1 s2.0 S1364032122010024 Main

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 174 (2023) 113121
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser
Integration of IoT in building energy infrastructure: A critical review on

challenges and solutions
Vipul Moudgil, Kasun Hewage *, Syed Asad Hussain, Rehan Sadiq
Life Cycle Management Laboratory (LCML) at School of Engineering, The University of British Columbia (Okanagan Campus), 1137 Alumni, Avenue, Kelowna, BC, V1V
1V7, Canada
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: The Internet of Things (IoT) has unprecedentedly entangled the physical world with cyber technologies and its
Internet of things integration with building infrastructure (BI) is no different. Integration of IoT can impart BI with upscale features
Building infrastructure like remote operations, automated management and user-centric facilities by developing an interconnected
Building energy efficiency
cognitive building (CB) ecosystem. However, this integration has entered an ambiguous phase of realizing
Smart buildings
Cognitive buildings
mature adoption and practical utilization of IoT in BI for both academic and industrial domains. This ambiguity
Heating, Ventilation and Air-conditioning restricts the IoT and BI stakeholders to comprehend and acknowledge the full operational competency of IoT in
BI. Thus, a significant research gap exists that deeply investigates the practical implementation and mature
adoption of IoT in BI. The prime objective of this study is to establish a comprehensive review by exploring the
state-of-art academic, technological and industrial research to identify major technological and behavioural
interventions that successfully enhance the integration of IoT in BI. Besides, this study also highlights significant
technical and non-technical challenges that require substantial research efforts for maturing the adoption of IoT
in BI. The findings of the study argue that the full operational competency of IoT in BI is not yet realized and a
dedicated effort from both IoT and BI stakeholders is required to provide modern BI with a generic IoT frame
work having cognitive intelligence and context-aware computing capabilities. The proposed study will assist the
researchers in realizing the full operational competency of IoT in BI for more exciting innovations.
The adoption of global initiatives like the climate change agreement

(United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP26)), Kyoto Protocol,
1. Introduction
and Paris Agreement has motivated transformation towards energy-
efficient buildings [5]. Effective energy intervention planning and
Building construction and operations consume nearly one-third of
smart energy operational strategies can significantly conserve building
the global energy and are responsible for emitting approximately 39% of
energy consumption by 20–30% [6]. However, implementing such
annual anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) [1]. The building sector in
smart strategies involves substantial learning from building data and
the European Union (EU) and United States (US) accounts for a pre
digitization of building technologies, including consistent status moni
dominant portion (i.e. nearly 40%) of their total energy consumption
toring of building-level components (BLCs) (like heating, ventilation
[2]. In 2018, the US energy information and administration (EIA) esti
and air conditioning (HVAC), lighting systems, fault detection, water
mated that by 2050 the energy consumption trends for developed na
system, etc.) [7]. For effective building energy management, conven
tions would increase by 2% annually, whereas, for developing countries,
tional BI is equipped with a sophisticated computer-aided platform
the demand is expected to grow twice that of developed nations [3]. The
called a building management system (BMS) to monitor, control,
coronavirus (COVID-19) outbreak and its aftermath have significantly
manage and facilitate communication among different electrical and
impacted the global energy market and highlighted crucial concerns
mechanical BLCs [8]. However, due to the component heterogeneity and
regarding energy security and clean energy transitions [4]. It has
operational complexities of BLCs, BMS falls short of acknowledging the
considerably affected human behaviour and working patterns, which
overall functionality and spatial relationship among different compo
directly corresponds to the energy consumption associated with modern
nents [8]. This limits the decision-making capabilities of BMS and makes
BI.
* Corresponding author. School of Engineering, The University of British Columbia | Okanagan Campus, EME4287 - 1137 Alumni Avenue, Kelowna, BC, V1V 1V7,
Canada.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (V. Moudgil), [email protected] (K. Hewage), [email protected] (S.A. Hussain), [email protected] (R. Sadiq).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2022.113121
Received 22 August 2022; Received in revised form 4 December 2022; Accepted 18 December 2022
Available online 27 December 2022
1364-0321/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
V. Moudgil et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 174 (2023) 113121
Nomenclature IP Internet Protocol

KPI Key Performance Indicator
AB Automated Building LED Light Emitting Diode
AI Artificial Intelligence LoRaWAN Long Range Wide Area Network
ANN Artificial Neural Network LPWAN Low Power Wide Area Network
API Application Program Interface LSTM Long Short-term Memory
AT Access Technologies MEMS Micro Electro Mechanical System
BEI Building Efficiency Index ML Machine Learning
BI Building Infrastructure MLP Multi-layer Perceptron
BLCs Building-level Components MPC Model Predictive Control
BMS Building Management System OCCP Open Charge Point Protocol
CB Cognitive Building OpenADR Open Automated Demand Response
CB-BMS Cloud-based Building Management System OWLIM OWL Memory Schema Repository
CC Cloud Computing PI Performance Index
CE-BMS Cloud-enabled Building Management System PID Proportional Integrated Derivative
CO2 Carbon dioxide PV Photovoltaics
COP United Nations Climate Change Conference RESTful Representational State Transfer
COVID Coronavirus Disease REG Renewable Energy Generation
DALI Digital Addressable Lighting Interface ROI Return on Investment
DSM Demand Side Management SAIL Storage and Inference Layer
EIA Energy Information and Administration SANET Sensor and Actuator Network
ELF Electrical Load Factor SB Smart Building
ES Energy Storage SC Smart Cities
ESP Esprissif SG Smart Grid
EU European Union SLS Smart Lighting System
EUI Energy Use Intensity SWM Smart Water Management
EPC Energy Performance Coefficient TCO Total Cost of Ownership
FDD Fault Detection and Diagnostics TCP Transmission Control Protocol
GB Green Buildings TEDI Thermal Energy Demand Intensity
GHG Greenhouse Gas US United States
HDFS Hadoop File Structure USNIC United States National Intelligence Council
HIL Hardware-in-the-loop VS Virtual Sensing
HVAC Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning WSN Wireless Sensor Networks
IBDA IoT and Bigdata Analytics WTA Willingness to Accept
IoE Internet of Energy WTP Willingness to Pay
ICT Information and Communication Technologies ZEB Zero Energy Buildings
IoT Internet of Things
it extremely challenging to realize effective coordination between BLCs elemental adaptation made in the field of smart cities and smart grid
and implement energy-efficient building operations [9,10]. technologies [18]. Foreseeing the capabilities of creating a smart global
In the past few decades, researchers [11,12] are focusing on imple network that supports ubiquitous computing, the United States National
menting information and communication technologies (ICTs), especially Intelligence Council (USNIC), envisioned cloud-IoT as one of the most
IoT and cloud computing to personify cognitive automation in BI and powerful components of “Six Disruptive Civil Technologies” [19].
overcome the limitation of conventional BMS [13]. IoT has enormous Appraising the future demand and competitive edge of IoT, mainstream
potential to cognitively interconnect complex building systems such as companies like IBM (TRIRIGA) [20], Siemens (Desigo, Synco, GAMMA)
HVAC, lighting, fault detection, and security systems to facilitate users [21], Cisco (Catalyst 9000 UPOE, Cisco intent-based networking (IBN))
with deeper insight into building operations and provide intelligent [22] are capturing the global market with their building-level IoT
autonomy with dynamic context-aware decision-making [13,14]. For products and solutions.
instance, Stimoniaris et al. [15] designed an IoT-enabled controller to Apart from all benefits, a substantial gap exists in the literature that
provide automated control and remote supervision for the building’s explores the operational competency of IoT and identifies the challenges
HVAC and lighting system to save energy when not in use. Similarly, faced in its mature adoption to supplement improvements in the appli
Elnour et al. [16] developed an IoT-based data-driven attack detection cation of IoT in BI. Moreover, the integration of IoT in BI is still described
framework to secure smart HVAC operations from cyber-attacks. How as isolated and segmented [23] as currently there exists no generic
ever, the practical implementation and evaluation for both studies were interoperable IoT framework that can be reused and redeployed in
never investigated in a real-world environment. Nevertheless, the different BI domains [24]. This gap majorly owes to the fact that the
adoption of IoT in BI not only provides smart, automated and cognitive practical implementation of IoT frameworks requires a comprehensive
operations but also extends its technological boundaries to integrate knowledge of multiple disciplines like sensing & communication tech
with smart concepts like smart cities and smart grids [17]. In fact, at a nologies (protocol selection), application development, data security &
macro-level, developing efficient and smart buildings (SBs) was the integrity etc. This makes it challenging to develop a generic and
2
seamlessly unified IoT framework for BI that provides cognitive intelli technical challenges in implementing IoT and classifying them into three
gence with context-aware computing capabilities for effective building major domains namely system-oriented (sensing, communication and
operations [25]. Moreover, the lack of interdisciplinary collaborated application), data-oriented (access, availability, integrity and privacy)
research among IoT (computer/electrical engineers), and BI (civil en and security-oriented challenges. In addition, the research also high
gineers and building managers) stakeholders further widen the gap in lights the non-technical challenges for providing readers with a holistic
the mature adoption and development of IoT-based solutions for BI [14, view of the implementation of IoT in BI. This research will significantly
26]. The empirical literature lacks a deep investigation that explores the assist IoT and BI stakeholders to technically and methodologically
contemporary status of IoT in BI and identifies potential technical and mature the integration of IoT in BI and develop a generic IoT framework
non-technical challenges that significantly restrict the development of a with cognitive intelligence and context-aware computing capabilities.
generic IoT framework for BI. Supportingly, Jia et al. [14] established a The major contributions of the study are stated as follows:
review study on the integration of IoT in BI and highlighted concerns
regarding the ambiguity, inefficient realization, integration, and mature • Introduce BI stakeholders and researchers to the essential di
adoption of IoT in BI. The authors also highlighted the concern that mensions of CB.
there are limited studies that discuss the implementation of IoT in BI and • Provide holistic domain-specific knowledge regarding the imple
realize the full operational competency of IoT. mentation of IoT in BI.
Nevertheless, studies are available that investigate IoT imple • Discuss current IoT technologies, applications, and recent de
mentation in BI. However, there exists great diversity/disparity related velopments in the adoption of IoT to improve building-level
to the scope (application of IoT in BI) and technological (IoT and its operations.
relevant technologies) consideration of the studies. This restricts the • Exploring challenges and viable solutions to orient future research
administration of the IoT in BI. For instance, Verma et al. [27] reviewed for exciting innovations in IoT and BI.
the IoT infrastructure and its application in SB with a major emphasis on
sensing and controlling devices. However, the study does not discuss the The remaining discussion of the review proceeds as follows. Section
technical and operational challenges related to sensor power manage 2 describes the significant dimensions of CB and discusses the method
ment, optimal control, reactive intelligence, and multi-sensing capabil ology used for performing the review. Section 3 discusses CB, its
ities. Similarly, Vijayan et al. [28] reviewed the SB automation systems essential components, and multi-dimensional applications in distinct BI
and discussed multiple dimensions and smart applications to optimize domains. Section 4 presents the discussion and learning from the study
facility management in the SB environment. However, the study could on the contemporary status of IoT technology in BI. Section 5 highlights
not identify and categorize the technical and non-technical challenges in the technical and non-technical challenges while implementing IoT in BI
implementing an IoT-based SB environment. Notably, Dakheel et al. and provides possible future research directions to mitigate those chal
[29] identified features and key performance indicators (KPI) to lenges. Finally, the conclusion is presented in Section 6.
improve energy and technological innovation to enhance smartness in
buildings. However, the study failed to highlight the full operational 2. Methodology
competency of IoT in different BI domains with comprehensive granu
larity and majorly focused on identifying KPIs to improve the energy To investigate the adoption of cognitive IoT in BI this state-of-art
efficiency of the buildings. On the other hand, a study by Minoli et al. review explores a multitude of technologies, studies, challenges, and
[10] established a comprehensive study to identify major technological solutions and offers a broader overview to the researchers regarding the
considerations and requirements for energy optimization in BI and the implementation of IoT in BI. The associated technologies and in
development of next-generation BMS. However, such an uni-direction terventions are categorized into three major dimensions, i.e., active,
approach restricts the reader from comprehending a holistic overview responsive, and adaptive, as shown in Table 1 and graphically reper
of the multidimensional application of IoT in BI and the challenges faced sented in Fig. 1. BI should necessarily fulfill all three dimensions to
during its practical implementation. As IoT is a technological-driven transform itself into CB. The upcoming sections discuss the major
sector, a thorough understanding of the technical requirements, asso components related to the defined dimensions in greater detail.
ciated technologies, potential applications, practical challenges and The concept of CBs and IoT implementation in BI is still in the
their solutions are required to comprehend the implementation of IoT in formative stages and its operational competency is not yet fully realized
BI. [14]. Thus, this review systematically explores empirical literature with
This study comprehensively investigates the state-of-art projects and specific keywords in relation to buildings like “cognitive buildings”,
most recent research efforts in both academic and industrial domains “smart buildings”, “IoT architecture”, “data management”, “AI tech
focusing on the application of IoT in BI with the ability to transform nologies”, “energy management” and “renewable energy resources” to
conventional BI into CB. In this regard, this is a maiden effort to provide conduct a thorough search in two main bibliographic databases: Com
the readers with a broader overview of the applications of IoT in BI pendex Engineering Village and Google Scholar. Literature like
rather than having a singular focus. To characterize this effort, the study peer-reviewed articles, technical reports, conference publications,
first introduces readers to the essential dimensions of a CB and discusses books, and theses, with impact factors of 2.0 or above, published
the necessary technological and behavioural interventions that post-2010 are prioritized. In addition, reports published by govern
contemporary BI should fulfill to transform themselves into CBs. mental (like US EIA, department of energy, NIST, etc.) and nongovern
Moreover, the study highlights the challenges and repercussions of mental (IBM, Siemens, Honeywell, etc) organizations are also
conventional BMS and how IoT-based frameworks can assist BI to considered in obtaining both statistical and technical information
overcome those challenges. Further, this study highlights the major regarding the implementation of IoT in BI.
3
the building lifecycle (i.e. design, construction, operations, mainte

