Presentation

By
R. Jhansirani Assoct.Prof
ECE Dept
 Unit I – Satellite Orbits
 Kepler’s Laws
 Newton’s law
 Orbital parameters
 Orbital perturbations
 Station keeping
 Geo stationary and
non Geo-stationary orbits
 Look Angle Determination
 Limits of visibility
 Eclipse-Sub satellite point
 Sun transit outage
 Launching Procedures
 Launch vehicles and propulsion.
 What is a satellite?
A Satellite is an object that goes around, or orbits,
a larger object, such as a planet. While there are
natural satellites, like the Moon, hundreds of man-
made satellites also orbit the Earth.
(Or)
A satellite is a man-made object launched into
space to orbit the Earth, moon, sun or other celestial
body. Some examples are weather satellites and
communications satellites.
 History
 The first artificial satellite was the soviet Sputnik-1,
launched on October 4, 1957, and equipped with an
on-board transmitter that worked on two frequencies,
20.005 and 40.002 MHz

 The first American satellite to relay communications

was project SCORE in 1958, which used a tape
recorder to store and forward voice messages.

 Telstar was the first active, direct relay

communications satellite. Belonging to AT&T.
 Satellite communication
In satellite communication, signal transferring between the
sender and receiver is done with the help of satellite. In this
process, the signal which is basically a beam of modulated
microwaves is sent towards the satellite. Then the satellite
amplifies the signal and sent it back to the receiver’s antenna
present on the earth’s surface. So, all the signal transferring is
happening in space. Thus this type of communication is known as
space/satellite communication.
Types of satellite
 Orbit
Satellites move in a path around the Earth called an
orbit.
 The orbit is a combination of the satellite's velocity - the
speed it is travelling in a straight line - and the force of the
Earth's gravitational pull on the satellite. These forces are
similar to the forces that keep all the planets in their places
in the solar system
Classification of orbits
 Types of Orbits
 Geosynchronous Orbits (GEO)
Also known as geostationary orbits, satellites in
these orbits circle the Earth at the same rate as the Earth
spins. The Earth actually takes 23 hours, 56 minutes, and
4.09 seconds to make one full revolution. So based on
Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion, this would put the
satellite at approximately 35,790 km (22,236 mi) above the
Earth. The satellites are located near the equator since at
this latitude, there is a constant force of gravity from all
directions. At other latitudes, the bulge at the center of the
Earth would pull on the satellite.
 Geosynchronous orbits allow the satellite to observe
almost a full hemisphere of the Earth. These satellites are
used to study large scale phenomenon such as hurricanes,
or cyclones. These orbits are also used for communication
satellites. The disadvantage of this type of orbit is that
since these satellites are very far away, they have poor
resolution. The other disadvantage is that these satellites
have trouble monitoring activities near the poles.
Altitude classifications
 Low Earth Orbit (LEO): Geocentric orbits ranging in
altitude from 0–2000 km (0–1240 miles)

 Medium Earth Orbit (MEO): Geocentric orbits ranging

in altitude from 2,000 km (1,200 mi) to just below
geosynchronous orbit. Also known as an intermediate
circular orbit.

