Course Material_Sat Comm_ChandraMohan
Course Material_Sat Comm_ChandraMohan
Course Material_Sat Comm_ChandraMohan
Satellite Communication
By
S.CHANDRAMOHAN
Assistant Professor
OBJECTIVES
Overview of satellite systems in relation to other terrestrial systems.
Study of satellite orbits and launching.
Study of earth segment and space segment components
Study of satellite access by various users.
Study of DTH and compression standards.
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Dennis Roddy, ‘Satellite Communication’, McGraw Hill International, 4th Edition, 2006.
2. Wilbur L. Pritchard, Hendri G. Suyderhoud, Robert A. Nelson, ‘Satellite Communication
Systems Engineering’, Prentice Hall/Pearson, 2007.
REFERENCES:
1. N.Agarwal, ‘Design of Geosynchronous Space Craft, Prentice Hall, 1986.
2. Bruce R. Elbert, ‘The Satellite Communication Applications’ Hand Book, Artech
Introduction to Satellite Communication
Satellites are specifically made for the purpose of telecommunication. They are used for
mobile applications such as communication to ships, vehicles, planes, hand-held terminals, TV and
Radio broadcasting. They are responsible for providing these services to an assigned region on the
earth. The power and bandwidth of these satellites depend upon the size of the footprint,
complexity of traffic control protocol schemes and the cost of ground stations.
A satellite works most efficiently when the transmissions are focused with a desired area.
When the area is focused, then the emissions don’t go outside that designated area and thus
minimizing the interference to other systems. This leads to more efficient spectrum usage.
Satellite’s antenna patterns play an important role and must be designed to best cover the
designated geographical area. Satellites should be designed by keeping in mind its usability for
short and long term effects throughout its life time.
The earth station should be in a position to control the satellite if it drifts from its orbit and if
subjected to any kind of drag from the external forces. The following are the applications of
satellites.
Weather Forecasting
Radio and TV Broadcasting
Military Satellites
Navigation Satellites
Global Telephone
Connecting Remote Area
Global Mobile Communication
Kepler’s laws
Satellites orbiting the earth follow the same laws that govern the motion of the planets
around the sun. Kepler’s laws apply quite generally to any two bodies in space which interact
through gravitation. The massive of the two bodies is referred to as the primary and the other, the
secondary or satellite.
Kepler’s First Law
Kepler’s first law states that the path followed by a satellite around the primary will be an
ellipse. An ellipse has two focal points F1 and F2 as shown in Figure 1.1. The center of mass of
the two-body system, termed the bary center, is always center of the foci.
The semi major axis of the ellipse is denoted by ‘a’ and the semi minor axis, by ‘b’. The
eccentricity ‘e’ is given by
Fig 1.1 Foci F1 and F2, the semi major axis a, and the semi minor axis b of an ellipse
Fig 1.2 The areas A1and A2 swept out in unit time are equal
Where ‘n’ is the mean motion of the satellite in radians per second and the earth‘s geocentric
gravitational constant is given by
Newton’s laws
Newton's First law
An object at rest will remain at rest unless acted on by an unbalanced force. An object in
motion continues in motion with the same speed and in the same direction unless acted upon by an
unbalanced force. This law is also called "the law of inertia".
Newton's Second law
Acceleration is produced when a force acts on a mass. The greater the mass (of the object
being accelerated) the greater the amount of force needed (to accelerate the object).
Newton's Third law
For every action there is an equal and opposite re-action. This means that for every force
there is a reaction force that is equal in size, but opposite in direction. Whenever an object pushes
another object it gets pushed back in the opposite direction equally hard.
Orbital Parameters
Apogee: A point for a satellite farthest from the Earth. It is denoted as ha.
Perigee: A point for a satellite closest from the Earth. It is denoted as hp.
Line of Apsides: Line joining perigee and apogee through centre of the Earth. It is the major axis
of the orbit. One-half of this line‟s length is the semi-major axis equivalents to satellite’s mean
distance from the Earth.
Ascending Node: The point where the orbit crosses the equatorial plane going from north to south
Descending Node: The point where the orbit crosses the equatorial plane going from south to
north
Inclination: The angle between the orbital plane and the Earth’s equatorial plane. It’s measured at
the ascending node from the equator to the orbit, going from East to North. This angle is
commonly denoted as i.
Line of Nodes: The line joining the ascending and descending nodes through the centre of Earth.
Prograde Orbit: An orbit in which satellite moves in the same direction as the Earth’s rotation.
Its inclination is always between 00 to 900. Many satellites follow this path as earth’s velocity
makes it easier to lunch these satellites.
Retrograde Orbit: An orbit in which satellite moves in the same direction counter to the earth’s
rotation.
Argument of Perigee: An angle from the point of perigee measure in the orbital plane at the
earth’s centre, in the direction of the satellite motion.