nance, retrofits, and demolition) [57]. ZEBs aim to reduce and optimize
building energy consumption by integrating buildings with on-site
renewable energy generation (REG) and energy storage (ES) solutions
to satisfy their peak energy demands and reduce grid dependency [58].
Lastly, the SBs are ICT-driven with smart sensing and metering devices
that transform the BLCs into cyber-physical entities. SBs establish a
dedicated communication network that serves as a backbone to inter
connect multiple smart devices with BLCs for intact communication with
each other [59]. Fig. 2 demonstrates a 3D graphical view of different
building concepts.
In the 1980s, Michael Mozer developed the concept of the neural
network-based automated building (AB) to control and operate all the
Fig. 1. Dimensions of cognitive buildings. electrical appliances, utilities, heating, lighting, and other entertain
ment systems using micro-controllers and a dedicated communication
network [60]. However, the commencement of the 21st century gener
ated the demand for smart cities and communities, which encouraged
Table 1 significant transformation in the areas of economic restructuring, tech
Essential dimensions of cognitive buildings. nological advancements, and environmental sustainability. This induc
Dimension Definition Technologies and Behavioural ted a surge of interest in SBs and their associated technologies [17]. The
Interventions prominent advancement in SB over AB is its intact connectivity with the
Active BI should implement a set of Sensors, actuators, wired/ system and uniting BMS with smart data management to enhance reli
technologies that facilitate it to wireless sensor networks, cloud ability, resource interconnectivity, and human interaction [59,61].
sense its surrounding storage, and IoT infrastructure. Contrarily, in ABs BLCs always functioned independently in isolation,
environment and also provides which restricts their participation with other components and makes it
a dedicated infrastructure to
exchange, store and manage
hard to identify better sustainable solutions [62].
information for BLCs and other In 2015, IBM adopted the term “Cognitive Buildings” to highlight the
technical components. adapting and predictive capabilities of buildings to meet the dynamic
Responsive BI should implement smart Implementation of AI, data user-centric demands while simultaneously maintaining the energy and
solutions that augment mining, clustering, and other
cost-effectiveness of the building [63]. The concept was a motivation
cognitive intelligence to machine learning techniques.
enhance decision-making from the human biological cognitive architecture comprising complex
capabilities and reduce user interconnected functional devices and control algorithms to effectively
dependence. administer BLCs [64]. The prime difference between the SBs and CBs is
Adaptive BI should integrate on-site Onsite renewable energy, the application of their adaptive control algorithms and technologies,
renewable energy sources and demand side management,
other energy-efficient energy-efficient policies, etc.
which can predict, learn and make decisions from the real-time ambi
alternatives to support concepts guous/undefined data and implement vital changes to satisfy dynamic
like smart cities and smart future demands [62,65]. The forthcoming sections discuss the three
grids. essential dimensions of CB in greater detail.
3. Cognitive buildings 3.2. Cloud-IoT infrastructure: active dimension
Modern BI is an essential component of the global cyber-physical CB environment comprehensively follows multi-layered cloud-IoT
system and is considered critical for human habitat [30]. However, architecture (as shown in Fig. 3) that serves as a backbone to connect
due to the operational heterogeneity of BLCs, conventional standalone BLCs and other smart devices on a uniform platform and works syn
BMS faces certain operational and scalability challenges that signifi chronously to fulfill user-oriented demands. These layers initiate from
cantly affect the system efficacy, as discussed in Table 2. Implementa empowering the physical devices to sense the external environment and
tion of IoT and its relevant technologies can create an intensive progress to the highest application-level control to make decisions and
information-driven infrastructure by connecting heterogeneous BLCs optimize building operations. The things layer (sensor, actuators, con
on a unified dedicated platform, which can significantly improve the trollers) of the cloud-IoT framework transforms buildings into active
building’s operational efficacy and provide holistic sustainable solutions entities, which allows it to smartly sense and record the changes in in
for the future. This section discusses the major challenges of conven door/outdoor environments, building operations, occupancy, and other
tional BMS and how the implementation of IoT in distinct BI domains user-oriented activities. The following sections discuss the functional
can mitigate those challenges to create a CB environment. and technical aspects of cloud-IoT layers in greater detail.
3.2.1. Things-layer: sensor, actuator, and controllers

3.1. Cognitive Buildings and Other Building Concepts Things-layer is the fundamental building block of the cloud-IoT
framework and is often termed a low-level layer or recognition layer
Presently, extensive research is pursued in designing different [66]. This layer governs smart devices at the physical level, ranging from
building concepts, which vary according to the need, goal, and opera microscopic sensors, actuators, smart esprissif (ESP) devices to giant
tional aspects of the buildings. On a macro level, these concepts can be machinery in the industries [67]. CB comprises multiple sensing devices
classified into three major categories namely: green buildings (GBs), that are pervasively installed at distinct building spaces and on-field
SBs, and zero energy buildings (ZEB). Each category follows a specific locations to sense and monitor different BLCs like HVAC, lighting, se
design and service-oriented approach to enhance sustainability in the curity, and indoor/outdoor environment (like airflow, humidity, air
buildings. GBs focuses on the structural aspect of the buildings like quality, luminosity, occupancy, temperature, etc.) [68]. At this layer,
physical design, material, and building envelope. It considerably re BLCs and other heterogeneous IoT devices are organized in a dedicated
duces building energy consumption by accounting for all the phases in sensor/actuator network called SANET, often referred to as a wireless
4
Table 2
Challenges of Convention BMS and its Repercussion.
Domain Challenge Repercussion
Constrained ● Traditional BMS still implements wired cable connections and requires a ● Wired cabling involves high labour costs during the initial installation,
Connectivity well-established wireless sensor node network [31]. reconfiguration, and maintenance phases [31].
● Simultaneous data transfer from multiple sensors leads to network ● Network over trafficking leads to signal re-transmission events and can even
trafficking and signal collision events [32]. corrupt sensor data, producing missing and bogus data [32].
● Limited integration for plug-and-play third-party smart devices [33]. ● Requires installation of proprietary software and gateways to support third-
party smart devices, which can cause configuration conflicts with another
device type [34].
Data ● Requires efficient semantic-based data management to obtain smart ● Fails to understand relational semantics among different BLCs and smart
Management insight into the system using operational data from multiple sensing devices, which restricts building managers to gain a deeper knowledge of the
devices, appliances, and BLCs [35]. system for efficient decision-making [35,36].
Optimal Control ● Implements outdated electronic equipment; proportional integrated ● Outdated PIDs implement a pre-defined set of parameters that fail to acquire
derivatives (PID) controllers with a closed loop [37]. direct knowledge of the entire system and exhibit substandard control per
● PIDs primarily focus on energy saving and fail to account for thermal formance in the case of nonlinear and noisy processes with larger time de
comfort factors [38]. lays [41].
● Integrate thermal comfort strategies by implementing complex ● PIDs require explicit integration of adaptive [42], predictive [38], and
mathematical models and rule-based control [39,40]. optimal [43] strategies to integrate thermal comfort features.
● Excessive mathematical modeling can produce inaccurate results, especially
in the presence of sensor noise. In addition, rule-based control methods face
generality issues if the logic is transferred to another building due to factors
like architectural dimension, building usage, and climate conditions [44,
45].
Centralized ● Implements centralized control to coordinate information and actions ● Centralized architecture reduces the scalability of the control strategies and
Control among the entire system [46]. increases the memory and computational overheads [49].
● Involves high upgrade and reconfiguration costs [47]. ● Small changes in component models can significantly alter main controller
● Challenging to implement model predictive control and data predictive configurations giving rise to uncertainty while considering building clusters
control strategies [48]. [50].
● Difficult to plan, test, and evaluate advanced algorithms on online BMS, as it
is not feasible to take the current operational setting offline [51].
Fault Detection ● Implements model-based fault detection to identify corrupt signals, pa ● Model-based strategies only work for steady-state systems and perform
rameters, and system faults [52]. inefficiently for online processes producing delayed responses [54].
● Challenging to implement optimal data-driven and knowledge-based ● Inefficient fault detection methods can produce false positive signals and if
methods in large-scale HVAC systems [53]. not tackled smartly, they can contribute to 15–20% of total building energy
loss [55].
Advance ● Fails to interact and integrate with other smart technologies like smart ● This limits BMS scalability and implementation of much smarter algorithms
Interactivity grids, dynamic energy pricing, and on-site renewable energy resources to enhance building sustainability [17].
[56].
Fig. 2. Cognitive buildings and other building concepts.
sensor network (WSN) [69]. To support heterogeneity in device type things-layer protocols in cloud-IoT infrastructure are discussed in
Over-the-Air programming technique is implemented using three basic Table 10 in Annexure A.
modes, namely event-driven, periodic, and on-demand reporting to co
ordinate communication and data transfer among devices [70]. Table 3 3.2.2. Communication-layer: connecting devices
discusses some of the majorly used sensors and smart devices in build Sensing devices in CBs are distinctive from other IT environments
ings. In addition, some of the efficient short-range and long-range due to their type, form factor, and transmission capabilities, this makes
5
Fig. 3. Cloud-IoT ecosystem.
Table 3
Sensors in buildings.
Sensor Type Architecture Communication Application References
Technology
Thermal Sensor Thermocouples, RTD, Thermistors, IC PDA/PC, PIC, SIM20, ATMega88, 16bit BLE, SIM20, TCP/IP, BMS, HVAC [61,
sensors microprocessor, CPLD RS485 71–73]
Humidity sensor Capacitive, Resistive, Thermal PDA/PC, CPLD PC, PDA, TCP/IP BMS, HVAC, monitoring
Carbon-dioxide Electro-chemical, MOSFET, Infrared, PIC18F4550, ADUC1812 TII, ZigBee, RS232 Airflow Control,
sensor Photo-acoustic monitoring
Airflow Hotwire, vane, Volume airflow, mass 32-bit RISC core RS232 BMS, HVAC
airflow
Light Photodiode MSP430, Wireless transceiver, CC2420, TinyOS, ZigBee, USB, BMS, HVAC Advance
JN512 RS232, WiFi lighting system
Electrical Current sensor, voltage sensor * ZigBee Pro S2, BMS, HVAC, consumption
monitoring
Smart meters SMETS-1, 2 PLC Zigbee BMS
Fire detection Ionization, photoelectric, heat, hybrid PIC microcontroller, smoke sensor, GSM, Communication, BMS, HVAC, Fault-
temperature sensor Zigbee detection, and security
Occupancy Passive infrared, ultrasonic, * * Occupancy monitoring,
microwave, and thermal imaging BMS HVAC
it challenging to implement a generic communication standard suite gateways. Additionally, they also follow, a hybrid topological network
[74]. Communication-layer follows a sub-layer architecture consisting (star, mesh, bus, peer-to-peer, etc) to maintain effective and uninter
of a network access-layer, gateway and backhaul-layer and rupted communication among devices [77]. Later, depending on the
transport-layer to establish effective communication among distinct adopted communication criteria, the most efficient access technology is
devices. selected, that implements designated communication protocols to
Network access-layer governs two major services namely, securely exchange information among devices [74,78]. Some of the
communication criteria and access technologies (AT) [74]. Communi commonly used communication criteria and access technologies are
cation criteria focus on network attributes (like range, frequency, represented in Fig. 4.
bandwidth, topology, etc) that are necessary to be considered before Gateway and backhaul-layer operate as an intermediate to main
choosing an appropriate access technology [75]. In CB, devices can tain synchronization among distinct smart devices and BLCs. A gateway
communicate within a limited periphery, following two basic connec consistently administers multiple SANETs with heterogeneous commu
tion types i.e. point-to-point (1-1, N-1), where a smart device can only nication properties and converts the received signals in a unified format
interact with a single device or a gateway [76] or point-to-multi-point for the central station to reduce signal conversion overheads and
(1-N, N–N) where devices can communicate with multiple devices and network management [79,80].
Fig. 4. Network-Layer Services (Source [74]).
6
Table 4
Communication protocols in BI.
Protocols Standard Topology Media Transport Protocol Application References
Wired Protocols [10,28,