 High Earth Orbit (HEO): Geocentric orbits above the

altitude of geosynchronous orbit 35,786 km (22,236 mi).
Advantages of satellite communications
1. Mobile/Wireless Communication, independent of
location
2. Wide area coverage: country, continent, or globe
3. Wide bandwidth available throughout
4. Independence from terrestrial infrastructure
5. Rapid installation of ground network
6. Low cost per added site
7. Uniform service characteristics
8. Total service from a single provider
9. Small Fading margin (3dB)
10. Wide range of applications
 Disadvantages of satellite
communications
1. High cost for satellite
2. Short life time maximum of 15 years
3. Redundancy in component
4. Noise and interference
5. Propagation delay
 Applications
 Fixed-Satellite Services (FSS)
 Broadcasting satellite services (BSS)/ Direct-
broadcast satellites (DBS) or Direct-to-home
(DTH)
 Mobile satellite services
 Navigational satellite services
 Meteorological satellite services
 Broadband Digital Communications
 Environmental Monitoring
Frequency allocations for satellite
services
Kepler’s laws
 Kepler’s 1st law
 The Law of Ellipses
The path of the planets about the sun is elliptical
in shape, with the center of the sun being located at
one focus.
 Kepler’s First Law
Kepler’s first law states that the path followed by a satellite around the
primary will be an ellipse. An ellipse has two focal points shown as F1
and F2. The center of mass of the two-body system, termed
the barycenter, is always centered on one of the foci.
The semimajor axis of the ellipse is denoted by a, and the semiminor
axis, by b. The eccentricity e is given by

For an elliptical orbit,

0<e<1.
Kepler’s Second Law
Kepler’s second law states that, for equal time intervals, a
satellite will sweep out equal areas in its orbital plane,
focused at the barycenter.
Referring to Fig. assuming the satellite travels distances S1 and
S2 meters in 1 s, then the areas A1 and A2 will be equal.

Velocity at S2 is less than S1

 Kepler’s 2nd law
 The Law of Equal Areas :
An imaginary line drawn from the center of the sun to the
center of the planet will sweep out equal areas in equal intervals of
time.
Kepler’s 2nd law
Kepler’s Third Law
Kepler’s third law states that the square of the periodic time of orbit
is proportional to the cube of the mean distance between the two
bodies. The mean distance is equal to the semimajor axis a. For the
artificial satellites orbiting the earth, Kepler’s third law can be written
in the form

where n is the mean motion of the satellite in radians per second and
µ is the earth’s geocentric gravitational constant.

With n in radians per second, the orbital period in seconds is given by

SIR ISAAC NEWTON
Born in England,
Isaac Newton was a
highly influential

Physicist
 Astronomer
 Mathematician
 Philosopher
 Alchemist
 theologian.
 Newton's Law of Motion
 Newton's First Law (Law of Inertia):
Every object in a state of uniform motion tends to remain
in that state of motion unless an external force is applied to it.
(or)
An object at rest stays at rest and an object in motion
stays in motion with the same speed and in the same
direction unless acted upon by an unbalanced force.
 Newton's Second Law:
The acceleration of an object as produced by a net force
is directly proportional to the magnitude of the net force, in
the same direction as the net force, and inversely
proportional to the mass of the object.
 Newton's third law :
For each and every action, there is an equal and
opposite reaction.
 Newton's law of universal gravitation
It states that every particle in the universe exerts a
force on every other particle along the line joining their
centers. The magnitude of the force is directly
proportional to the product of the masses of the two
particles, and inversely proportional to the square of the
distances between them.

where m1 & m2 are the masses of the two particles

r is the distance between the two masses
F is the gravitational force between them
G is the universal gravitational constant. G = 6.673 x 10-11 N m2/kg2
Definitions of Terms for Earth-Orbiting Satellites

As mentioned previously, Kepler’s laws apply in general

to satellite motion around a primary body. For the particular
case of earth-orbiting satellites, certain terms are used to
describe the position of the orbit with respect to the earth.

Sub satellite path: This is the path traced out on the earth’s
surface directly below the satellite.

Apogee: The point farthest from earth.

Perigee: The point of closest approach to earth.

 Line of apsides. The line joining the perigee and
apogee through the center of the earth.

 Ascending node. The point where the orbit crosses the

equatorial plane going from south to north.

 Descending node. The point where the orbit crosses

the equatorial plane going from north to south.

 Line of nodes. The line joining the ascending and

descending nodes through the center of the earth.