Right ascension of ascending node: The definition of an orbit in space, the position of ascending
node is specified. But as the Earth spins, the longitude of ascending node changes and cannot be
used for reference. Thus for practical determination of an orbit, the longitude and time of crossing
the ascending node are used. For absolute measurement, a fixed reference point in space is
required. It could also be defined as “right ascension of the ascending node; right ascension is the
angular position measured eastward along the celestial equator from the vernal equinox vector to
the hour circle of the object”.
Mean anamoly: It gives the average value to the angular position of the satellite with reference to
the perigee.
True anamoly: It is the angle from point of perigee to the satellite’s position, measured at the
Earth’s centre.
Fig 1.3 Apogee height ha, Perigee height hp, and inclination i; La is the line of a p s i d e s
Orbital Perturbations
An orbit described by Kepler is ideal as Earth, considered to be a perfect sphere and the
force acting around the Earth is the centrifugal force. This force is supposed to balance the
gravitational pull of the earth. In reality, other forces also play an important role and affect the
motion of the satellite. These forces are the gravitational forces of Sun and Moon along with the
atmospheric drag. The effect of Sun and Moon is more pronounced on geostationary earth
satellites where as the atmospheric drag effect is more pronounced for low earth orbit satellites.
Effects of Non-Spherical Earth
As the shape of Earth is not a perfect sphere, it causes some variations in the path followed
by the satellites around the primary. As the Earth is bulging from the equatorial belt, it is the
forces resulting from an oblate Earth which act on the satellite produce a change in the orbital
parameters. This causes the satellite to drift as a result of regression of the nodes and the latitude
of the point of perigee. This leads to rotation of the line of apsides. As the orbit itself is moving
with respect to the Earth, the resultant changes are seen in the values of argument of perigee and
right ascension of ascending node.
Due to the non-spherical shape of Earth, one more effect called as the “Satellite
Graveyard” is observed. The non-spherical shape leads to the small value of eccentricity at the
equatorial plane. This causes a gravity gradient on GEO satellite and makes them drift to one of
the two stable points which coincide with minor axis of the equatorial ellipse.
Atmospheric Drag
For Low Earth orbiting satellites, the effect of atmospheric drag is more pronouncing. The
impact of this drag is maximum at the point of perigee. The drag (pull towards the Earth) has an
effect on velocity of Satellite. This causes the satellite not to reach the apogee height successive
revolutions. This leads to a change in value of semi-major axis and eccentricity. Satellites in
service are maneuvered by the earth station back to their original orbital position.
Station Keeping
In addition to having its attitude controlled, it is important that a geo- stationary satellite be
kept in its correct orbital slot. The equatorial ellipticity of the earth causes geostationary satellites
to drift slowly along the orbit, to one of two stable points, at 75°E and 105°W. To counter this
drift, an oppositely directed velocity component is imparted to the satellite by means of jets, which
are pulsed once every 2 or 3 weeks. These maneuvers are called as east-west station-keeping
maneuvers.
Satellites in the 6/4-GHz band must be kept within 0.1° of the designated longitude and in
the 14/12-GHz band, within 0.05°.
Fig 1.6 GPS satellites orbit at a height of about 19,300 km and orbit the earth once every 12 hours
These satellites are traveling around the earth at speeds of about 7,000 mph. GPS satellites are
powered by solar energy. They have backup batteries onboard to keep them running when there's
no solar power. Small rocket boosters on each satellite keep them flying in the correct path. The
satellites have a lifetime of about 10 years until all their fuel runs out.
At exactly 35,900 km above the equator, the force of gravity is cancelled by the centrifugal
force of the rotating universe. This is the ideal spot to park a stationary satellite.
Fig 1.7 At exactly 35,900 km above the equator, the earth's force of gravity is canceled by
the centrifugal force of the rotating universe
The Greenwich sidereal time (GST) gives the eastward position of the Greenwich meridian
relative to the line of Aries, and hence the sub-satellite point is at longitudeand the mean longitude
of the satellite is given by
The above equation can be used to calculate the true anomaly and because of the small
eccentricity, this can be approximated as v= M + 2esinM.
Look Angle Determination
The look angles for the ground station antenna are Azimuth and Elevation angles. They are
required at the antenna so that it points directly at the satellite. Look angles are calculated by
considering the elliptical orbit. These angles change in order to track the satellite. For
geostationary orbit, these angle values do not change as the satellites are stationary with respect to
earth. Thus large earth stations are used for commercial communications.
For home antennas, antenna beam-width is quite broad and hence no tracking is essential.
This leads to a fixed position for these antennas.
Fig 1.8 Geometry used in determining the look angles for Geostationary Satellites
With respect to the figure 1.8 and 1.9, the following information is needed to determine the look
angles of geostationary orbit.
Earth Station Latitude: λE
Earth Station Longitude: ΦE
Sub-Satellite Point’s Longitude: ΦSS
ES: Position of Earth Station
SS: Sub-Satellite Point
S: Satellite
d: Range from ES to S
ζ: angle to be determined
Fig 1.10 Plane triangle obtained from Figure 1.8
Considering Figure 1.9, it’s a spherical triangle. All sides are the arcs of a great circle. Three sides
of this triangle are defined by the angles subtended by the centre of the earth.