BACnet (ASHRAE) ISO 16484-5 Daisy chain, star, or Twisted pair, fiber optics, IP, Ethernet, LonTalk, HVAC, lighting, physical security and 85–87]
mixed topology wireless mesh Zigbee, ARCnet, MS/TP fire protection
LonWorks ISO/IEC Daisy-chain, star or Twisted pair, power lines, IP Connect HVAC, lighting, process control, and
(Echelon 14908 mixed topology fiber optics, wireless home automation
corporation)
KNX (Konnex) ISO/IEC Tree, line, and star Twisted pair Power Line, KNX gateways HVAC, lighting, remote access,
14543-3 topologies Radiofrequency, IP/ security, and energy management
Ethernet
DALI (Phillips) IEC 62386 Line or star topology Single pair of wires from the Communicates with other Fluorescent HF ballasts, PE cells, wall
bus protocols via gateways switches, motion detectors
Clipsal C-Bus – Unshielded twisted Free topology architecture Proprietary
pair
Modbus – Line topology Two-wire, four-wire, IP, Ethernet
(Modicon) wireless mesh
M-Bus EN 13757-2 Line topology Twisted pair, wireless Not defined in standard;
OPC (Microsoft) – Server-client OPC Servers TCP/IP, HTTP, HTTPS, or
XML
Wireless Protocols
EnOcean ISO/IEC Point-to-point Wireless – Occupancy sensors, key card
(Siemens) 14543-3-10 communications switches, lighting controls, and other
room control applications
ZigBee (Zigbee IEEE Mesh network Wireless – HVAC controllers, room controllers,
Alliance) 802.15.4 and occupancy
Transport-layer implements an open standard protocol suite called management-oriented risks to third parties [90]. In CBs most of the
Internet Protocol (IP) to provide end-to-end connectivity among het building owners prefer to use their enterprise data servers [74]. How
erogeneous sensing devices to exchange information effortlessly [81]. In ever, such criteria involve a good initial investment and high mainte
the CB IoT network, IP implements an adaptive integration model, nance cost over time. Nevertheless, professional enterprises like Amazon
where layered gateways ensure the interaction between IP and AWS, Microsoft Azure, and Google Xively provide the necessary
non-IP-enabled devices [82]. Generally, Transmission Control Protocol data-oriented services at a much lower annual cost than
(TCP), a connection-oriented protocol, is implemented which estab personally-owned data servers [90]. Technically, there are two major
lishes a communication session before transmitting data and guarantees paradigms to establish CC services in the CB environment namely,
data delivery using encryption [83]. Besides this, the transport-layer Cloud-Based BMS (CB-BMS) and Cloud-Enabled BMS (CE-BMS) [91].
uses different error detection mechanisms and congestion control pro CB-BMS is a stand-alone approach, that directly synchronizes all
tocols to maintain reliability, resilience, and efficacy to ensure the physical devices like sensors, controllers, actuators, and BLCs with the
sequential delivery of data over the network [84]. Building automation cloud services. In other words, it forms a building cloud architecture,
and control networks consist of various wired and wireless protocols to replacing the locally installed BMS. Such direct integration assists users
establish communication among different BLCs. Table 4 highlights some with high-level flexibility in real-time monitoring and scalability in data
of the major protocols and their technical specifications. Some of the storage, control, computing, and decision-making facilities. However,
network access-layer and transport-layer protocols are discussed in Ta such architecture requires a well-established and robust communication
bles 11 and 12 respectively in Annexure A. infrastructure, as no on-site BMS is installed to operate BLCs locally
[51].
3.2.3. Cloud computing and storage CE-BMS uses cloud services coupled with the locally installed BMS.
Smart devices constantly generate colossal data (Bigdata), which is All the BLCs and equipment are initially managed and controlled by a
not feasible to process using conventional data warehousing techniques local in-house BMS. However, CC services are majorly used for providing
[88]. Cloud computing (CC) significantly improves the flexibility and additional features like managing collected information, configuring
scalability of the system by providing users with a decentralized hard optimized updates for energy control mechanisms, and providing peri
ware and software platform to store, process, and represent data effi odic software update assistance to the local BMS. This approach pro
ciently [89]. CC significantly reduces upfront costs by implementing vides more scalability, control, and secure building information
pay-per-use facilities and shifting data security and management as compared to the CB-BMS [51]. Table 5 highlights the
Table 5
Comparison of CB-BMS and CE-BMS
Parameter CB-BEMS CE-BEMS References
Cloud Dependence Entirely Dependent Semi Dependent [51,91]

Data Communication High Speed High Speed
Data Traffic High Low
Vulnerability to Security Attacks High Low
BEMS placement Ex-Situ/In-Situ In-Situ
Reliability Low High
Decision Making On-Site/Off-site On-Site
Software and other updates Regularly Required Required (but still, work if skipped)
7
advantages and disadvantages associated with both paradigms. quality in BI for efficient and smooth operations. BLCs and smart devices
generate heterogeneous data depending on their protocols and stan
3.2.4. Application management and deployment dards. Thus, data is never relationally interconnected or available in the
Application layer is responsible for human-machine interaction by direct consumable form [95]. In literature, some studies have actively
providing presentation, business, and service management facilities participated to understand and develop generic meta-models to address
[92]. This layer is majorly composed of two components: the application challenges associated with building-oriented Bigdata.
service-layer and the computational-layer [93]. The service layer assists Gao et al. [95] developed a data acquisition framework consisting of
users with smart applications using AI, fuzzy, and other data-oriented data adapters (software agents) that periodically collect data from
techniques to make building operations and management smarter and different building sources and communicate it to their associated data
more interactive. However, the computation-layer provides facilities agents (low-cost and energy-efficient distributed minicomputers). The
like real-time computation, server-side computation, and application data agents combine, organize and store the collected data in their
hosting services. Application-layer assists users in analyzing data, personalized local database repository. Data agents are also capable of
developing control applications, and providing network assistance and integrating third-party IoT devices that monitor a building’s indoor
analytics to improve their business services [94]. Some of the environment like temperature, humidity, vibration, illumination, occu
application-layer protocols are discussed in Table 13 in Annexure A. pancy, etc. The collected data streams are communicated to the parent
adapters that directly connect with the central database server for data
storage and management. The practical implementation of the frame
3.3. Augmenting Cognitive Intelligence: responsive dimension
work was successfully carried out using Raspberry Pi and integrated
sensors like temperature, humidity, vibration, illumination, and sound.
Cognitive intelligence is the most prominent aspect of a CB. Intelli
Kumar et al. [36] developed an IoT-enabled semantic policy-based
gent building operations like smart HVAC, energy efficiency, smart
data management system to capture significant relationships in a
lighting system, fault detection system, and occupant safety and health
building’s operational data. The data from the sensors and other BLCs
can effectively enhance CB’s ability to interact with the external sur
was stored using cloud storage and was accessed via representational
roundings and implement optimal response with minimal system in
state transfer (RESTful) API or web services. Further, a connector and
terruptions and limited human dependence. Augmenting cognitive
rule engine organize the data for semantic storage in OWLIM (OWL
intelligence in BI requires the integration of different technologies that
Memory Schema Repository, nowadays GraphDB) repository. This re
support scalable data storage, implement intensive computative algo
pository is packed with a storage and inference layer (SAIL) that creates
rithms and develop decision support systems to optimize the operational
user-specific semantics and relationship between multiple data streams
status of BLCs in real time. The following sections discuss various aca
by implementing user-defined rules. Lastly, SPARQL (Spark SQL) over
demic studies that implement distinct AI and machine learning tech
REST API was used to analyze the data to obtain smart operational in
nologies with IoT frameworks in various application domains of BI (as
sights into BLCs.
shown in Fig. 5) to make them more responsive and interactive with the
Notably, Bashir et al. [96] developed an IoT and big data analytics
external environment.
(IBDA) framework for managing and analyzing the data in the SB
environment. The framework consists of apache flume agents that
3.3.1. Big data management in CB
periodically sense the TCP port of the sensors and communicate the
Generally, buildings generate Bigdata which includes, but is not
real-time data streams to a Hadoop file structure (HDFS) for storage.
limited to building-level information, equipment’s operational data,
Further, cloudera’s big data platform was used to manage the stored
hardware inventory, software-related information, etc. Gao et al. [95]
data and PySpark scripting was implemented to analyze and draw
highlighted the need to improve data sufficiency, accessibility, and
Fig. 5. Augmenting cognitive intelligence in buildings.
8
relationships between real-time data from different utilities. Carli et al. [110] proposed a cloud IoT-based energy management
Himeur et al. [97] reviewed data management and fusion strategies framework for optimizing HVACs at the university campus (polytechnic
for energy efficiency in SBs. The authors provided a data management of Bari, Italy). The framework implemented a model predictive control
architecture, that integrated both behavioural and energy efficiency (MPC) algorithm in real-time with closed-loop orientation to optimize
semantic models to understand the interaction between energy con indoor thermal comfort and related energy consumption for a
sumption trends and user behaviour The model collects the data from single-zone environment. The MPC sets multiple energy-saving criteria
the smart devices and stores them in a temporary memory that imple as the objectives of the cost function and significantly reduced energy
ments user-defined semantic scripts. Lastly, the enriched data is stored consumption by 15–20% seasonally and by 18.6% on average daily
using the Bigdata repository for analysis and other decision-making building operations. Moreover, the framework also predicted
purposes. user-comfort ratings and included them as input to the dynamic thermal
Considering the above studies, researchers have highlighted the model for optimal results.
implementation of smart data-management frameworks in BI for effi Su et al. [50] developed a distributed agent-based real-time building
cient building management logistics i.e. to present the right information, HVAC control strategy using future IoT-based WSNs. A coordinated
at right time and in the right form to enable real-time smart data ana network of multiple agents was implemented to handle high computa
lytics to efficiently govern building-level operations. tional tasks by decomposing them into several simple tasks. Optimal set
points were calculated using a genetic algorithm and were forwarded to
3.3.2. Smart HVAC and indoor environmental control smart sensors to handle their corresponding local optimization tasks.
Smart HVAC operations hold the greatest potential to reduce build The computational load for each agent was identified to be less than
ing energy consumption and provide indoor environmental comfort to 2000 FLOPs and the proposed framework achieved energy savings of
building tenants [98]. Initially, HVACs were controlled using traditional 716.57 kWh (3.36%) and 3461.11 kWh (4.60%), for the central cooling
control strategies, that implemented a simple electronic structure, which system, on the spring and summer test days respectively, and 3.58%
receives signals from thermostats, switches, and humidity sensors [99]. energy savings for the cooling towers during summer test day.
Such a simplistic approach lacked accuracy, constrained user interac Kharbouch et al. [111] developed an IoT-based hardware-in-the-loop
tion, and limited operational abilities [100]. Moreover, its operational (HIL) framework for the assessment of MPC approaches for SB ventila
linearity produced inaccurate results, especially for complex and tion. The proposed approach was designed by collaborating IoT and big
non-linear HVACs [101], as discussed in Table 6. To overcome these data platforms with a MATLAB-based MPC framework to enable HIL
limitations, advanced control strategies were developed to assist users simulations for the SB ventilation system. To evaluate the practical
with energy and cost-efficient HVAC operations. Advanced strategies applicability, the framework was tested in a real-case lab test scenario by
can smartly deal with non-linear operations, uncertainty in internal deploying MPC in Raspberry Pi. IoT/big data platform was implemented
loads, dynamic power pricing and external environmental conditions to provide secure and active access to contextual data for training MPC
[102] by implementing mathematical, statistical, and analytical models and long short-term memory (LSTM) machine learning models. Building
by utilizing real/precise data [103]. occupancy is initially forecasted and inputted to MPC to predict and
regulate ventilation flow rates. The performance of the MPC control over
Table 6
the HIL framework was compared to the conventional ON/OFF strategy
Advantages and disadvantages of traditional control strategies. and the proposed approach effectively reduced the energy consumption
by approximately 16%, while maintaining good indoor air quality.
Control Advantage Disadvantage References
Method
Choi et al. [112] developed an IoT-based HVAC system (I-HVAC) for
indoor quality management and optimizing building energy consump
Sequential • Easiest and most • Accuracy issues [104–106]
tion for future ZEBs. The framework was implemented in a senior care
control intuitive method to while controlling the
ON/OFF implement. moving processes center in the Republic of Korea. Where a WSN was established to sense
• Low setup and with time delays. the indoor and outdoor atmospheric quality for different spaces in the
maintenance costs. • Required PID center. Further, flexible HVAC optimization policies were defined for
• Quick response with a controllers to reduce
energy management in different independent spaces. The framework
feedback controller. the fluctuations of
the ON/OFF
effectively reduced energy consumption by 13.7% as compared to the
controllers. existing operations.
• Accepts only binary This section discussed the implementation of advanced control
inputs. strategies using IoT frameworks that can efficiently control building
• Inefficient in
HVAC operations without compromising user comfort. However, there
accurately
processing setpoint are a wide variety of advanced strategies that can be implemented with
tracking. IoT to optimally control the HVAC system. Moreover, being mathe
PID Control • Most commonly used • Produces sudden [107–109] matically computative, advanced strategies are highly dependent on the
controller with its overshoot and quality and the type of data received from BLCs and other IoT devices.
practical undershoot signals,
implementation in the which depreciates
Table 7 discusses the advantages and disadvantages of these strategies
field of research and the actuator’s that can assist researchers to choose the best fit strategy depending on
HVAC. efficiency in the their data and scenario.
• Feedback capabilities longer run.
and provide quick • Performs
3.3.3. Energy efficiency in CB
reactions to sudden inefficiently in case
load changes in the of nonlinear and Energy efficiency is one of the most critical aspects for a CB to attain
system. complex systems. operational sustainability. IoT can significantly assist CBs to incorporate
• Limited energy-efficient alternatives like management policies, benchmarking,
performance and building codes and DSM under one hood. This section highlights some
longer testing
periods.
studies that integrated prolific methods, technologies and policies with
• May cause system IoT frameworks to improve energy efficiency in BI.
instability due to Casado-Mansilla et al. [131] developed an IoT-enabled GreenSoul
inadequate gains by framework that can enhance the energy efficiency of traditional public
the controller.
buildings by integrating technologies like smart adaptors, energy
9
Table 7
Advance strategies for HVAC control.
Advance Control Description Advantages Disadvantages References
Optimal This method develops a mathematical objective ● Advance features for energy saving. ● Requires detailed system information [100,107,
Control function system by utilizing the characteristics ● Rapid response and multivariate control. for designing the model. 113,114]
and interaction between the variables to ● Mathematical models can be changed as ● Daunting challenge to identifying an
optimally maximize thermal comfort and per user input. appropriate model for complex
minimizes energy usage while maintaining the systems.
operational efficacy of the system. ● Challenging to implement feedback
control in real-time.
Robust Control This technique effectively understands the system ● Ability to deal with measured and ● Fails to perform efficiently where the [108,115]
behaviour, non-linearity, and model uncertainty. unmeasured disturbances. weather conditions change
It utilizes both feed-forward and feed-backward ● Provides advanced features for model drastically.
controls to overcome unknown external parameters to overcome uncertainty and
disturbances without their prior knowledge. disturbances.
However, it is not suitable to implement it for a ● No prior knowledge of uncertain inputs is
system that experiences drastic changes in required for modeling.
weather conditions.
Adaptive It provides a self-regulating solution specifically ● Adaptive approach to counter nonlinear ● Challenging to develop a system [107,
Control for nonlinear, complex, and time-varying systems modeling and uncertainties in the system model at the initial stages. 116–118]
whose dynamics change during normal operating parameters.
conditions in the presence of stochastic ● Provide better system stability and
disturbances. It creates a specific performance energy-saving solutions.
index (PI) using system variables and compares it ● Ability to change parameters w.r.t the
with the reference PI. It implements a closed changes in process dynamics.
feedback loop structure, where one loop governs ● Enhanced response time and easy
signal variations and the other loop handles implementation.
process parameters to make the control adaptive.
Nonlinear This technique is preferred for highly complex ● It offers a completely different approach ● Challenging to find Lyapunov [101,119,
Control systems with a wide operational range, where for developing a non-linear system model functions for the model 120]
high non-linearity significantly affects the and addressing the time-varying and un ● Sensitivity to parameter variation
system’s behaviour. Lyapunov’s stability theory certain parameters. ● Limited operating range and non-
and feedback linearization are implemented to linear observer required to monitor
develop a system model and control laws to make all state variables.
the system more stable and efficient.
Model It is a multivariate prediction-based control ● Provides robust, cost-effective, and ● Challenging to identify appropriate [107,
Predictive technique, that accounts for past system enhanced energy saving. system models. 121–125]
Control information to predict future outcomes. It ● Decreases the offset error and improves ● Implementation might get costly for
generates a control vector to minimize the cost the steady-state response. complex systems.
function (representing power consumption, ● Predicts uncertainty and control actions.
demand cost, tracking error, etc). The influence of ● Enhances transient responses and
the external factors is estimated using the control postpones slow-moving processes for bet
vector which makes the controller robust to ter control.
uncertainty and time-varying system parameters. ● Reduces computation time and
fluctuations from the set point for better
regulation.
● Provides better air quality and thermal
comfort.
Neural Network A complex structure of neural networks is ● Efficient in predicting outcomes for non- ● Requires high computational [101,109,
(NN) based developed to identify the relationship between linear systems. resources, which increases time 126]
control input and output. It efficiently deals with non- ● Suitable for non-mathematical models complexity. longer time periods to
linear systems and produces robust results even in and nonlinear control. train and test the model.
the case of system failure. ● Prediction quality highly depends
upon model configuration and the
type of data used for training.
● Challenging to deploy it for real-time
scenarios.
Fuzzy Logic- This technique uses human reasoning and ● Imitates human reasoning and linguistic ● To achieve more accuracy, more [101,
based Control linguistic models to understand nonlinear, models. fuzzy-based rules are needed. 127–129]
complex, and integrated systems. Membership ● Uses simpler mathematical membership ● slower execution speed and longer
functions are developed for regulating the rules to understand nonlinear and computing time can affect system
operational behaviour of the system. The control complex structures. response time.
structure follows three main steps fuzzification ● Works efficiently for complex HVACs. ● Lacks in developing a learning
(convert crisp values to fuzzy values), fuzzy- strategy due to the restricted usage of
inference (identify the degree of membership), input variables.
and defuzzification (remap fuzzy values to crisp
values).
Genetic This technique provides derivative-free results to ● A unique non-derivative-based optimiza ● Sometimes performs inefficiently for [101,130]
Algorithms a mathematical model. It efficiently identifies the tion technique that can provide optimal standalone real-time HVAC
best solution among the set of solutions. Thus, it is solutions among other set of solutions. applications.
majorly used for the purpose of automatic tuning ● Enhances the performance of fuzzy
or learning components in a fuzzy-based controllers and rule-based systems.
controller called genetic fuzzy systems.
10
analyzers, occupant-aware decision support engines, mobile applica behavioural-based, and operation-based energy efficiency, as shown in
tions, and interactive ambient interfaces. The framework deploys Fig. 6. All these domains can be integrated with IoT to enhance energy
lightweight edge computing GreenSoul-ed devices to collect efficiency in buildings. Table 8 discusses these domains with their
context-aware information (occupancy, appliance use, indoor tempera associated advantages and disadvantages.
ture, etc) of the building. Further, the collected information is analyzed
to develop socio-economic behavioural models to comprehend occu 3.3.4. Smart lighting system
pants’ behaviour and transform BLCs and other appliances into active Lighting accounts for nearly 11% of electrical energy demand in
pro-sustainability agents, that regularly update users on their efficient buildings. The emergence of light-emitting diodes (LEDs) has entirely
and timely use. The framework also assisted building managers to transformed the global smart lighting system (SLS) market, due to its
develop individual and collective strategies for energy-efficient building energy-efficient operations [150]. SLS not only provides users with vi
operations and personal awareness. sual comfort but also assists them with greater control beyond the
Pan et al. [132] highlighted that implementing centralized and static occupant-dependent traditional two-state on/off system. In addition, the
building controls performs inefficiently even though a building pos integration of sensing and micro-controller technologies with SLS en
sesses green architecture. Inspired by energy-proportional computing, hances energy saving in buildings by providing facilities like
the authors proposed an automated smart location-based network en auto-dimming, occupancy sensing, and daylight harvesting [151]. Vital
ergy control IoT framework, that enables multi-scale energy propor efforts have been made in past to implement SLS with IoT frameworks to
tionality at the building, user, and organizational-level energy reduce building energy consumption, increase visual quality and pro
consumption. The authors identified significant economic benefits in vide a user-centric working environment.
terms of energy saving, home/office network intelligence, and a huge For instance, Zaidi et al. [152] proposed a communication theoretic
social implication in terms of global sustainability. perspective of IoT-empowered SLS. The authors highlighted the need to
Moreno et al. [133] highlighted the key identifiers (smart devices, upgrade from wired systems like digital addressable lighting interfaces
occupant behaviour, environmental behaviour, energy generation, and (DALI) and implement better wireless solutions using hierarchical
consumption) in the entire building lifecycle that are requisite to networking architecture. The importance of technologies like gesture
consider while optimizing building energy consumption. The authors recognition, presence detectors, blind control, ambiance, and proximity
used city explorer (an IoT-based holistic software platform with dedi sensors were also highlighted to regulate building lighting facilities for
cated hardware to control and communicate information among optimal operations.
different BLCs) to monitor three experimental buildings with distinct Motlagh et al. [153] developed an IoT-based SLS to reduce energy
operational usage. Further, different energy-efficient control strategies consumption in older homes while maintaining visual comfort. Light
were designed for each building type depending on their operational sensors were deployed at distributed locations to monitor indoor
requirements. The initial stages of evaluation resulted in 23% of energy ambient light intensity and a control mechanism was programmed using
savings in buildings. IoT gateways to control the indoor light intensity. The practicality of the
Marinakis et al. [12] developed an IoT-based semantic framework for approach was highlighted by performing simulations on a seven-stage
the unified and standardized modeling of BLCs. The framework imple dimmable LED lamp with an illumination area of 1m2.
ments optimal rules for energy-efficient building operations by inte Kandasamy et al. [154] developed a novel daylight harvesting
grating cross-domain data like BMS data, energy production, dynamic lighting control system for net-ZEBs using ANN with an internal model
energy prices, weather, and end-users behaviour to produce daily/ control principle for controller design. The controller uses the sensor
weekly action plans for the energy end-users with actionable personal feedback to maintain the desired illuminance and can be easily adjusted
ized information. using a single parameter to acknowledge variability. EKO light sensors
Undoubtedly, IoT is not the sole method to implement energy- (ML-020S0) were deployed to measure light intensity at the desk level
efficient operations in BI but, it can significantly boost and support and the national instruments data acquisition platform (NI cDAQ) was
the implementation and management of other energy-efficient alterna used to acquire signals from the sensors as well as to actuate the lights
tives. Motivated by the literature we categorize energy efficiency in BI through a web server-based WiFi gateway connection. Undoubtedly,
into four major categories namely, technology-based, policy-based, implementing IoT-driven SLS provides near-identical lighting
Fig. 6. Methods to improve energy efficiency in BI.
11
Table 8
Approaches of realization of energy efficiency in BI.
Domain Description Advantages Disadvantages
Technology-based Energy Efficiency

Smart HVAC Optimized HVACs can reduce nearly 20–30% of the ● Significant energy and cost savings. ● High initial investment during
building energy demands while consistently maintaining ● Healthy air and working environment for installation.
thermal comfort [134,135]. Section 3.3.2 significantly occupants. ● Highly depends on the outside
discusses different methods and data-driven techniques to ● Heat and moisture recovery with natural environment for natural ventilation.
optimize HVAC in BI. ventilation. ● Challenging to comply with energy code
requirements.
Building Envelope Heat gain and loss capability affect the thermal efficiency of ● Increases thermal resistance and retaining ● High initial investment during the
buildings. Thus, effective building materials and properties of the buildings. construction and installation phase.
dimensions like vacuum insulation panels, efficient fiber ● Significantly reduces the load from HVAC ● Challenging to validate and implement
materials, wall thickness, phase change materials, systems. new technologies.
fenestration, multi-pane windows, and structural dynamics ● Long-term monetary benefits for the ● Improves thermal efficiency for winters
can significantly reduce heat loss and make BI energy tenants by reducing operational costs. but makes it even more challenging in
efficient [136]. summers for natural ventilation.
Energy These technologies are most preferred in reducing the ● Improvement in building insulation ● High upfront investment and installation
Retrofitting building GHG emission and improving energy performance characteristics and air-tightness signifi charges.
for existing buildings. It involves extensive analysis and use cantly reduces HVAC loads. ● Longer payback period and return on
of energy simulations to detect abnormalities in building ● Improves indoor air quality and ventilation investment (ROI).
energy consumption and identify all the linear, volumetric, by using air trickle vents and air duct ● Aggressive retrofitting approach is
and material changes that can enhance the building energy dampers. required for historic buildings to make
performance [137]. ● Improves the aesthetics of the buildings. them energy efficient.
Renewable Energy This involves the implementation of technologies like ● Reduces the dependency of the buildings ● High implementation and installation
Integration building-integrated photovoltaic (PV) thermal systems, that on grids. costs.
can improve building energy efficiency by 70%–80% [138]. ● Assists in shifting peak power demand ● Highly depend upon the geographical
Distributed on-site REGs and combined heating & power during the daytime. and climatic condition of an area.
systems can also improve the building energy efficiency by ● Has a shorter payback period and ROI.
70% and make them grid-independent [139]. Hybrid
technologies like smart lighting, and ground-coupled heat
pumps are also useful in making buildings more efficient
[140].
Policy-based Energy Efficiency
Energy It provides distinct quantitative and qualitative indicators ● Defines a baseline for energy use in ● Requires detailed building-level
Benchmarking to estimate the energy efficiency of a system and develop buildings. information.
energy-efficient interventions for existing buildings. For ● Normalized and transparent comparison ● Evaluation diversity among different
instance, energy use intensity (EUI), thermal energy among buildings to improve their energy energy benchmarking techniques might
demand intensity (TEDI), building efficiency index (BEI), use. confuse building owners.
energy performance coefficient (EPC), and electrical load ● Provide technical reasons for poor energy
factor (ELF) are used to evaluate internal, external, and performance.
operational building performance [141].
Standard It involves third-party labelling firms that use a ● Effective labelling of the building’s ● Requires detailed building-level
Labelling standardized building rating system to label buildings efficiency motivates building owners to information.
depending on their energy efficiency. LEED and Energy Star progress towards an energy-efficient ● Evaluation variety among different
are the major leaders to certify buildings and facilitate environment. labelling might confuse building owners.
building owners with nearly 34% energy savings compared ● Promotes energy efficiency at building-
to conventional buildings [142]. level equipment.
Building Codes They regulate obligatory requirements for newer ● Guarantees new constructions to be energy ● Requires detailed building-level
construction like construction material, maintenance efficient. information.
timeline, and operational directives. Nowadays, many ● Motivates building owners to build an ● No specific codes for the use of ICTs in BI.
federal governments are introducing mandatory building energy-efficient environment.
codes for new constructions to make them more energy ● Promotes energy efficiency in building-
efficient. For instance, a study by Tulsyan et al. [143] shows level equipment.
that the use of energy codes in India can potentially exhibit
energy savings from 17% to 42%.
Behavioural-based Energy Efficiency
Behaviour It ensures the development of an interdisciplinary use of ● Motivates building users to participate in ● Requires advanced qualitative and
technology, organizational culture, and consumer energy-efficient building operations. quantitative analysis for learning.
behaviour to rationalize energy-efficient building ● Learns and understands user behavioural ● In some cases, it might just focus on user
operations [144]. Some of the major initiatives for smart patterns and preferences. comfort.
consumers and associated techniques are DeCarboNet, ● Provide a user-oriented working
enCOMPASS, MO-BISTYLE, OrbEET and ENTROPY [145]. environment.
Operational-based Energy Efficiency
Predictive Control This management strategy deals with predicting building ● Provides various predictive methods ● Highly data-oriented and dependent.
responses to control requests. It forecasts the building depending on user data and requirements. ● Selecting the wrong technique can
energy consumption using data-driven techniques like ● Integrates AI and other machine learning produce inefficient results
white box methods, black box methods and, grey box approaches to make buildings more energy
methods to model factors like carbon emissions, structural efficient.
layout, operational use and managerial directives [146, ● Significantly improves and provides
147]. estimates for future energy consumption.
(continued on next page)
12
Table 8 (continued )
Domain Description Advantages Disadvantages
Demand side It works as an action plan strategy that tries to optimize and ● Integrates REGs and ES systems. ● High initial investment in REGs and ES
Management reduce energy consumption at the user end to enhance grid ● Regulates and optimizes peak load and devices.
reliability, introduce investment delays and benefit high consumption situations. ● Requires smart and efficient algorithms
resource maximization. It majorly includes optimizing ● Provides sustainable and energy-efficient to optimize energy demand and
building operations by integrating on-site REGs and solutions to optimize building energy use. transactions.
distributed ES systems that trigger during peak load ● Requires dedicated interconnectivity
conditions to lower grid overloading situations [148]. with grid, REGs, and ES devices.
Optimization Robust and stochastic optimization techniques are applied ● Provides mathematical models and results ● Highly dependent on mathematical
to deal with optimal energy-related issues. Energy for an optimized environment. models and data.
consumption data is used as an input to the optimization ● Performs better in small-scale buildings. ● Highly complex models can produce
approach to identify efficient operations and reduce energy ● Models can be updated as per user demand inefficient results.
consumption while maximizing user satisfaction and and situations.
comfort [149].
performance when compared with the traditional system, however, its quarantine monitoring, social distancing, symptom diagnosis, contact
widespread implementation is yet to be achieved [154]. tracing, and outbreak forecasting. Supportingly, Kumar et al. [163]
developed an IoT-enabled framework for the detection and monitoring
3.3.5. Other opportunities of asymptotic (patients that do not exhibit symptoms like fever, cough,
This section discusses some additional opportunities for imple and breathing issues) COVID-19 patients for healthy indoor environ
menting IoT in BI. ment. Notably, Nguyen et al. [164] established a survey study to high
light the efficiency and significance of wireless technologies, AI,
3.3.5.1. Smart water management. The availability of clean water is a machine learning, computer vision, and thermal sensing to provide so
major challenge in several parts of the world and hence it is imperative lutions and directions to deal with the problem of social distancing. The
to exercise smart water management (SWM). Buildings consume a sig authors also emphasized that modern BI should incorporate pandemic
nificant amount of water for various needs such as kitchens, sanitation, mode in their standard architecture/designs.
laundry, heating/cooling, utilities, and landscaping. SWM in buildings For occupant safety, Chen et al. [165] developed an IoT framework
will create awareness for better resource utilization and reduce water using building information modeling and a virtual reality system to
scarcity in the future. For instance, Manmeet et al. [155] established a assist the firefighting department in quickly locating indoor fire sce
deep study on ICT-enabled SWM and highlighted various parameters narios in BI. In addition, the virtual reality system was also used to
(like water level, pH level, turbidity, salinity, etc), required technolo expedite situational awareness for trainees and building tenants. Simi
gies, and machine learning models that must be incorporated in future larly, Piscitello et al. [166] developed an ICT-driven Danger-System for
SWM systems to enhance system efficacy. the detection and management of emergencies in SBs. The proposed
Sonali et al. [156] developed a bi-level ML-based IoT platform to system identifies building occupancy using mobile devices and notifi
minimize water wastage. The framework analyses the water quality and cations are broadcasted on the mobile devices during emergency and
consumption for an individual house and generates alert messages if any evacuation scenarios.
combination of bio/non-biodegradable waste or concentration of
poisonous gas is detected in water streams. Pooja et al. [157] developed 3.3.5.3. Fault detection and diagnostics. Fault detection and diagnosis
a blockchain-based IoT platform for SWM, that identifies and quantifies (FDDs) is a program procedure for identifying and isolating system
the water requirement for an individual consumer and also detects po operational flaws. FDDs can be implemented using two major tech
tential leakages (if any) in the plumbing system. The platform monitors niques namely, data-driven techniques (AI and machine learning tech
the water quality and scarcity factors within the supply vicinity and niques are used to train and test FDD models using historical operational
implements a decentralized smart tank network system to provide a data) and knowledge-driven techniques (FDD specialist uses qualitative
more rooted mechanism. Saroja et al. [158] developed a LoRa-based methods to analyze the fault scenario). In past decades, researchers have
SWM system for campus buildings. The framework provides a implemented IoT-based frameworks for exercising FDDs in SBs. For
web-based solution to monitor water distribution using cloud-enabled instance, Roberto et al. [167] developed an IoT-based fault-tolerant
solenoid valves. The framework monitors daily water consumption temperature control algorithm that implements continuous-time Mar
and stores data to predict future water requirements and leakages. Punit kov chains and a cooperative algorithm with hybrid predictive control to
et al. [159] developed an automated WSN-based cloud-IoT framework identify malfunctioned nodes that produce incorrect data. Further, the
that can learn, understand and control the water supply system for identified nodes are replaced with new sensors for reliable system
healthcare buildings. The framework created a node architecture that motoring and temperature control in buildings. Notably, Marino et al.
monitors the quantity of water passing through the main supply and [168] identified the contribution and limitations of data-driven and
sub-tanks in real time and tries to detect potential leakages within the knowledge-based FDDs for their efficient implementation depending on
supply system. The authors, also highlighted that the implementation of the collected data and faults that occurred. The authors also highlighted
IoT and its relevant technologies can significantly encourage adequate the importance of identifying optimal FDD strategies for making the
water utilization in civil structures. system more robust and fault-tolerant.
3.3.5.2. Occupant safety and health. Health and indoor safety are most 3.4. Enhancing adaptiveness: adaptive dimension
valued by building tenants. Moreover, due to the COVID-19 situation,
significant global investments are made in IoT and its relevant tech A CB should consistently adapt to dynamic user-oriented demands
nologies to provide workforce tracking, symptom evaluation, remote and external environmental changes to enhance its overall energy flex
asset control and management in buildings [160]. For instance, Singh ibility. Onsite REGs and ES systems can significantly improve the co
et al. [161] identified twelve distinct applications of IoT to combat the ordination of CBs with smart concepts like SGs and SCs to encourage a
COVID-19 situation. Similarly, Dong et al. [162] developed a sustainable ecosystem [17]. In addition, IoT provides CB with a
cloud-IoT-based future epidemic prevention and control system for cyber-physical backbone to analyze its historical BLCs data to optimize
building operations and enhance its interaction with other technologies
13
to improve its adapting capabilities [65]. This section explores different production and demand. However, it is essential to account for the
methods, technologies, and frameworks that are capable of enhancing conversion efficiency of the ES systems and the consuming ability of the
the adaptability of BI while simultaneously maintaining user energy system as they both significantly affect DSM efficacy [179]. The
satisfaction. real-time pricing market also encourages buildings to transform into
active players and shift their peak demands and assist SGs during peak
3.4.1. Enhancing energy flexibility consumption periods [180].
The concept of ZEB encouraged BI to follow a spectrum-based In addition, public policies can directly or indirectly deepen the
approach to efficiently utilize and generate energy flows by imple interaction between SGs and buildings. Policies promoting distributed
menting passive building strategies and integrating on-site REGs and ES generation and ES increase the benefits of capturing the created value
systems [169]. ZEB significantly considers SG and aims to create an [181]. However, it requires policymakers and regulators to conscien
equilibrium between the producer and consumer [170]. However, any tiously organize rules and appropriately allocate costs, share risks, and
kind of energy generation cannot be integrated with buildings and align incentives for effective operations [182]. Also, promoting green
addressed as ZEBs, rather it should firmly involve renewable energy construction by generalizing, adopting energy step codes, and obtaining
solutions to generate energy [171]. certifications like LEED and energy star can significantly improve SG
Karlessi et al. [172] designed a three-tier integrated design approach and BI interaction [183,184].
to interlink SBs and net ZEBs. The approach consists of an initial design
phase (implementing energy standards and green architecture), an 3.4.3. Assisting with smart cities
operational phase (smart monitoring, smart HVAC, and other BLC op World urbanization prospect [185] estimated that nearly 55% of the
erations), and SG integration. The authors identified that interrelation global population resides in cities and the number is expected to increase
among SBs and net ZEBs is a bi-directional process, specifically during up to 66% by 2050 [185]. Modern cities occupy approximately 3% of
the operational phase. ICTs like cognitive IoT and effective monitoring the earth’s landmass area, yet account for 60–80% of the global energy
can assist SBs to use their historic operational and design data to acquire and nearly 75% of the global CO2 emission [186]. In order to maintain a
deep knowledge of the system and implement net-ZEB criteria for healthy, smart, secure, and optimal lifestyle in cities researchers [187,
energy-efficient interventions. 188] have emphasized incorporating both physical (geographical) and
Yu et al. [173] developed a cloud-IoT framework to implement en virtual (cyber) worlds with place-based information planning. This
ergy management in nearly ZEBs micro-grid. Wired sensors (tempera introduced the concept of SC with sustainable planning frameworks at
ture, relative humidity, CO2, PM2.5, fresh air volume, noise) were the city level [188].
deployed in different buildings with an integrated low-power LoRa Ahvenniemi et al. [189] actively investigated the concept of SCs and
wireless data transmission scheme. The sensors monitor changes in the identified that SCs had a much stronger emphasis on ICTs and their
external environment and communicate data to the cloud platform. A relevant technologies and their operational efficiency is greatly depen
detection algorithm detects the alert readings from the data and further dent on the working of their BI. In addition, Haapio et al. [190] high
broadcasts them onto the mobile applications hosted using the cloud lighted that to improve the urban sustainability trends at the city level, it
services. is essential to develop smart frameworks that can integrate and evaluate
REGs can save a substantial amount of energy and reduce operational distinct BIs collectively and focus on them as clusters, neighbourhoods,
costs. However, it requires predetermination of the technological profile and districts, rather than assessing and evaluating single buildings in
and sufficient anticipation to ensure the reliability of energy dispatching isolation. Similarly, Roche et al. [191] critically investigated the
[171]. As a result, the majority of installed REGs are photovoltaics (PV), smartness of SCs and emphasized on the development of a context-aware
solar thermal collectors, pumped hydro, mini wind turbines, and urban BI that can intelligently sense, actuate and respond efficiently to
biomass. Integrated REGs have assisted buildings with decentralized dynamic future needs.
energy production, yet they suffer from problems like limited control Lombardi et al. [192] developed a triple helix (universities, gov
lability and increased load variations of the system [170]. ICTs and REGs ernment, civil society and industry) performance model by inculcating
can transform buildings into energy-flexible buildings with the ability to the key performance indicators, analytic network process, and clustering
draw smart insights from the collected data and manage their demand analysis to enhance the participation and performance of BI at the city
and generation according to the local climate and user-centric needs level. In addition, Hedman et al. [193], highlighted that city planners
while consistently maintaining grid stability [172]. often have no or poor knowledge regarding energy efficiency and
building technologies. Thus to enhance the participation of BI in SC and
3.4.2. Supporting smart grids assist policy-making procedures, the authors developed an easy-to-use
Recent advancements in ICTs have greatly influenced BI to interact tool that assesses the energy demand of the buildings, energy systems,
with SGs. Their potential to integrate on-site REGs and ES technologies and energy sources for energy-efficient planning and operations of BI at
has transformed buildings into active prosumers, where buildings can the city level. Similarly, Neeraj et al. [194] developed a multi-tenant
simultaneously produce energy rather than just consuming it [174]. could-based nano grid for self-sustained SBs in SCs. The proposed
Empirical literature discusses three major techniques namely, ICTs, framework implements a cloud-based infrastructure that makes
DSM, and policy-making that assist buildings to improve grid stability energy-efficient decisions for different building appliances and opti
and resiliency [17]. mizes their energy demands during peak consumption periods to reduce
ICTs and web-based technologies have significantly bridged the the extra burden from the main grid. Dryanjanski et al. [195] imple
communication gap between SG and BI by developing an interconnected mented an IoT system in BI with cloud computing, visualization, and
network called the “Internet of Energy” (IOE) [175]. Standard protocols automation capabilities for infrastructure management. The authors
like Open Automated Demand Response (OpenADR) and Open Charge also highlighted that ICTs can provide modern BI with a dedicated
Point Protocol (OCPP) [176] allow electricity providers and building communication infrastructure that can enhance its participation with SC
operators to effectively exchange demand response signals over an and offer broader connectivity, security, reliability, scalability, and
IP-based communication network [177]. ASHRAE’s Standard 201–2016 quality of service at affordable prices. However, due to dynamic user
(Facility Smart Grid Information Model) also assists building facilities to preferences and external factors, there are no precise recommendations
describe, manage and communicate their electrical energy demands for the implementation of IoT in BI at the city level [196]. Thus, future
with the energy provider [178]. In addition, high-efficiency BI imple research should develop IoT-based frameworks to analyze the collected
ments DSM strategies by integrating on-site or nearby REGs and ES information from different BIs and implement effective policies and
systems to reduce their energy demand and maintain a balance between recommendations to improve the integration of the two concepts.
14
3.4.4. Integration with Building Information Modeling IoT-based frameworks, without verifying the practical applicability of
IoT integration in Building Information Modeling (IoT-integrated their results [14]. In addition, some studies [96,166] use simulated data
BIM) can significantly improve the operational efficiency of modern BI. with a fixed artificial testing environment to evaluate the performance
IoT-integrated BIM projects avail users with high fidelity, geometric and of their proposed system. However, only a few studies examine their
positional accuracy by utilizing real-time operational data from IoT proposed system in a real-world in-use BI environment [23]. Thus,
devices installed in BLCs. For instance, Zhong et al. [197] developed a future researchers should test their proposed frameworks in a complex
multi-dimensional IoT-enabled BIM platform for real-time monitoring and dynamic environment to identify the realistic value and practicality
and a three-dimensional dynamic visual display of prefabricated con of their research.
struction. The platform is enabled with RFID, IoT and cloud technologies In addition, it is significant to realize that IoT is essential but not the
to develop services and tools for collaborative decision-making in con sole component of CB. IoT pervasively provides CB with all the essential
struction projects. Similarly, Pasini et al. [13] developed an smart technologies (like sensors, actuators and controllers), communi
IoT-integrated BIM framework for operational management in CBs to cation networks and data storage facilities that are important to manage
create awareness among building tenants regarding their building use. the information collected from different BLCs [68]. Nevertheless, to
The framework implements IoT-enabled smart devices for real-time augment intelligence and improve the decision-making capability of a
monitoring of tenant behaviour and updates the parameters of the CB it is essential to profoundly analyze the collected information [95].
BIM models to assist the decision-making process while making modi For instance, for optimal operations of HVAC in CB, IoT can significantly
fications in the physical models. Also, Liang et al. [198] developed an improve the coordination of HVAC with other BLCs, however, it is
early warning and real-time underground construction safety frame essential to develop robust data-driven models that analyze the histor
work using IoT-integrated BIM technology. An IoT-integrated BIM pre ical operational data of the HVAC to predict and regulate its operations
diction system is developed to comprehend the working mode of and improve indoor environment quality for better working conditions
underground construction and combine circular safety risk warning [50]. Thus, future research should focus on developing robust data
rules for worker safety. The study provided good theoretical support for management frameworks with domain specific-data analytics to provide
the management and control of safety problems in construction projects. users with the right information, at the right time and in the right form
Notably, Tang et al. [199] established a comprehensive review and [95]. These frameworks will assist users to develop smart operational
summarised different domains and integration methods with compre strategies to identify context-aware semantic relationships among
hensive descriptions, examples and discussion to analyze the contem different BLCs and improve the decision-making capabilities of a CB.
porary status of IoT integration with BIM. However, the authors Further, to improve the energy efficiency in BI, segregated efforts are
emphasized that IoT-integrated BIM is still in the nascent stages, and the made in different domains like building envelope, HVAC optimization,
generalization of IoT-integrated BIM frameworks is often argued as the energy retrofitting, energy benchmarking, DSM etc [12]. There are very
present research is more theoretical and exhibits single-building use few studies [133] available that assemble all the domains under a single
cases, limited testing scenarios, prototyping under laboratory conditions hood and provide holistic IoT-based solutions to improve energy effi
and limited applicability in real-life construction projects. Moreover, the ciency in BI. This issue significantly corresponds to the fact that there are
reliability of the smart sensor data remains to be streamlined and no mandatory technical guidelines available that demonstrate the
addressed. Thus, the integration of IoT with BIM significantly enhances implementation of IoT in different phases of the building’s lifecycle (like
the adaptability of modern BI. However, their full operational compe construction, operation and maintenance) [14]. Thus, more efforts are
tency is yet to be achieved. needed to expand and strengthen the role of IoT in different phases of
the building lifecycle. Nevertheless, the adoption of IoT in the early
4. Discussion phase of BI construction can offer better IoT-based solutions and
significantly improve the utilization of IoT in BI at early stages [200].
CBs are the product of ICTs and cognitive building operations. The For instance, Wang et al. [201] developed an IoT-based intelligent
concepts like AB and SB have been under development for years and construction system for prefabricated buildings and identified that IoT
there is no edge or boundary for development in these directions [27]. not only improved the interaction between government supervision
However, it can be deduced that advancements in ICTs, especially in IoT, departments, contractors and owners by also improved the construction
play a significant role in the development of CB. To establish a better process of the buildings.
understanding of the concept, this study introduces readers to the three Besides this, to enhance the adaptability of BI it is essential to
core dimensions of CB; their roles, technical requirements, standards, improve its participation with smart concepts like REGs, SGs, SCs. The
and contemporary status. In addition, the study also tries to accumulate integration of BI with REGs and ES systems not only enhances its energy
the efforts of the researchers and innovators in both the academic and reliability but also reduces its grid dependency [17]. Therefore, to
industrial sectors to highlight the significance of implementing IoT in BI. promote the coordinated development of BI across different smart
Undoubtedly, there are significant review studies [10,27,28] that concepts it is necessary to mature the implementation of IoT in BI to
discuss the implementation of IoT in different BI domains. However, provide a robust interconnected platform that not only overcome the
these studies fall short to extensively investigate the full operational geophysical constraints of a BI but also enhances its collaboration with
competency of IoT and highlight the challenges faced while imple interdisciplinary smart concepts. However, there are no technological
menting them in BI. On the other hand, research studies [12,132] that recommendations and regulations prescribed in the building industry
aim to improve the integration of IoT in BI, lack to provide their oper that precisely target the integration of BI with REGs, SGs and SCs [17].
ational efficiency evaluation when practically implemented in Thus, future research should focus on developing mandatory public
real-world scenarios. Thus, a comprehensive state-of-art review is policies that can significantly deepen the interaction of BI with other
required to investigate the mature adoption and practical utilization of smart concepts and provide more holistic solutions for enhancing the
IoT in different BI domains. adaptiveness of a BI [181]. Supportingly, Lawrence et al. [17] investi
Our findings are in accord with Jia et al. [14] and agree with the fact gated the integration of SB with SGs and highlighted the concerns for
that the mature adoption and effective utilization of IoT in BI is not yet developing mandatory public policies for their better interaction.
achieved in both academic and industrial research. Future research re Modernization has significantly influenced our expectations from
quires dedicated collaborative efforts among IoT and BI stakeholders to contemporary BI and a single technology cannot fulfil these expectations
develop generic IoT-based frameworks to provide BI with cognitive in and provide overall sustainability. However, the emergence of IoT and
telligence and context-aware computing capabilities. Currently, the other digital technologies can provide holistic and practical solutions to
majority of research efforts mainly focus on proposing their ideas and our expectations [19]. For developing a reliable, robust, and connected
15
CB ecosystem, it is essential to establish an interdisciplinary research faces multiple technical challenges at each layer during their imple
effort by collaborating distinct BI technologies with cyber technologies. mentation and operational phase. Table 9 highlights these major chal
However, after investigating the empirical literature, it is identified that lenges and their possible solutions for optimal functioning.
the full operational competency of IoT in BI is not yet realized and sig
nificant academic and industrial research efforts are required to develop 5.1.2. Data-oriented challenges
a generic and seamlessly unified IoT framework that provides BI with Data is essential for realizing CBs. BI still requires extensive research
cognitive intelligence and context-aware computing capabilities. in the field of data management to utilize the colossal amount of
structured and unstructured data collected from various IoT devices and
5. Challenges and future research direction BLCs [11]. An effective data management infrastructure is requisite that
not only maintains integrity, availability, quality, and privacy of data in
Despite the benefits and advancements, IoT still faces certain chal BI but also identifies semantic relationships among different data attri
lenges that require dedicated effort with good precision to achieve the butes [220]. In the past, authors have developed data management
full operational functionality of IoT in BI. This section discusses some of frameworks to store and manage structured and unstructured data. For
the major technical and non-technical challenges and highlights the instance, Lee et al. [221] introduced a multi-cloud model called “rain
requisite future research directions to overcome those challenges. clouds” that can provide data to multiple resources even during data
exploitation scenarios. However, the implementation and evaluation of
the framework was not determined in real-world scenarios. In addition,
5.1. Technical challenges heterogeneous sensors in BI can produce inconsistent and poor-quality
data due to independent vendor settings, sensor malfunctioning, ineffi
This section categorizes the technical challenges of IoT in BI into cient communication and other malicious activity [222]. Such
three major categories: system-oriented, data-oriented and security- poor-quality data significantly affect the performance of the optimal
oriented challenges. building controls, specifically for the data-oriented techniques [223].
Data privacy is another major issue that continues to hamper
5.1.1. System-oriented challenges building users about whom to outsource their data for storage [224].
Undoubtedly, CBs possess a complex digital IoT infrastructure that
Table 9
System-oriented challenges.
Technology Challenges Proposed Solutions
Sensing Optimal power management in wireless sensing devices. ● Implementing energy management and harvesting techniques to maintain the battery life
cycles of the sensors [202].
● Using renewable natural sources (like solar, flow, and thermal) or artificial sources (like
vibrations, pressure, and stress) for energy harvesting [203].
● Implementing adaptive sensing with meta-heuristic approaches to identify the optimal
sensing procedure.
● Using clustering, effective routing, energy balancing, coverage awareness, and optimal node
placement to reduce battery consumption [204].
Identifying optimal bandwidth and baud rate to ● Identifying efficient AT and protocols, for instance, low-range communication (under 100 m),
maintain the network throughput with minimal latency. Bluetooth, RFID, and Zigbee can provide energy-efficient solutions [205].
● For longer transmission (above 1000 m), low power wide area networks (LPWAN) like Dash7,
Sigfox, and LoRaWAN can be used to establish communication among the devices [206].
Real-time reactive intelligence. ● Micro electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) with advanced algorithms must be used to
introduce ambient intelligence in the sensors [207].
● Kasim et al. [208] developed a reactive kernel (InK) for tiny battery-less event-driven sensors
that embeds swarm scale intelligence for building monitoring applications.
● Byun et al. [209] developed a self-adapting intelligent sensor system and reduced building
energy consumption by 25.7% on real test-bed.
Multiple sensing capabilities in exigent situations. ● Implementing virtual sensing (VS), a software-based sensor network that autonomously
produces sensing signals using mathematical functions, which aggregates multiple signals
from distinct physical sensors [210].
● Madria et al. [211] developed a cloud architecture of VS to connect widely distributed
resource-constrained wireless sensors for optimal control and operations.
Communication Comprehensive wireless connectivity of devices. ● Updating legacy BMS wired sensor network (Daisy chain configuration) to wireless network
to reduce events of a node failure, noisy data, and jitter [212,213].
● Implement 5G cellular communication in IoT devices to augment low-cost, reliable, fast, and
energy-efficient data transmission.
● Implementing standard protocols and methods to enhance interoperability and efficacy of the
cloud-IoT infrastructure.
Supporting heterogeneity and coexistence in devices. ● Implementing smart gateways with convergence modules that can serve as an intermediate
among distinct sensing devices and networks [80].
● Convergence modules like Redpine (RS9113) can simultaneously integrate multiple
communication protocols under the same roof to support heterogeneous device connectivity
in IoT infrastructure [214,215].
● Domain-specific language also provides a flexible service-oriented architecture that allows
multiple devices to interact with other services regardless of their nature and protocol suit
[216].
Self-management and dynamic addressing. ● Network protocols like Z-wave and Zigbee provide automatic address assignment and anti-
interference properties with collision avoidance and two-way acknowledgment mechanisms.
Application Lack of resources. ● Perez et al. [217] developed a service-oriented, auto-scaling, and dynamic provisioning
Development platform with multi-tenant data stream processing capabilities to manage the data from
multiple APIs.
● Linux foundation developed an open IoT framework called edge foundry that simplifies IoT
computing and provides an ecosystem for interoperable devices [218,219].
16
Generally, data stored in the local servers and cloud use cryptographic 5.2. Non-technical challenges
encryption algorithms to protect the data from malicious access [225].
However, it is essential to identify what kind of data should be encrypted One of the major challenges that IoT face is the substantial gap be
and which should not be. Xuyun et al. [226] highlighted that regressive tween academia and industry [14]. For over a decade, IoT in BI has
encryption and decryption of data are computationally ineffective and captured the academic research sector; however, it still lies at an early
can significantly increase the response time for real-time applications. stage of adoption in the industry. Undoubtedly, mainstream companies
To mitigate this issue, the authors established a study to identify when like IBM, Siemens, and Honeywell are developing BI-oriented smart IoT
and which data should be encrypted during the different communication devices but they still face challenges regarding the robustness, feasi
processes. bility, and limited scope of the device use. On the other hand, academic
The aforementioned challenges, highlight that BI still requires a research projects majorly focus on proposing their ideas related to the
generic data management framework with an effective pipeline struc implementation of IoT in BI, without correctly verifying and evaluating
ture that can efficiently clean (remove corrupted and null data), struc their solutions [14]. In addition, some studies tend to use simulated
ture (convert to desirable format), improve consistency (nonduplicated), environments and lab-controlled scenarios with control variables to
and provide faster access to the data while maintaining the desired investigate their proposed system and models, which leaves issues like
privacy. practical implementation, data collection, accuracy and biases unac
counted. Such synthetic practices further widen the gap between pro
5.1.3. Security-oriented challenges posed solutions and their practical implementation in real-world
Unlike traditional internet communication, CB implements a multi- scenarios [237].
layered IoT architecture with heterogeneous devices, networks, back- However, there are few studies like Hemant et al. [238] that exam
end systems and services that are vulnerable to distinct cyber-security ined their proposed system in real-life buildings in the presence of
threats when exploited by a hostile actor [227]. Frustaci et al. [228] interference and attenuation losses, while still efficiently maintaining
highlighted the need to implement a cross-layer security framework to the system efficacy. Thus, future research should significantly test their
overcome heterogeneous device issues and improve IoT security by proposed models and system in a more complex, dynamic, and
enhancing cooperation among different layers. Peacock et al. [229] real-world environment to evaluate the reliability, accuracy, and per
comprehensively identified the majority of the attacks that can affect the formance of their proposed solution. Moreover, the lack of intensive
operations of a network-based control system. Data-intrusion attacks interdisciplinary research efforts between the stakeholders in the field of
and denial-of-service (DoS) attacks are termed the most detrimental type IoT (electrical and computer science) and BI (civil and building engi
of attacks for an IoT-enabled ecosystem [230]. Teixeira et al. [231] neers) further limits the adoption of IoT in BI. Current collaboration
