fahrenheit scale (named after the German instrument maker G. Fahrenheit,
1686–1736), respectively. On the Celsius scale, the ice and steam points were
originally assigned the values of 0 and 100°C, respectively. The corresponding
values on the Fahrenheit scale are 32 and 212°F. These are often referred to as
two-point scales since temperature values are assigned at two different points.
In thermodynamics, it is very desirable to have a temperature scale that is
independent of the properties of any substance or substance. Such a temperature
scale is called a thermodynamic temperature scale, which is developed later in
conjunction with the second law of thermodynamics. The thermodynamic
temperature scale in the SI is the Kelvin scale, named after Lord Kelvin (1824–1907).
The temperature unit on this scale is the kelvin, which is designated by K (not °K;
the degree symbol was officially dropped from kelvin in 1967).

The lowest temperature on the Kelvin scale is absolute zero, or 0 K. Then it follows
that only one nonzero reference point needs to be assigned to establish the slope of
this linear scale. Using nonconventional refrigeration techniques, scientists have
approached absolute zero kelvin (they achieved 0.000000002 K in 1989).

The thermodynamic temperature scale in the English system is the Rankine scale,
named after William Rankine (1820–1872). The temperature unit on this scale is the
Rankine, which is designated by R.
TYPES OF PROPERTIES

• Extensive Properties
- the value for an overall system is the sum of its values for the parts
into which the system is divided

• Intensive Property
-these are not independent of the total quantity
- not additive
 Unit Systems

International System (SI) / Metric System

- simple and logical system based on a decimal relationship between the various units, and it is being
used for scientific and engineering work in most of the industrialized nations, including England.

English System
- has no apparent systematic numerical base, and various units in this system are related to each other rather
arbitrarily (12 in 1 ft, 1 mile 5280 ft, 4 qt gal, etc.)

SI (METRIC) ENGLISH
𝑚 𝑓𝑡
𝑘𝑔− 2 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔 − 2
𝑠
1 1 𝑙𝑏𝑓 𝑠
𝑁
𝑐𝑚 𝑓𝑡
𝑔− 2 𝑙𝑏𝑚 − 2
𝑠
1 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒 𝑠
1𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑙
𝑚 𝑓𝑡
𝑘𝑔𝑚 − 2 𝑙𝑏𝑚 − 2
9.81 𝑘𝑔𝑓 𝑠 32.2 𝑠
𝑙𝑏𝑓
𝑐𝑚
𝑔𝑚 − 2
981 𝑔𝑓 𝑠
Mass – amount of matter
- constant

Weight – dependent to gravitational acceleration

- measure of force
F= ma ; W =mg

Where : g= 9.81 m/s2

FORCE :

NEWTON (N) – it is defined as the force required to accelerate a mass of 1 kg at

a rate of 1 m/s2.

POUND-FORCE (𝑙𝑏𝑓 ) – is defined as the force required to accelerate a mass of

32.174 lbm (1 slug) at a rate of 1 ft/s2

KILOGRAM-FORCE (𝑘𝑔𝑓 ) – is the weight of 1 kg mass at sea level

1 𝑘𝑔𝑓 = 9.807 N
Work - a form of energy, can simply be defined as force times distance
-in SI: it has the unit “newton-meter (N · m),” which is called a joule (J).

- In English system, the energy unit is the BTU (British thermal unit)
BTU – the energy required to raise the temperature of 1 lbm of water at
68°F by 1°F.

- In the metric system, calorie (cal) is being used as a unit

1 calorie (cal) - the amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of
1 g of water at 14.5°C by 1°C
VOLUME - space occupied by an object
- examples of units: 𝑚3 ; liters; gallon; 𝑓𝑡 3
DENSITY – the ratio of mass over volume
𝑚
- formula ∶ 𝜌 =
𝑉
- standard density of water
𝑘𝑔
𝜌= 1000 3
𝑚
𝑙𝑏𝑚
𝜌= 62.4 3
𝑓𝑡
𝑚3 𝑓𝑡 3
SPECIFIC VOLUME – volume per unit mass; ,
𝑘𝑔 𝑙𝑏𝑚
- reciprocal of density
𝑉 1
- formula ∶ 𝑣 = =
𝑚 𝜌
 𝑁
SPECIFIC WEIGHT – ratio of weight over volume;
𝑚3
𝑊 𝑚𝑔
- formula: 𝛾 = = = ρ𝑔
𝑉 𝑉

SPECIFIC GRAVITY – also known as relative density

- defined as the ratio of the density of a substance to the
density of some standard substance at a specified
temperature.
ρ
- formula ∶ SG =
ρ 𝐻2 𝑂
- ρ𝐻2𝑂 =1000kg/m3
Unit Conversion
• Refer to Cengel
• Refer to Sta. Maria

SI (METRIC) ENGLISH
𝑚 𝑓𝑡
𝑘𝑔− 2 𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑔 − 2
𝑠
1 1 𝑙𝑏𝑓 𝑠
𝑁
𝑐𝑚 𝑓𝑡
𝑔− 2 𝑙𝑏𝑚 − 2
𝑠
1 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒 𝑠
1𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑙
𝑚 𝑓𝑡
𝑘𝑔𝑚 − 2 𝑙𝑏𝑚 − 2
9.81 𝑘𝑔𝑓 𝑠 32.2 𝑠
𝑙𝑏𝑓
𝑐𝑚
𝑔𝑚 − 2
981 𝑔𝑓 𝑠
What is the mass in grams and the weight in dynes and in gram-force of 12 oz
of salt? Local g is 9.65 m/s2.
A mass of 0.10 slug in space is subjected to an external vertical force of 4lbs.
If the local gravitational acceleration is g=30.5fps2 and if friction is
neglected, determine the acceleration of the body mass if the external
vertical force is: a) acting upward; b) acting downward.
Assignment 1. Five masses in a reason where the acceleration is g=30.5 ft/s2
are as follows:
𝒎𝟏 is 500g
𝒎𝟐 weighs 800 𝒈𝒇
𝒎𝟑 weighs 15 poundals
𝒎𝟒 weighs 3 𝒍𝒃𝒇
𝒎𝟓 is 0.10 slug of mass
What is the total mass expressed in (a) grams (b) pounds (c) slugs
Assignment 2. Using unity conversion ratios, show that 1.00 lbm weighs 1.00
lbf on earth.
Assignment 3. When you buy a box of breakfast cereal, the printing may say
“Net weight: One pound (454 grams).” Using Newton’s second law, calculate
the actual weight of the cereal in the metric system.
Density of engine oil is 885 kg/m3.