Side a: angle between North Pole and radius of the sub-satellite point.
Side b: angle between radius of Earth and radius of the sub-satellite point.
Side c: angle between radius of Earth and the North Pole.
Applying the sine rule for plane triangles to the triangle of Figure 1.10, allows the angle of
elevation to be found:
Limits of Visibility
The east and west limits of geostationary are visible from any given Earth station. These
limits are set by the geographic coordinates of the Earth station and antenna elevation. The lowest
elevation is zero but in practice, to avoid reception of excess noise from Earth. Some finite
minimum value of elevation is issued. The earth station can see a satellite over a geostationary arc
bounded by +- (81.30) about the earth station’s longitude.
Eclipse
It occurs when Earth’s equatorial plane coincides with the plane the Earth’s orbit around
the sun. Near the time of spring and autumnal equinoxes, when the sun is crossing the equator, the
satellite passes into sun’s shadow. This happens for some duration of time every day. These
eclipses begin 23 days before the equinox and end 23 days after the equinox. They last for almost
10 minutes at the beginning and end of equinox and increase for a maximum period of 72 minutes
at a full eclipse.
The solar cells of the satellite become non-functional during the eclipse period and the
satellite is made to operate with the help of power supplied from the batteries. A satellite will have
the eclipse duration symmetric around the time t=Satellite Longitude/15 + 12 hours. A satellite at
Greenwich longitude 0 will have the eclipse duration symmetric around 0/15 UTC +12hours =
00:00 UTC.
The eclipse will happen at night but for satellites in the east it will happen late evening
local time. For satellites in the west eclipse will happen in the early morning hour’s local time. An
earth caused eclipse will normally not happen during peak viewing hours if the satellite is located
near the longitude of the coverage area. Modern satellites are well equipped with batteries for
operation during eclipse.
Fig 1.11 A satellite east of the earth station enters eclipse during daylight busy hours at the
earth station. A Satellite west of earth station enters eclipse during night hours
Rocket Launch
A rocket launch is the takeoff phase of the flight of a rocket. Launches for orbital
spaceflights, or launches into interplanetary space, are usually from a fixed location on the
ground, but may also be from a floating platform or potentially, from a super heavy An-225-
class airplane. Launches of suborbital flights (including missile launches), can also be from:
a missile silo
a mobile launcher vehicle
a submarine
air launch:
from a plane (e.g. Scaled Composites Space Ship One, Pegasus Rocket, X-15)
from a balloon (Rockoon, daVinci Project (under development))
a surface ship (Aegis Ballistic Missile Defense System)
an inclined rail (e.g. rocket sled launch)
MCQ – Test
1. The satellite is accelerating as it orbits the earth.
a) True
b) False
2. Why does the orbit take the shape of an ellipse or circle?
a) Position can be easily determined
b) Consume less fuel
c) Most efficient geometry
d) Better coverage on earth
3. The direction of orbit in the same direction of earth rotation is called ______
a) Retrograde
b) Posigrade
c) Perigee
d) Apogee
4. When is the speed of the satellite maximum in an elliptical orbit?
a) Retrograde
b) Posigrade
c) Perigee
d) Apogee
5. The time period taken by the satellite to complete one orbit is called ________
a) Lapsed time
b) Time period
c) Sidereal period
d) Unit frequency
6. The period of time that elapses between the successive passes of the satellite over a
given meridian of earth longitude is called as _____________
a) synodic period
b) Lapsed time
c) Time period
d) Sidereal period
7. What is the angle of inclination for a satellite following an equatorial orbit?
a) 0°
b) 180°
c) 45°
d) 90°
8. The angle between the line from the earth station’s antenna to the satellite and the
line between the earth station’s antenna and the earth’s horizon is called as
___________
a) Angle of inclination
b) Angle of elevation
c) Apogee angle
d) LOS angle
9. To use a satellite for communication relay or repeater purposes what type of orbit will
be the best?
a) Circular orbit
b) Elliptical orbit
c) Geosynchronous orbit
d) Triangular orbit
10. What is the point on the surface of the earth that is directly below the satellite called?
a) Satellite point
b) Subsatellite point
c) Supersatellite point
d) Overhead point
Answers: 1. (a), 2. (a), 3. (b), 4. (c),5. (c),6. (a),7. (a),8. (b),9. (c), 10. (b)
Assignment:
1. State Kepler’s Laws.
2. Give the Uplink and Downlink frequencies for Satellite Communication.
3. What is sidereal time?
4. What are the conditions required for an orbit to be stationary?
5. Mention the different services of satellite systems.
6. Define polar orbiting satellites.
7. Define Apogee and Perigee.
8. What is Line of apsides?
9. Define ascending and descending node.
10. Define inclination.
Conclusion:
1. Students can define orbital mechanics and launchers
2. They can find Look Angle
3. To find Orbital perturbations and Orbit determination
4. Able to know the applications.
TEXT BOOKS:
REFERENCES: