TRANSPORT IN ANIMALS FINAL BY TR. ISMAIL

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TRANSPORT IN ANIMALS
The unicellular organisms like protozoans, and simpler ones like cnidarians and Platyhelminthes
transport of materials in and out of the body is by simple diffusion since the bodies of such organisms
are too small. They have a large surface area to volume ratio so that simple diffusion is efficient to
transport substances in and out of their bodies. Such organisms therefore have no any specific vascular
systems.
As organisms increase in size and complexity so the quantity of materials moving in and out of the
body, the distance that materials have to travel within the body also increases, so that diffusion
becomes inadequate as a means for their distribution, hence the need for a circulatory system.
Explain the necessity for transport systems in large complex

multicellular organisms.
Neither the organism nor its cells can live in total independence of their
environments for they need metabolites for their metabolism and have to
eliminate the resulting metabolic wastes:
 The fact that diffusion alone can no longer suffice in large organisms to move
such materials (wastes and metabolites) to and from the cells let alone at a
rate commensurate-to (as fast as) body needs.
 That in large multicellular organisms most of the cells are detouched from
the environment and the great distance between them and the environment
is certainly a hindrance to diffusion and other means of movement in and out
of cells.
 That quicker movement of materials in the organism can only be achieved if
the materials in transit are separated from other materials within the
organism.
 That a large part of the external body surface must often be kept
impermeable to conserve water particularly in terrestrial organisms.
This is exactly what vascular systems and circulatory systems have been evolved
to do and thus they share the following similarities.
In animals, there are two circulatory systems namely the blood system and the lymphatic system.
A vascular system is one which contains fluid – filled vessels involved in transport.
Similarities between vascular systems in plants and circulatory

systems in animals
 In both, among the materials to be transported are inorganic materials like
respiratory
gases, water and mineral elements and organic materials like nutritive
molecules and
hormones.
 In both, the medium of transport is either water or largely composed of
water.
 In both, the channels of transport constitute mainly of tubular system with
various modifications to suit particular needs.
 In both, movement of materials requires and depends on energy. In higher
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animals most of this energy is spent pumping action of the heart to keep
blood circulating. While in higher plants there is great dependence on the
transpiration stream whose operation greatly depends on solar energy.
Differences between transport systems of higher plants and
animals
Plants Animals
Medium of transport is blood and lymph
Medium of transport is water
Conducting vessels are xylem and
Conducting vessels are arteries, veins,
phloem. The xylem is non-living while
capillaries and lymph vessels and all
the phloem is living.
are living
No valves involved and therefor,
a two way transport is possible With the exception of arteries all the
for example in the phloem. rest have valves and blood flow in one
way.
Xylem transports water and salts All types of vessels can transport the
while phloem transports same materials
manufactured food and
hormones
The medium does not circulate.
The medium actually circulates
Water as a medium of transport in flowering plants and animals

Apart from being essential to their continued existence as a major constituent of
the protoplasm, and a medium of metabolic reactions it is an important
constituent of all transporting media in organisms i.e. blood, lymph and plant
sap. This is by means a coincidence but a result of the fact that water has
specific and unique properties that enable it to serve as an efficient transport
medium.
These are: -
 Being neutral and inactive it does not affect the substances being transported
so they reach their destinations unaltered.
 Being a universal solvent it can dissolve all the substances that are to be
transported making their transport in solution easier than if they were solid.
 By having a high surface tension it influences activities at interfaces of cell
inclusions and the protoplast in general. This affects physiological processes
like cell membrane permeability, adsorption, and imbibition of water by
colloids, capillarity and protoplasmic streaming all important in transpiration.
 By having a low viscosity this allows rapid movement of water and hence
transporting materials easily.
 By having a high thermal conductivity, it allows the transfer of heat to where
it is
required in the organism which is essential in temperature regulation
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especially in endotherms.
 By having a high specific heat capacity, it is not subject to rapid fluctuations
of
temperature which is essential for keeping normal temperatures in organisms
fluctuations of which would affect enzymatic reactions and hence metabolism
in
general.
GENERAL FUNCTIONS OF CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

The circulatory system may differ in various animals but carries out the same basic
functions.
 Transport of nutrients. It transports all soluble food compounds from the area of
absorption to different parts of the body for storage, assimilation or synthesis of
new components.
 Transport of waste products: it transports all the excretory products produced as a
result of cellular activities from all over the body to the organs of excretion (like
kidney in man)
 Transport of intermediate metabolites: it transports all the byproducts or
intermediate products from the tissues they are produced to the organs where they
can be metabolized (like lactic acid produced in muscles is transported to the live for
oxidation.
 Transport of hormones: since hormones are produced by ductless glands, they are
transported through the circulatory fluid to their target organs.
 Uniform distribution of heat: since circulatory fluid connects to all parts of the body
it picks up heat from one part and dissipates it on the surface bringing about the
uniform distribution.
 Transport of water, inorganic ions and various chemicals is also done by the
circulatory fluid so as to maintain a uniform distribution
 Defense against diseases: the circulating fluid contains blood cells responsible for
body defense
 Transport of respiratory gases: in some animals the circulatory fluid contains
respiratory pigments which may be dissolved in plasma like in snails, crustaceans or
cephalopods or present in cells like in all vertebrates including man. The oxygen is
transported from respiratory organs to respiring tissues while carbon dioxide is
carried from tissues to respiratory organs. Some animals like insects have tracheal
system for respiration and circulatory system is not directly associated with
respiration. More so it lacks any respiratory pigment
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF A BLOOD VASCULAR SYSTEM

The purpose of a blood system is to provide rapid mass flow of materials from one part of the body to
another over distances where diffusion is slow. Every blood system possesses the flowing three
distinct characteristics.
 A circulatory fluid: most common one is blood though higher organisms contain lymph as an
addition.
 A contractile pumping organ: the heart
 A system of tubes through which the circulatory fluid can move
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TYPES OF BLOOD SYSTEMS

There are 2 distinct types of blood systems found in animals i.e. open and closed blood systems
1. THE OPEN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

This is a system where blood is not confined to blood vessels through the course of its circulation
in the body. Blood is pumped by the heart in to an aorta which branches in to a number of
arteries. These open in to a series of blood spaces known as the haemocoel. Blood under low pressure
moves slowly between the tissues, gradually percolating back in to the heart through open – ended
veins. Distribution of blood to the tissues is poorly controlled. It occurs in arthropods and some molluscs.
Blood system in arthropods e.g. insects

The blood system of arthropods is not used for transporting respiratory gases since gaseous
exchange is achieved by the tracheal system. Arthropod blood is colourless and contains no
haemoglobin
Structure
The blood system of arthropods consists of a tubular heart which is perforated by tiny holes called
ostia. It is suspended by slender ligaments attached to the pericardial membranes on the lower
side and body7 wall on the upper. It extends from the abdomen to the thorax and it is expanded
to form a small chamber in each segment.
At positions corresponding to these chambers of the heart in the pericardial membrane are
muscles known as alary muscles. These muscles are responsible for aiding expansion of the heart
after its contraction.
Mechanism of blood flow in insects

During systole (contraction), the Ostia and the valves close, a wave of contraction take place in the heart
from the posterior towards the anterior chambers. This occurs when the alary muscles are relaxed.
This propels blood forward in the heart and when it reaches the anterior, blood flows out of the heart
through the aorta to the haemocoel.
During diastole (relaxation), the alary muscles contract. This causes the ligaments to stretch the
heart, the pericardial membrane is depressed, pressure in the perivisceral cavity increases due to
reduction in volume. Fluid then flows from the perivisceral cavity to the pericardial cavity and it enters
the heart through the Ostia.
When the heart is full of blood, it contracts and the cycle continues.
The functions of the circulatory system of insects
 Transport of nutrients, nitrogenous wastes to organs of elimination.
 To defend the body against disease causing organisms using phagocytes they contain.
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2. THE CLOSED CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

This is a system in which blood is confined to blood vessels throughout its course of circulation in the
body. Blood does not come in to direct contact with the body tissues. Blood is pumped by the heart
rapidly around the body under high pressure and back to the heart. Distribution of blood to different
tissues can be adjusted, depending on demand, and the only entry and exit of blood to the system is
through the walls of the blood vessels. It occurs in echinoderms, most molluscs, annelids and
vertebrates.
Blood system in annelids e.g. earthworm

Annelids are coelomate animals and since the coelom separates the body wall from the internal
organs and gives independent movement of internal structures like the gut, a blood system has
evolved which connects the gut and the body wall.
Structure
The earth worm has a well – developed blood system in which blood circulates around the body
through a system of blood vessels. Two main blood vessels run the length of the body, one dorsal
and one ventral. They are connected by vessels in each segment. Near the front of the animal, five
pairs of these connecting vessels are contractile and act as pumps/hearts. The main blood vessels
can also pump blood. The blood contains haemoglobin dissolved in the plasma rather than being
carried in red blood cells. Haemoglobin transports oxygen around the body.
Mechanism of blood flow

Blood is propelled from the aortic loops when muscles contract. Blood flows through vessels to organs
and tissues where they terminate into capillaries. Once through the capillaries the blood is collected by a
branching network of blood vessels leading into the dorsal blood vessel. This vessel contracts
rhythmically forcing blood to flow forward to the anterior of the animal until it reaches the aortic
loops and the cycle is repeated.
The functions of blood circulatory system of earthworm are;