studied the impact of corrupted sensors on smart power grid controls [239,240] focuses more on developing visual modules, whereas, it is
and identified that even a simple cyber-attack applied to sensor nodes essential to better realize the full competency of IoT data and gain more
can significantly compromise the reliability of the entire system. Long system insights to develop more complex algorithms with significant
et al. [232] numerically evaluated the impact of DoS attacks on the operational benefits.
performance of PID controllers and electro-mechanical plants and IoT possesses a considerable economic impact on our daily lifestyle.
identified that non-local DoS attack not only deteriorates the perfor Thus, it is worth considering the correct ROI and total cost of ownership
mance but also destabilized the system and increases the packet (TCO) in adopting IoT in BI. Gopavaram et al. [241] conducted a survey
re-transfer rate by over 100%. by developing an IoT marketplace to emulate the effects of
To mitigate the security issues for the proper functioning of IoT in BI, willingness-to-pay (WTP) and willingness-to-accept (WTA) of the cus
authors have developed certain data security frameworks to identify and tomers for IoT devices. They introduced an aggregated privacy rating
avoid cyber-attacks, however, the practical evaluation and imple associated with each IoT device and the participants were engaged to
mentation of these methods still remain uncertain. For instance, Baal purchase different IoT devices using the marketplace. The research
baki et al. [233] proposed an anomaly detection behaviour analysis for identified that participants were likely to invest (i.e. show WTA) more in
ZigBee protocols in SBs. They compared the suspected data traffic to a the devices that provide higher privacy ratings than others. Similarly,
baseline and identified the security risk (low, mid, high) depending Dhirani et al. [242] tried to evaluate TCO of cloud storage services for
upon its deviation from the baseline using a predefined set of rules. providing access to quality of service, minimizing management cost and
However, the quantitative evaluation of the impacts of threats on the reducing quality control issues while implementing a cloud-IoT
building system was never accounted. Paridari et al. [234] proposed a ecosystem. Undoubtedly, such similar and extensive studies in BI
cyber-physical-security framework for HVAC systems to detect possible domain will significantly encourage the adoption of IoT with a correct
data intrusion attacks on hot water supply and return temperature data estimation of ROI and TCO to highlight its benefit in the longer run.
from sensors, but the impacts of such attacks on HVAC system perfor
mance were never accounted. Sheikh et al. [235] implemented machine 6. Conclusion
learning techniques to classify building operational status under normal
operations, operations under faults, and operations under attacks. The integration of IoT in BI has opened new horizons for a sustain
However, the impact evaluation of the system was not conducted. able and cognitive BI ecosystem. Appraising the promising future of IoT,
In summary, cognitive BI still requires an integrated environment for this study investigates the contemporary status and future potentials of
modeling cyber-attacks and evaluating their impact on building opera IoT towards the envisioned goal of CBs. To assist researchers in com
tional performance [236]. Currently, researchers account for the prehending a general layout of a CB environment, this research in
network-based control system as a linear system to generate a response troduces technological and behavioural interventions in form of three
to cyber-attacks [236], which restricts its application in non-linear core dimensions, namely; active, responsive and adaptive dimensions,
realistic systems. In addition, most studies account for the active which a BI should fulfil to transform itself into a CB. The state-of-art
attack periods on BLCs [234]. Whereas, the post-attack period is not well technologies, protocols and research efforts for each dimension with
studied as the system has to spend a quiet effort to recover from the their connection with BI are deeply discussed. In addition, the applica
attacked states during the post-attack period [236]. Thus, cognitive BI tion of IoT in distinct BI domains is highlighted, followed by alternate
still requires an efficient cyber-security framework and testing envi methods and technologies that can be used to improve the application of
ronment for secure building-level operations. IoT in BI. Undoubtedly, this study might not be able to highlight the
entire applications of IoT in BI, however, it significantly provides IoT
and BI stakeholders with a strong foundation and an onset for future
17
research in relevant areas. comprehensive investigation is suggested to identify a realistic ROI and
Despite all the development in IoT applications, this study concludes TCO of IoT technologies in distinct BI domains to enhance the partici
that mature adoption of IoT is still hampered by significant challenges pation of IoT and BI stakeholders in developing new IoT-based solutions
that restrict the development of a generic and seamlessly unified IoT for BI.
framework for BI that can be reused and redeployed for different Undoubtedly, the aim of developing a generic and seamlessly unified
building types. Moreover, the lack of interdisciplinary research efforts IoT framework will remain unaccomplished until the substantial amount
among the IoT and BI stakeholders and the absence of mandatory of challenges remains unstudied. This study provides IoT and BI stake
technical guidelines to demonstrate the implementation of IoT in holders with a holistic and in-depth review of state-of-art technologies
different phases of the building’s lifecycle (like construction, operation and applications for IoT in BI to realize the full operational competency
and maintenance) further widens the gap of developing a generic IoT of IoT and highlight challenges incurred while developing generic IoT
framework for BI. In addition, IoT in BI still faces challenges related to frameworks. This research will assist researchers to adminster the
sensing technologies, where sensors lack built-in reactive intelligence integration of IoT in BI for more exciting innovations.
and multi-sensing capabilities, especially in exigent situations. Thus,
future research efforts are required to develop advanced MEMS with VS Declaration of competing interest
capabilities to induce reactive intelligence in IoT devices and make them
smarter. Similarly, IoT devices also face coexistence and self- The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
management issues in a BI communication network, which makes it interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
challenging to connect and operate third-party smart devices within a the work reported in this paper.
CB environment. As a solution, future research should aim to develop a
domain-specific programming language that coordinates with distinct Data availability
communication protocols and intelligent BI gateways (with convergence
modules) to eradicate device coexistence and self-management issues. No data was used for the research described in the article.
Additionally, BLC data management and security challenges need better
attention and no generic IoT-based data management framework for BI Acknowledgments
provides active, secure and scalable storage facilities for colossal BLC
data. Thus, future research should consider integration of multi-cloud The authors wouldlike to thank Dr. Anber Rana at The University of
IoT frameworks with blockchain-based cryptographic encryption to British Columbia, Okanagan Campus for her assistance. The work
develop a generic data management framework for BI to provide faster described in this paper was supported by grants from The University of
and more secure access to BLC data with intact privacy. Furthermore, a British Columbia, Canada [grant number AWD-013845].
Annexure A
Table 10
Things-Layer Protocols
Short-range protocols
Protocol Standard Frequency Band Range Topology Security Application References
RFID ISO/IEC 18000, 6 MHz, 13.5 0.1–5 m Point-to-point, Clandestine Tracking Human implantation and [59, 61,
29167, 20248, JTC MHZ, 5–27 GHz Point-to- identification 243–245]]
1/SC 31 multipoint
NFC ISO/IEC 14443, 13.56 MHz 0.1 m Peer-to-Peer Secure channel, Mobile payment, Health care,
18092, JIS X6319-4 cryptographic encryption Smart environment
Bluetooth IEEE 802.15.1 2.4 GHz 70 m Single-hop AES-128 Multimedia data exchange
Wireless HART MAC, IEEE 2.4 Hz 10–600 m Star, Cluster, AES-128, Cipher block Industrial
HART 802.15.4 PHY Mesh chaining
Z-wave ITU G.9959 868, 915 MHz 100 m Mesh AES-128 Automation in residential and
commercial
Zigbee IEEE 802.15.4 2.4 GHz 100–300 Star, Tree, peer-to AES 128 Home Automation, medical data
m peer collection, Smoke alarms, Building
automation
Long-range protocols
LoRaWAN LoRaWAN 868, 433, 430 5 km Star AES CCM 128 Building Automation and Security,
MHz Smart Metering, Smart house,
Land agriculture
Sigfox Sigfox 868, 902 MHz 15 km Star MAC verification, message Building Automation, Security,
encryption, Key Smart metering, Household
generation Information
NB-IoT NB-IoT Licensed 20 km Star NSA, AES 256 Smart thing, Tracking, Mobile
applications
RPMA RPMA 2.4 GHz 15 km Star, tree 16 b Hash, AES 128 Smart Tracking
Telensa Telensa 868 MHz, 915 3 km Star, tree AES 128 Building Automation, Smart
MHz, 430 MHz Lightning
18
Table 11
Network-Layer Protocols
Protocol Routing Algorithm Topology Latency Application References
RPL Bandwidth, Reliability, Hop Count, Distance Mesh, Hierarchical Based On High Latency Building Automation, Home, [10,244,246,
Connectivity, Link Quality Vector DAG Industrial, Smart Grid, Smart 247]
Cities
CORPL Expected Transmission (ETX) Value, Distance Cognitive M2M Networks, Support delay for Smart Grid
Reliability, Collision Risk, Delay Vector Mesh sensitive application
CTP ETX Distance ETX High Latency Commercial Products,
Vector Industrial WSN, Teaching,
Research
CARP End-To-End Packet, Latency, Energy Link State End-To-End Packet Latency, Low Latency Underwater WSN Applications
Consumption Per Bit, Packet Buffer Spaces, Packet Delivery
Delivery Ratio Ratio
ERGID Residual Energy, Transmission Delay Dijkstra Residual Energy, Transmission Low Latency Emergency Response
Algorithm Delay Applications
PAOF ETX, Number of candidate parents Distance Mesh, Hierarchical Based On Low Latency Urban IoT application
Vector DAG
AOMDV- Lifetime, Hop-count Distance Dynamic IoT Network Low Latency Mobile IoT applications
IoT Vector
Table 12
Transport-Layer Protocols
Protocol Standard Transport packet Packet size Congestion Reordering and sequence Application References
entity control numbering
TCP RFC793bis-14 Segment 20–40 bytes header Yes Yes Used in connection-oriented [83,248]
communication
UDP RFC768 Datagram 8-bytes header Yes yes Used in connection less
communication
DCCP RFC4340 Datagram 12 or 16 - bytes header Yes Yes Establishing end-to-end
communication
SCTP RFC4960 Datagram 12-bytes header Yes Yes Establishing end-to-end
communication
TLS TLS 1.0 Runs over 5-byte header Yes Yes Establishing end-to-end
(RFC2246) Segment communication
DTLS RFC 4347 Datagram 24-byte (Handshake Yes Yes Establishing end-to-end
message) communication
Aeron Aeron Frame 32 bytes Yes Yes Establishing end-to-end
communication
Table 13
Application-Layer Protocol
Protocol Standard Semantic Architecture Security Connection Application References
MQTT OASIS 8, Eclipse Foundations Connect, Disconnect, Publish, Publish/Subscribe TLS/SSL TCP Messaging, smart [92,247,
Subscribe, Unsubscribe, Close home, smart farming 249]
HTTP IETF, W3C 9 Get, Post, Head, Put, Patch, Options, Request/Response TLS/SSL TCP Connecting and
Connect, Delete hosting on web
RESTful IETF Post, Put, Delete, Get Request/Response TLS/SSL TCP Developing API
connections
CoAP IETF Post, Put, Delete, Get CON, NON, Publish/Subscribe DTLS15, IPSe UDP Smart energy and
ACK, RST building
automations
XMPP (RFC 3920-RFC 3923) RFC Get, Post, Put, Set, Result Publish/Subscribe TLS/SASL 10 TCP Connecting and
4622, RFC 4854, RFC 4979, Request/Response hosting on web
RFC 6122
AMQP OASIS, ISO/IEC13 Consume, Deliver, Publish, Get, Publish/Subscribe TLS/SSL, TCP Smart energy and
Select, Ack, Delete, Nack, Recover, IPSec14, building
Reject, Open, Close SASL automations
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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 174 (2023) 113121

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

Integration of IoT in building energy infrastructure: A critical review on

The adoption of global initiatives like the climate change agreement

Nomenclature IP Internet Protocol

the building lifecycle (i.e. design, construction, operations, mainte­

3. Cognitive buildings 3.2. Cloud-IoT infrastructure: active dimension

3.2.1. Things-layer: sensor, actuator, and controllers

Fig. 2. Cognitive buildings and other building concepts.

Fig. 3. Cloud-IoT ecosystem.

Fig. 4. Network-Layer Services (Source [74]).

Wired Protocols [10,28,

Cloud Dependence Entirely Dependent Semi Dependent [51,91]

Fig. 5. Augmenting cognitive intelligence in buildings.

Fig. 6. Methods to improve energy efficiency in BI.

Technology-based Energy Efficiency

Protocol Standard Frequency Band Range Topology Security Application References

Protocol Routing Algorithm Topology Latency Application References

Protocol Standard Semantic Architecture Security Connection Application References

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the building lifecycle (i.e. design, construction, operations, mainte