 Inclination. The angle between the orbital plane and

the earth’s equatorial plane.
Angle of inclination
 Prograde orbit
An orbit in which the satellite moves in the same direction as
the earth’s rotation. It is also known as a direct orbit. The inclination
of a prograde orbit always lies between 0° and 90°. Most satellites are
launched in a prograde orbit because the earth’s rotational velocity
provides part of the orbital velocity with a consequent saving in
launch energy.
 Retrograde orbit:
An orbit in which the satellite moves in a
direction counter to the earth’s rotation. The
inclination of a retrograde orbit always lies between
90° and 180°.
 Argument of Perigee (Perihelion): (ω)
The angle between the ascending node and perigee,
measured in the orbital plane at the earths center, in the
direction of satellite motion.

 Vernal equinox (Spring Equinox/First point of Aries):

Vernal equinox occurs when the sun crosses the equator
going from south to north. It is nothing more than the
ascending node of the Sun's orbit.

 Line of Aries(γ):
Imaginary line drawn from this equatorial crossing
through the center of the sun points to the first point of
Aries.
 Right Ascension of the Ascending Node (Ω):
Another term for Longitude of the Ascending Node,
It is the angle measured Eastward in the equatorial plane,
from the γ line to the ascending node.
(Or)
 The angle measured in the equatorial plane from a reference
point in the sky where right ascension is defined to be zero.
Astronomers call this point the vernal equinox.

 “Right ascension of Ascending node" is an angle,

measured at the center of the earth, from the vernal equinox
to the ascending node.

 RAAN is a number in the range 0 to 360 degrees.

 Mean anomaly(M):
Mean anomaly gives an average value of the
angular position of the satellite in its orbit with
reference to the perigee, For a circular orbit.
If the satellite were at the perigee, the mean
anomaly would be 0.

 True anomaly:
True anomaly is the angle measured in the
direction of motion from perigee to the satellite's
position, measured at the earth’s center.
This gives the true angular position of the
satellite as a function of time.
Orbital Elements
Earth-orbiting artificial satellites are defined by six
orbital elements referred to as the keplerian element set.
 Semi-major axis (a): Fixes the size of orbit
 Eccentricity (e): Give the shape of the ellipse.
 Mean anomaly (M0): Gives the position of the satellite in
its orbit at a reference time known as the epoch.
 Argument of perigee (w): Gives the rotation of the orbit’s
perigee point relative to the orbit’s line of nodes in the earth’s
equatorial plane.
 Inclination (i): Fixes the plane’s position.
 Right Ascension of the Ascending Node (Ω): Relates the
orbital planes position to the earth.
 Apogee and Perigee Heights
Although not specified as orbital elements, the
apogee height and perigee height are often required,
the length of the radius vectors at apogee and perigee
can be obtained from the geometry of the ellipse:

ha = ra – R
hp = rp – R
 Orbit Perturbations
perturbations of the orbit are the results of
various forces which are exerted on the satellite other
than the forces of attraction of the central, spherical
and homogeneous body. These forces mainly consist
of

 Non – spherical nature of earth

 The attraction of other bodies like sun and moon
 Solar radiation pressure
 Atmospheric drag
 Effects of a non - spherical earth
 As the shape of Earth is not a perfect sphere, it causes some
variations in the path followed by the satellites around the
primary. As the Earth is bulging from the equatorial belt,
and keeping in mind that an orbit is not a physical entity,
and it is the forces resulting from an oblate Earth which act
on the satellite produce a change in the orbital parameters.

 This causes the satellite to drift as a result of regression of

the nodes and the latitude of the point of perigee (point
closest to the Earth). This leads to rotation of the line of
apsides. As the orbit itself is moving with respect to the
Earth, the resultant changes are seen in the values of
argument of perigee and right ascension of ascending node.
 Due to the non-spherical shape of Earth, one more effect
called as the “Satellite Graveyard” is seen. The non-
spherical shape leads to the small value of eccentricity (10-
5 ) at the equatorial plane. This causes a gravity gradient
on GEO satellite and makes them drift to one of the two
stable points which coincide with minor axis of the
equatorial ellipse.

 Working satellites are made to drift back to their position

but out-of-service satellites are eventually drifted to these
points, and making that point a Satellite Graveyard.
 Effects of a non - spherical earth

For a spherical earth of uniform mass, Kepler’s third law gives

the nominal mean motion n0 as
 Atmospheric drag
An approximate expression for the change of major axis is

where the “0” subscripts denote values at the reference time t0, and n0
is the first derivative of the mean motion. The mean anomaly is also
changed, an approximate value for the change being:
 Station keeping
 Even with a very good launch the satellite can drift
some what from its orbit. This is called “orbital drift”

 The deviation of Earth's gravity field from that of

a homogeneous sphere and gravitational forces from
Sun/Moon will in general perturb the orbital plane.

 The process of firing the rockets under ground control

to maintain or adjust the orbit is referred to as “
Station Keeping"
Station keeping for drift due to ellipticity of earth:
 The equatorial ellipticity of the earth causes geostationary
satellite to drift to one of the two stable points, at 75° E &
105 ° W

 To counter this drift, an oppositely directed velocity

component is imparted to the satellite by means of jets,
which are pulsed once every 2 to 3 weeks.

 This results in the satellite drifting back through, its

nominal station position, coming to a stop and
recommencing the drift along the orbit until the jets are
pulsed once again.
 These maneuvers are termed east-west station keeping
maneuvers. Satellites in the 6/4 GHz band must be kept
within ±0.1 ° of the designated longitude, and in the 14/12
GHz band, within ±0.05 °.

Station keeping for drift due to gravitational pull:

 The forces due to sun and moon causes the inclination to
change at a rate of about 0.85°/year

 To prevent the shift in inclination from exceeding

specified limits, jets may be pulsed at the appropriate time
to return the inclination to zero.
 Counteracting jets must be placed when the inclination is at
zero to halt the change in inclination. These maneuvers are
termed North-South station keeping maneuvers.

 They are more expensive in fuel than east-west station

keeping maneuvers.

 North-South station keeping tolerance are the same as those

for east-west station keeping ± 0.1° in the C band and ± 0.05°
in Ku band.

 Orbital correction is carried out by command from the

TT&C earth station, which monitors the satellite position.
east-west and North-South station keeping maneuvers are
usually carried out using the same thrusters as are used for
attitude control.(Telemetry tracking and commanding)
 Geostationary orbit
 Satellite in a geostationary orbit appears to be stationary
with respect to the earth, hence the name
geostationary.

 Three conditions are required for an orbit to be

geostationary:

1. The satellite must travel eastward at the same

rotational speed as the earth.
2. The orbit must be circular.
3. The inclination of the orbit must
be zero.
(orbit lies in earth’s equatorial plane)
 Kepler's 3rd law is used to find the radius of the orbit
 Antenna Look Angels
The position of the satellite, as measured
from the earth station, is usually given in terms of
the azimuth and elevation angles and the range d.
These are measured in the topocentric-horizon
coordinate system

The look angles for ground station

antenna are the azimuth and elevation angles
required so that it points directly at the
satellite
 In case of elliptical orbit, these angles had to change in
order to track the satellite.
 In geostationary orbit, it is simple because the satellite is
stationary with respect to the earth.

 In general no tracking should be necessary, with the large

earth stations used for commercial communications.
 For the antenna beam width to be very narrow, tracking
mechanism is required to compensate For the movement of
the satellite about the nominal geostationary position
 For home reception, the antenna beam width is quite
broad, and no tracking is necessary. This allows the
antennas to be fixed in position.
Eg: antennas used for reception of satellite TV
 The 3 information's required to determine the look
angles for the geostationary orbit are,

 The earth station latitude, denoted here by λE

 The earth station longitude, denoted here by ΦE
 The longitude of the sub satellite point, denoted here by Φss
(satellite longitude)

 Latitude north will be taken as positive angles

 Latitude south will be taken as negative angles
 Longitude east of the Greenwich meridian will be taken as
positive angles and longitude west, as negative angles.
 Eg: Latitude of 40°S is taken as -40°
Longitude of 35°W is taken as -35°
Latitude and Longitude
 When calculating look angles for LEO satellites, variation
in earths radius is taken into account
 For GEO, this variation is negligible effect on the look
angles, and the average radius of earth used is R =
6371Km

Geometry involving these quantities

 ES: position of earth station
 SS: sub satellite point
 S: satellite
 d: range from the earth station to the satellite
 σ: angle to be determined (look angle)
Geometry in determining look angles
Two types of triangle involved in the geometry
 spherical triangle (N, ES, Φss ) / (a,b,c)
 plane triangle (ES, aE: center of earth, S)
Spherical triangle:

 These are sides of all arcs of great circles, and these

sides are defined by the angles subtended by them at
the center of the earth.

 a: angle between the radius to north pole N and radius

to sub satellite point Φss, a= 90°, spherical triangle in
which one side is 90° is called a quadrantal triangle.
 b: angle between the radius to the earth station ES
and the radius to the sub-satellite point Φss
 c: angle between the radius to the earth station ES and
the north pole N. c= 90° - λE

R. JHANSI RANI Assoct.prof/ECE

 3 angles A, B, C are the angles between the planes
 A: Angle between the plane containing c and b
 B: Angle between the plane containing c and a,
B = Φ E - Φss and Bmax = 81.3°
 C: Angle between the plane containing b and a

R. JHANSI RANI Assoct.prof/ECE

 Summary of spherical triangle to this point:
 a= 90°
 c= 90° - λE
 B = Φ E - Φss

Note:
 When ES is west of sub satellite point, B is (–)ve and when
east, B is (+)ve.
 When ES latitude is north, c<90° and when south, c>90°

By, Napier’s rules

R. JHANSI RANI Assoct.prof/ECE

 Two values will satisfy the above equation, A and
180° – A and is determined by inspection.

 A is acute (<90°), and the azimuth angle is Az = A

 A is acute, and the azimuth is, by inspection, Az=360° - A
 Ac is obtuse and is given by Ac = 180° - A where A is the
acute value obtained from above equation, by
inspection, Az = Ac – 180° - A
 Ad is obtuse and is given by Ad = 180° - A where A is the
acute value obtained from above equation, by
inspection, Az = 360° - Ad = 180° + A
plane triangle
 Applying the cosine rule for plane triangles to the
triangle allows the range d to be found to a close
approximation

 Applying the sine rule for plane triangles to the

triangle allows the angle of elevation to be found to

R. JHANSI RANI Assoct.prof/ECE

 Limits of Visibility
 Any geostationary satellite has an arc of visibility which can
also be called area of coverage or foot print.

 This depends upon the height of satellite , elevation angle

and area of coverage.

 There will be east and west limits on the geostationary arc

visible from any given earth station.

 The limits will be set by the geographic coordinates of the

earth station and the antenna elevation.

 The lowest elevation in theory is zero, when the antenna is

pointing along the horizontal.
R. JHANSI RANI Assoct.prof/ECE
 A quick estimate of the longitudinal limits can be made by
considering an earth station at the equator, with the
antenna pointing either west or east along the horizontal,
as shown in Fig.

The limiting angle is given by

 Thus, for this situation, an earth station could see
satellites over a geostationary arc bounded by ±81.3°
about the earth station longitude.

 In practice, to avoid reception of excessive noise from the

earth, some finite minimum value of elevation is used.

 Typically Elmin = 5°

 The limits of visibility will also depend on the earth-

station latitude.

 let S represent the angle subtended at the satellite when

the angle
 Applying the sine rule gives

 Assuming a spherical earth of mean radius 6371 km as was

done previously.
 Once angle S is known, angle b is found from

 From equation,

 Once angle B is found, satellite longitude can be determined

from .
 Earth Eclipse of Satellite
It occurs when earth’s equatorial plane
coincides with the plane of the earths orbit around the sun
(the ecliptic plane) near the time of spring and autumnal
equinoxes. When the sun is crossing the equator, the
satellite passes into earth’s shadow at certain period (10
min’s to 72 min’s)

 Geostationary satellites would be eclipsed by the earth

once each day
 As, equatorial plane is tilted at an angle of 23.4° to the
ecliptic plane, keeps the satellite in full view of the sun for
most days of the year.
Earth Eclipse of Satellite
R. JHANSI RANI Assoct.prof/ECE
 Earth Eclipse of Satellite
 Around the spring and autumnal equinoxes, when the sun
is crossing the equator, the satellite passes into earth’s
shadow at certain periods, these being period of eclipse.

 Spring equinox is the first day of spring

 Autumnal equinox is the first day of autumn

 Eclipse being 23 days before equinox and end 23 days after

equinox.

R. JHANSI RANI Assoct.prof/ECE

Causes of eclipse
 During full eclipse, satellite receives no power from solar
array and relays only on batteries.

 Reduction in primary power reduces satellite life

 During eclipse it is necessary to shut down some

transponders, and results in reduction of satellite
performance.

 Solar fluctuation may cause failure of primary power

system

 Severe thermal stress on a satellite.

 When the satellite longitude is east of ES, the satellite
enters eclipse during daylight, this is undesirable if the
satellite has to operate on reduced battery power.

 When the satellite longitude is west of ES, the eclipse

does not occur until the earth station is in darkness, when
the usage is low.

 Hence satellite west of ES is more desirable

 Probability of satellite failure is more during eclipse than

at any other time.
 Sub satellite point
The point on the earth vertically under the satellite is
referred to as sub satellite point.

 The latitude and longitude of the sub-satellite point and

height of the satellite above the sub-satellite point can be
determined from the radius vector r.
 The height of the terrain above the reference ellipsoid at
the sub-satellite point is denoted by Hss
 The height of the satellite above this, by hss.
 Thus total height above the reference ellipsoid is
 Sun transit outage
 Another event which occurs during equinoxes is the transit of
the satellite between earth and sun.

 Sun which is a powerful broadband microwave noise source

passes directly behind the satellite (when viewed from Earth)
and the receiver with the beam directed towards the satellite
picks up both the satellite signal and the noise from the Sun
which completely blanks out the signal from satellite. This
effect is termed as sun transit outage.

 It lasts for short periods-each day for about 6 days around the
equinoxes.

 Maximum outage time of 10 min being typical.

R. JHANSI RANI Assoct.prof/ECE
 The occurrence and duration of the sun transit
outage depends on
 The latitude of the earth station
 Receiver location
 Location of the particular satellite
 Size, or more specifically the beam width of the antenna
 The apparent radius of the Sun as seen from the earth
(about 0.25°).
 Accuracy of alignment of the antenna direction towards
the satellite

R. JHANSI RANI Assoct.prof/ECE

 Launching the satellite
 Space shuttles carry some satellites
into space, but most satellites are
launched by rockets that fall into
the ocean after their fuel is spent.

 Many satellites require minor

adjustments of their orbit before
they begin to perform their
function. Built-in rockets called
thrusters make these adjustments.

 Once a satellite is placed into a

stable orbit, it can remain there for
a long time without further
adjustment.
How does a satellite stay in it’s orbit?
 Launching of geostationary satellite
• Initially place spacecraft with the final
rocket stage into LEO.
• After a couple of orbits, during which the orbital
parameters are measured, the final stage is
reignited and the spacecraft is launched into a
geostationary transfer orbit(GTO).
• Perigee of GTO is that of LEO altitude and
apogee that of GEO altitude.
• After a few orbits in GTO, while the orbital
parameters are measured, a rocket motor (AKM)
is ignited at apogee and GTO is raised until it is
circular geostationary orbit.
• AKM (Apogee Kick Motor) is used to circularize
the orbit at GEO and to remove any inclination
error so that the final orbit is very close to
geostationary.
 Geostationary Transfer Orbit
•If we speed the satellite
up while it's in low circular
earth orbit it will go into
elliptical orbit, heading up
to apogee.

• If we do nothing else, it
will stay in this elliptical
orbit, going from apogee to
perigee and back again.

• BUT, if we fire a rocket motor when the satellite's at apogee, and

speed it up to the required circular orbit speed, it will stay at that
altitude in circular orbit. Firing a rocket motor at apogee is called
"apogee kick", and the motor is called the "apogee kick motor".
 ORBITAL MANEUVERS
Hohmann Transfer
 Can be used to raise or lower
altitude
 Most efficient method
 At minimum, requires
completion of half
revolution of transfer orbit
 Hohmann transfer
• Most satellites launched today are initially placed into an low
earth orbit.
• In the next phase the satellite is injected into an elliptical
transfer orbit which has an apogee at the height of GEO and its
apsides (line joining perigee-apogee) in the equatorial plane.
• Finally satellite is injected into GEO by imparting a velocity
increment at the apogee equal to the difference between
satellite velocity at GTO and velocity in GEO.
• A transfer between two coplanar circular orbits via elliptical
transfer orbit requires the least velocity increment (and hence
fuel). This principle was recognized by Hohmann in 1925 and is
referred as Hohmann transfer.
 A Hohmann transfer is a fuel efficient way to transfer from one
circular orbit to another circular orbit that is in the same plane
(same inclination), but a different altitude.
 To change from a lower orbit (A) to a higher orbit (C), an engine
is first fired in the opposite direction from the direction the
vehicle is traveling.
 This will add velocity to the vehicle causing its trajectory to
become an elliptic orbit (B). This elliptic orbit is carefully
designed to reach the desired final altitude of the higher orbit
(C).
 In this way the elliptic orbit or transfer orbit is tangent to both
the original orbit (A) and the final orbit (C). This is why a
Hohmann transfer is fuel efficient.
 When the target altitude is reached the engine is fired in the
same manner as before but this time the added velocity is
planned such that the elliptic transfer orbit is circularized at the
 Target Orbit

Initial
Orbit

Transfer Orbit
The orbital inclination is given by,
cos i= sinξ1 cos θ1
where i=inclination
ξ1 =azimuth of launch
θ1 =latitude of launching site
 Launch Vehicles

Saturn V launch vehicle A Russian Soyuz lifts off from Ukrainian launch Vehicle
sends Apollo 15 on its way to the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Zenit-2 is prepared for launch
the moon. Kazakhstan heading for the ISS
 Launch vehicles
A launch vehicle is a rocket used to carry a payload
from the earth station into outer space.

Types of launch vehicles:

1. Expendable launch vehicle (ELV)

2. Reusable launch vehicles (RLV)

Expendable Launcher:
They are designed for one time use. They usually
separate from their payload and crash back to earth.
  Payloads are government and commercial communication
satellites, weather satellites, remote sensing satellites etc.,
 ELV is made of one or more rocket stages
 After each stage has burned its propellant, it is jettisoned
from the vehicle.
Eg: US Atlas-centaur & Delta
rockets
European space agency Airane
rockets.
Reusable launcher
 They are designed to be recovered intact and used again
for launches.

 Space shuttle also called the space transportation system

(STS) are reusable

 The solid rocket boosters are recovered and refurbished

for future mission and the shuttle vehicle itself is flown
back to earth for reuse

 There are single stage to orbit (SSTO) launch and two

stage to orbit (TSTO) launch.
 PSLV
Polar satellite launch vehicle

 It is an expendable launch vehicle

developed by ISRO

 It is used for remote sensing

PSLV-C8 (CA Variant) carrying

the AGILE x-ray and γ-ray
astronomical satellite of the
ASI lifting off from Sriharikota