 Transports nutritive molecules, respiratory gases and nitrogenous wastes
 Defense against diseases since it has amoebocytes which engulf any disease causing organisms in the
blood.
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BLOOD SYSTEM IN VERTEBRATES

The blood system in all vertebrates possesses a muscular heart, lying in a ventral
position near the front of the animal. The heart is responsible for the pumping the
blood rapidly to all parts of the body. Arteries carry blood away from the heart and
veins carry blood towards the heart from the body. Oxygen is carried by haemoglobin in
red blood cells.
COMPOSITION OF BLOOD
The average adult has about 5cm3 of blood. Blood is a liquid tissue. It is made up of several cells which
are found bathed in a fluid matrix called plasma. The plasma makes up 55% by volume of the blood, the
other 45% is blood cells e.g. white blood cells (leucocytes) and red blood cells (erythrocytes) and
platelets – the fragments of cells.
If blood is centrifuged, the cells and platelets form a red pellet at the bottom of the tube, with the straw
– coloured plasma above. The pellet is red because the majority of the pellet consists of red blood cells.
Plasma from which the clotting protein fibrinogen has been removed is called serum. The pH of the
blood is kept between 7.35 and 7.45.
BLOOD PLASMA
This is a pale yellow fluid component of blood composed of the plasma proteins and
blood serum where the blood cells are suspended.
Blood plasma carries the biggest percentage of blood and consists of a colourless
fluid known as serum and also plasma proteins. It is the blood serum that all the
different soluble materials are dissolved e.g. urea, hormones, soluble food
substances, bicarbonate ions etc.
The plasma proteins are manufactured by the liver and include the following;
1. Fibrinogen. This protein is important for normal blood clotting by changing into
fibrin in the presence of thrombin enzyme.
Fibrinogen (soluble) Fibrin (insoluble)
2. Prothrombin. This is the inactive form of the proteolytic enzyme, thrombin,

used in converting fibrinogen to fibrin during the clotting of blood.
3. Globulin. Both Prothrombin and globulin play important roles in the
homeostasis. All the plasma proteins maintain pH of the body fluids constant by
acting as buffers.
4. Blood cells. There are three main types of blood cells which include;
a. Erythrocytes (Red blood cells)
b. Leucocytes (White blood cells)
c. Platelets
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ERYTHROCYTES (RED BLOOD CORPSUCLES)
These are small numerous bi-concave disc shaped cells mainly important in
transportation of oxygen as oxyhaemoglobin from the respiratory surfaces e.g.
lungs and gives it to the tissues. Erythrocytes are manufactured by the bone
marrow in adult and by the liver in the foetus.
Adaptations of erythrocytes
 They have a bi-concave disc shape which provides a large surface area that
enhances maximum diffusion of enough oxygen into them.
 They have a flexible membrane which can enable them change their original
shape and squeeze themselves into the blood capillaries in order to allow the
exchange of respiratory gases.
 They lack a nucleus so as to provide enough space for haemoglobin in order to
carry a lot of oxygen in form of oxyhaemoglobin.
 They have a red pigment called haemoglobin in their cytoplasm which has a high
affinity for oxygen and therefore rapidly transports oxygen.
 They have a thin and permeable membrane which enables faster diffusion of oxygen
and carbon dioxide into them.
 They have an enzyme known as carbonic anhydrase within their cytoplasm which
enables most of the carbon dioxide to be transported in form of bicarbonate
-
ions (HCO3 ), by catalyzing the reactions between carbon dioxide and water to
from carbonic acid.
LEUCOCYTES (white blood cells)

They are amoeboid cells having a nucleus and a colourless cytoplasm important for
defense of the body against infections. They are fewer than erythrocytes i.e. they are
about 7000/m3 of blood. They are mainly manufactured by the bone marrow.
They are classified into two main types basing on the shape of the nucleus which
include;
1. Granulocytes (polymorph nuclear leucocytes)

These are leucocytes with granules in there cytoplasm and a lobed nucleus. They
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originate in bone marrow. There are three types of granular leucocytes which include;
Basophils (0.5%), Eosinophils (1.5%) and Neutrophils (70%)
Basophils (0.5%) produce heparin and histamine. Heparin is an anticoagulant

which prevents blood clotting in blood vessels. Histamine is a substance that is
released during allergic reactions e.g. high fever. Histamine brings about allergic
reactions by causing dilation (widening) and increased permeability of small blood
vessels which results in such symptoms as itching, localized swellings, sneezing,
running nose, red eyes etc.
Eosinophils (1.5%) possess anti-histamine properties and their number increases in

people with allergic reactions such as high fever, asthma etc. so as to combat the
effects of histamine.
Neutrophils (phagocytes) (70%) engulf pathogens by phagocytosis and digest them

actively inside to defend the body against diseases.
2. Agranulocytes (mononuclear leucocytes)

These are leucocytes with no granules in there cytoplasm usually with a spherical or
bean shaped nucleus. They originate in bone marrow and lymph nodes. They are
divided into two types; Monocytes (4%) and Lymphocytes (24%)
Monocytes (4%) are leucocytes which enter the tissues from which they develop into
macrophages which carry out Phagocytosis to defend the body against pathogens.
They have a bean shaped nucleus.
Lymphocytes (24%) they are produced in the thymus gland and lymph nodes. The
precursor cells of lymphocytes in the bone marrow form a tissue which is called the
lymphoid tissue. Lymphocytes are usually round and they possess a small quantity of
the cytoplasm. Lymphocytes produce antibodies, agglutins, lysins, opsonins and
antitoxins.
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 Adaptations of white blood cells to their function
 They do not have a fixed shape and hence the amoebic movements used to
engulf pathogens.
 They are larger than the pathogens
 They are numerous
 Some lymphocytes produce antibodies which attack pathogens
 They have an irregular shaped nucleus which allows them to squeeze
through the narrow capillaries
 They have a sensitive cell surface membrane that detects micro organisms
 They have enzymes in their cytoplasm to digest the engulfed micro
organisms
 In adults they are produced and develop in the bone marrow
 They have a large nucleus which contains lymph glands while in embryos
they are many genes for the control of antibody produced in the thymus
gland, liver and spleen.
NB: WBC has a life span of 21 days
BLOOD PLATELETS (thrombocytes)

These are irregularly shaped, membrane bound cell fragments lacking the nuclei
and are formed from the bone marrow cells. They are responsible for starting up
the process of blood clotting. There are abound 250,000 blood platelets per mm 3
of blood.
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Note
 Blood does not clot in undamaged blood vessels because; 1. The areolar
connective tissue through the mast cells plus the liver produce an anticoagulant
chemical called heparin, which prevents the conversion of prothrombin to
thrombin and successive fibrinogen to fibrin. 2. Blood vessels are smooth to the
flow of blood. Damage to the vessel’s endothelium can lead to platelets breakdown
which leads to clotting of blood.
 If a clot does form within the blood circulation, it is called a thrombus and leads
to a medical condition known as thrombosis. This may happen if the endothelium
of blood vessels is damaged and the roughness of the damaged area promotes
platelet breakdown and sets in motion the clotting process. Coronary
thrombosis, a thrombus developing in the coronary artery of the heart, is
particularly dangerous and can lead to a swift death.
 The absence or low concentration of any of the essential clotting factors can
produce excessive bleeding. E.g. if an essential factor necessary for the action of
thromboplastin is absent or only present in minute amounts, the individual will
bleed profusely from any minor wound. This is called haemophilia.
THE CIRCULATION
There are 2 types of blood circulations i.e. double and single circulation.
1. Double circulation
This is where blood passes through the heart twice in one complete circulation. The advantage of this is
that the blood can be sent to the lungs to pick up oxygen and then be returned to the heart to be
pumped again before travelling round the body.
Double blood circulation is made possible by the heart being divided in to two halves; one half pumps
deoxygenated blood to the lungs and the other half pumps oxygenated blood to the rest of the body.
In some animals like amphibians, there is no complete separation of oxygenated and deoxygenated
blood in the ventricle of the heart, this is called incomplete double circulation. However, the mixing
of blood which would otherwise have occurred in the ventricle is prevented by the presence of spiral
valves in the conus arteriosus. Amphibians have a three – chambered heart.
In animals like mammals, birds and reptiles, oxygenated blood and deoxygenated blood clearly
separates in the ventricles of the heart. This is achieved by the presence of the septum. This type of
circulation is called complete double circulation.
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Blood entering the heart first flows to the lungs through the pulmonary artery and back to the heart
through the pulmonary vein which is known as pulmonary circulation after which it is when pumped
to the rest of the body. Blood is pumped to the body parts through aorta and back to the heart from the
body through the vena cava, this is known as systemic circulation.
Systemic flow of blood in double circulation in man
Blood supplied to the pulmonary circulation is at lower pressure than that of the systemic circulation.
Because the oxygenated blood of the systemic circulation reaches the body capillary at a much higher
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pressure. This is essential for the efficient function of organs and tissue fluid formation and permits a
high metabolic rate and a high body temperature to be maintained. The lower pressure in the pulmonary
artery prevents rupture of the decreases pulmonary capillaries.
Advantages of a double closed circulatory system over open one

 Relatively high pressure required for fast flow of blood is acquired than in open circulation.
 Since the blood is returned rapidly to the heart for pumping, more rapid circulation can be attained.
 The separation of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood in it improves efficiency of oxygen distribution
and therefore sustains the high metabolic rate required by such animals.
 The blood is piped directly to where it is needed.
 The amount flowing to certain organs can be regulated by changing the diameter of the blood vessels.
 Blood cells and large molecules remain within vessels
 Can support higher levels of metabolic activity
2. Single circulation
This is a types of circulation in which blood flows only once through the heart in a complete circuit of the
body. It occurs in fish and earthworms.
Single circulation of fish
Differences between open and closed circulatory system

Open circulatory system Closed circulatory system
1. blood flows through large open spaces and blood flows through a system of closed
channels called lacunae and sinuses among the chambers and tubes called the heart and
tissues blood vessels
2. tissues are in direct contact with there is no direct communication with any
the blood tissue, open body cavity or space
3. blood flows under very low pressure and By strong pumping action of the heart blood
moves slowly through the tissues flows with great pressure in the arteries
4. heart pumps oxygenated blood into an Heart pumps oxygenated blood to aorta
aorta which branches into number of arteries, which branches into a number of arteries,
which open into series of blood spaces and lacunae then to arterioles and finally to a
collectively known as haemocoel network of capillaries all over the body.
5. Blood takes comparatively longer time to circulate Blood takes a much shorter time to
through the whole body circulate through the body.
6. Exchange of gases takes place directly between Nutrients and gases pass through the
blood and tissues capillary wall to the tissues
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7. Volume of blood flowing through a tissue Volume of blood flowing through a tissue or
cannot be controlled as blood flows out in open organ can be regulated by contraction and
spaces relaxation of the smooth muscles of the
arteries.
8. It is present in higher invertebrates like most It is present in echinoderms, some
arthropods, prawns, insects etc. mollusks, annelids and all vertebrates
BLOOD VESSELS
General structure
As blood circulates round the body it passes through a series of arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules
and veins. Basically each artery and veins consists of three layers.
 The endothelium/tunica interna, an inner lining of squamous epithelium. Capillaries have only
the tunica interna.
 The tunica media (middle coat), a middle layer of smooth involuntary muscle and elastic fibres
that allow for the distention and constriction of the walls of the blood.
 The tunica externa (external coat), an external layer consisting mainly of inelastic white collagen
fibres which provide strength and prevents extensive stretching.
Diagrams showing the transverse sections of the vein, artery

and capillary
Comparison between arteries, vein and a capillary

Both tunica media and tunica externa are more developed in arteries than veins and
therefore arteries have thicker walls than those of veins. Arteries have thicker walls
than veins because blood flows through them at a higher pressure than in the veins,
due to the pumping action of blood by the heart. Arteries therefore have thicker walls
to counteract the pressure by which blood moves through them. The capillaries lack
both the tunica externa and the tunica interna.
In addition the walls of the arteries are more elastic than those of veins, in order to
overcome the pressure by which blood flows through them by rapidly stretching
without bursting.
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Also arteries have a narrower rumen than veins, which increases the pressure of the
blood flowing through them.
Arteries also lack valves while veins haves valves which prevent the backflow of blood
in veins. However, arteries do not need valves since they transport blood under high
pressure, which pressure ensures that blood flows forward.
Blood in arteries moves inform of pulses while in veins is flows smoothly without any
pulse. A pulse is a series of waves of dilation that pass along the arteries caused by
the pressure of the blood pumped from the heart through contractions of the left
ventricle.
Arteries transport oxygenated blood from the heart to the tissues except the pulmonary
artery which transports deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs and umbilical
artery which carries deoxygenated blood from the foetus to the placenta while veins
transport deoxygenated blood from tissues to the heart except the pulmonary vein
which transports oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart and umbilical vein which
carries deoxygenated blood from the placenta to the foetus. Therefore arteries can be
defined as blood vessels which transport blood away from the heart and veins are
defined as blood vessels which transport blood from the tissues to the heart.
Adaptations of blood capillaries

 Blood capillaries are the smallest blood vessels found in close contact with tissues
in form of a dense network which allows a high rate of diffusion of materials during
their exchange between the blood circulatory system and the tissues.
 They are numerous in number to provide a large surface area which increases
the rate of diffusion and allows rapid exchange of materials between blood and the
tissue fluid.
 They have a thin and permeable membrane which is made up of thin flattened
pavement cells which allow rapid diffusion and exchange of materials between
blood and tissues with minimum resistance.
 They possess the capillary sphincter muscles which contract and relax so as to
regulate the amount of blood entering into the capillary network.
 Some capillaries have a bypass arterio-venous shunt vessel which links the
arterioles and venules directly so as to regulate the amount of blood which flows
through the capillary network e.g. in the capillaries of the feet, hands, stomach etc.
Note
The capillary network offers maximum resistance to blood flowing through them hence
decreasing the speed of blood flow which allows the maximum diffusion and exchange
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of materials between blood and the tissues.
THE MAMMALIAN HEART

The heart is situated between the two lungs and behind the sternum in the thorax.
Structure and function of the mammalian heart

It is surrounded by a tough sac, the pericardium, the outer part that consists of
inelastic white fibrous tissue. Pericardial fluid is secreted between the membranes of
the inner part and reduces the friction between the heart wall and surrounding tissues
when the heart is beating.
There are four chambers in the heart, two upper thin – walled atria/auricles. The atria
receive blood from the veins and pump it to the ventricles which in turn pump it in to
arteries. The walls of the atria ate thin because they only have to pump blood in to the
ventricles.
The right side of the heart is completely separated from the left by the septum. The
right side deals with deoxygenated blood and the right side with oxygenated blood. The
right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the general circulation of the body
whilst the left atrium receives oxygenated blood from the lungs.
The muscular wall of the left ventricle is three times as thick as that of the right
ventricle; this builds much higher blood pressure to the blood entering the aorta than
the blood entering the pulmonary artery.
As the atria contract to force blood in to the ventricles, the rings of muscle in the venae
cava and pulmonary veins at the entry in to the atria contract and close off the veins.
This prevents blood returning in to the veins.
The left atrium is separated from the left ventricle by a bicuspid/mitral valve (two –
flapped valve), while a tricuspid valve separates the right atrium from the right
ventricle. They are collectively known as the atrio – ventricular valves.
These valves are supported by strands of strong inelastic tissues called tenderone or
chordate tendinae which in turn are attached to conical shaped papillary muscles
which extend to the inner wall of the valves. The papillary muscles contract to prevent
the valve from being turned inside out by the high pressure generated when ventricles
contract.
Semilunar valves are found at the exit of pulmonary artery and aorta from the heart.
These prevent blood from getting back in to the ventricles.
Just beyond the aortic valve are the openings of the two coronary arteries. These blood
vessels only supply oxygenated blood to the walls of the heart.
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Mitral valve Semilunar valve

- (i) Also referred as bicuspidsinc it ( Valves consist of 3 flaps.
consists
valve of 2 e i
flaps. )
(ii) Guards the of left auriculo- ( Present at the base of pulmonary artery
openingventricular i and aorta and at regular intervals in
aperture. i veins.
)
(iii) Allows the blood to move from left ( In the heart they allow the blood to flow
to left ventricle.
atrium i from ventricles to great arteries and in
the veins allow the blood to flow towards
i the heart.
(iv) Valves are attached to chordae (i Valves are attached to the wall of the
which
tendinaeprevent them from being )i blood vessel. No chordae tendinae are
out.
everted present.
v
)
Diagram of the human heart
Structure of cardiac muscle

The walls of the heart are composed of cardiac muscle fibres, connective tissue and tiny
blood vessels.
Each muscle fibre possesses one or two nuclei and many large mitochondria. Each fibre
is made up of many myofibrils. These account for the striped appearance of the muscle
fibres. The dark bands known as intercalated discs are cell surface membranes
separating individual muscle fibres. The structure of the membranes is modified to allow
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ions to diffuse rapidly across them. This allows rapid spread of excitation (action
potentials) through the muscle.
When one cell becomes excited, the action potential spreads quickly to all the other
cells, so that the whole mass of fibres behaves as one unit. The fibres branch and cross
– connect with each other to form a complex net – like arrangement.
Cardiac muscle contract more slowly than skeletal and does not fatigue as easily as
skeletal muscles. No neurones are present in the wall of the heart, hence called
myogenic.
THE CARDIAC CYCLE

Rhythmic contraction and relaxation of the cardiac chambers i.e. the auricles and the ventricles in a
specific manner during one heart beat constitutes a cardiac cycle. The heart beats continuously
without pause in life. Auricles and ventricles show rhythmic contractions and relaxations. On
average heart, the beats 72 times per minute. Heart pumps about 5 litres of blood per minute.
The cardiac cycle involves repeated contractions called systole and relations called diastole of the heart
muscle.
It occurs as follows;
Atrial diastole
During the time when the atria and the ventricles are both relaxed (joint diastole), blood returning to the
heart under low pressure in to veins enters the two atria.
Oxygenated blood enters the left atrium and deoxygenated blood enters the right atrium. At first the bicuspid
and tricuspid valves are closed, but as the atria fill with blood, pressure in them rises. Eventually it becomes
greater than that in the relaxed ventricles and the valves are pushed open.
Atrial systole
When atrial diastole ends, the two atria contract simultaneously. This results in blood being pumped I to the
ventricles. Bicuspid and tricuspid valves open.
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Ventricular systole (VS)

Immediately almost after atria relax, ventricles contract. When this occurs, the pressure in the ventricles
rises and closes the atrio – ventricular valves, preventing blood from returning to the atria. The pressure
forces open the semi lunar valves of the aorta and pulmonary artery and blood enters these vessels. The
closing of the atrio – ventricular valves during ventricular systole produces the first heart sound, heard
as “lub”.
Ventricular diastole
Ventricular systole ends and is followed by ventricular diastole. The high pressure developed in the aorta
and the pulmonary artery closes the semi – lunar in these vessels to prevent back flow of blood in to the
ventricles. This produces the second heart sound “dub”. The two heart sounds are thus “lub” “dub”.
One complete heart beat consists of one systole and one diastole and lasts for about 0.8 seconds. The
new cardiac cycle begins with the atrial systole.
Graph illustrating the pressure and volume changes during the mammalian cardiac cycle
e
P – wave: atrial systole
Q, R and S – wave: ventricular systole
T – wave: ventricular diastole begins
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Note
Ventricular systole and the elastic recoil of the arteries as blood at high pressure is
forced through them cause a pulse. As blood gets further away from the heart, the
pulse becomes less pronounced until in the capillaries and veins, blood flows evenly.
Atrial systole ventricular systole
Contraction of atria and relaxation of contraction of ventricles and relaxation
ventricles of atria
Bicuspid and tricuspid valves open Bicuspid and tricuspid valve are closed
Closing of great vein roots and no sound is Closing of AV valves produces the first
produced. AV valves are open heat sound lub
Blood is poured into ventricles Blood is pumped out in great arteries
Lasts for about 0.15 seconds Lasts for about 0.25 seconds
MYOGENIC STIMULATION OF HEART RATE

In vertebrates, the heart beat originates in the heart itself, the cardiac muscle cells are
auto – rhythmic i.e. they contract and relax repeatedly without any signal from the
nervous system, hence myogenic.
The stimulus for contraction of the heart originates in a specific region of the right
atrium called the Sino – atria node (SAN) or pace maker, located near the opening of
the venae cava.
The cells of the SAN slowly become depolarized during atrial diastole, causing an action
potential in the cells. A wave of excitation passes across the muscle fibres of the heart
as the action potential spreads from the SAN. It causes the muscle fibres to contract.
Once contraction has begun, it spreads through the walls of the atria through the
network of cardiac muscle fibres at the rate of 1m/s. both atria contract more or less
simultaneously.
The atria muscle fibres are separated from those of the ventricles by a layer of
connective tissue called the atrio – ventricular septum, except for a region in the
right atrium called the atrio – ventricular node (AVN). The AVN is connected to a
bundle of specialised muscle fibres the AV bundle, the only route for the transmission of
the wave of excitation from the atria to the ventricles.
The AV bundle is connected to the bundle of His, a strand of cardiac fibres that gives
rise to the Purkinje fibres or Purkyne tissue. Impulses are conducted rapidly along the
bundle at 5m/s and spread out from there to all parts of the ventricle. Both ventricles
are stimulated to contract simultaneously.
The wave of ventricular contraction begins at the bottom of the heart and spreads
upwards, squeezing blood out of the ventricles towards the arteries.
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The electrical activity during the cardiac cycle can be detected using an
electrocardiogram (ECG) as shown above.
Ventral view of the heart showing the spread of electrical excitation that
follows contraction
REGULATION OF HEART RATE

The rate of heart beat is controlled by the activity of the SAN. However, adjustments in
the heart rate are achieved by the nervous and chemical control systems.
The amount of blood flowing from the heart over a given of time is known as the
cardiac output and depends up on the volume of blood pumped out of the heart at
each beat, the stroke volume, and the heart rate (number of beats per minute)
Cardiac output = stroke volume x heart rate
Nervous control of heart rate

The nervous control of the cardiovascular system (heart and blood vessels) is located in
the medulla oblongata part of the hind brain by both the sympathetic and
parasympathetic nervous systems.
The medulla has two regions affecting heart rate, the cardiac inhibitory centre
which reduces the heart rate and the cardiac acceleratory centre which stimulates
the heart rate. Two parasympathetic nerves called the Vagus nerves leave the
inhibitory centre leading to the SAN, AVN and the bundle of His of the heart.
Other nerves of the SAN from the cardiac acceleratory region enter the SAN, stimulation
of these nerves results in an increase in the heart rate.
Sensory nerve fibres from stretch receptors with in the walls of the aortic arch, the
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carotid sinuses and the vena cava run to the cardiac inhibitory centre in the medulla.
The impulses received from the aorta and carotids decrease the heart rate, while the
impulses from those of the vena cava stimulate the acceleratory centre, which increases
the heat rate.
Mammalian heart showing position of the SAN, AVN, bundle of His and
nervous connections to the brain
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As the volume of blood passing to any of these vessels increases so does the stretching
of the walls of these vessels. This stimulates the stretch receptors and increases the
number of nerve impulses transmitted to the centre in the medulla.
Under conditions of intense activity, body muscles contract strongly and this increase
the rate at which venous blood returns to the heart. The walls of the vena cava are
stretched by large quantities of blood and the heart rate is increased. At the same time
the increased blood flow to the heart places the cardiac muscle of the heart under
increased pressure. Cardiac muscle responds automatically to this pressure by
contracting more strongly during systole and pumping out an increased volume of
blood, i.e. stroke volume is increased.
The increased stroke volume stretches the aorta and carotids which in turn via stretch
reflexes signal the cardiac inhibitory centre to slow the heart rate.
Hormonal control of heart rate

A number of hormones affect heart rate either directly or indirectly. The following have
a direct effect adrenaline and thyroxine;
 Adrenaline: This is the most important hormone affecting heart rate. Adrenaline is
secreted by the medulla of the adrenal gland which also secretes noradrenaline.
Both stimulate the heart cardiac output and blood pressure is increased by
increasing the heart rate.

 Thyroxine: This is produced by the thyroid gland. It raises basal metabolic
activities with greater demand for oxygen and production of more heat. As a result,
vasodilation followed by increased blood flow occurs leading to increased cardiac
output. Heart rate is stimulated by thyroxine hormone.
Other hormones that affect heart rate include epinephrine, insulin and other sex
hormones.
Other factors controlling heart rate

 Size of organism: small organisms have high heart rate than large organisms due to
high metabolic rate.
 Age: young mammals have a higher rate of heart beat than old ones due to high
metabolic rate since young ones are actively growing.
 Health status: high heart rate in diseased organism is due to response to increased
level of temperature and carbon dioxide.
 Activity: increased muscular activities result in accumulation of carbon dioxide in the
body and this results in to a higher heart rate.
 Temperature: if the body temperature increases, the heart beat rate also increases
but low temperatures decelerate the heart rate.
 Presence of drugs such as epinephrine increases heart rate.
 Emotions e.g. embarrassment that causes anger.
 Mineral ions affect the heart rate directly or indirectly.
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A graph showing the effect of exercise on a marathon runner stroke volume

and heart rate at different levels of cardiac output
Explanation of the graph

Stroke volume increases about 50% whereas heart rate increases about 27%. Because
of the following way:
During exercise the muscles need an increased blood supply so that oxygen and
glucose can be provided for aerobic respiration and waste carbon dioxide and heat can
be removed. Cardiac output increases from 4 – 6 dm3/minute to 30 dm3/minute for an
athlete because there is an increased rate of contraction (heart rate) and a more
complete emptying of the ventricles (stroke volume). This rises pressure in the arteries.
Cardiac output also increases because during the early stages of exercise, the
sympathetic nervous system and adrenaline stimulate and increased heart rate.
However, during a period of prolonged exercise, the rate is maintained by further
nervous and hormonal factors. E.g. dilation of the veins in the muscles increases
venous return to the heart, which results in increased cardiac output; vasoconstriction
of arterioles occurs in tissues which are less in need of oxygen like the gut, liver,
kidneys and spleen; the effect of a rising carbon dioxide concentration. These result in
to vasoconstriction of skin blood vessels to occur in response to a build – up of heat.
The rising temperature of the blood is detected by the hypothalamus which sends
impulses to the medulla that leads to vasodilation of arterioles in the skin. Capillary
loops in the skin then open up, allowing loss of heat through the skin.
Other effects of exercise on cardiovascular system include

- The heart gets stronger.
- Increased cardiac output
- The chambers of the heart become larger
- The mass of muscles increases
- Increase in blood vessels in greater numbers and size of mitochondria in the muscle
fibres.
- Anaerobic endurance improves.
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MEASURING BLOOD PRESSURE

Blood pressure is the force developed by the blood pushing against the walls of the
blood vessels.
It is measured in the brachial artery in the arm using a sphygmomanometer. Systolic
pressure (16KPa/120mmHg) is produced by the contraction of the ventricles and the
diastolic pressure (10KPa/80mmHg) is pressure in the arteries when the ventricles
relax, expressed as 120 over 80.
Blood pressure is affected by age, sex and health status.

Increase in blood pressure (hypertension) is caused by atherosclerosis (narrowing and
hardening of arteries) or damage of the kidneys. This leads to weakening of artery walls
and their rupture or blood clots in narrowed vessels (thrombosis). These may result in
to cerebral haemorrhage (stroke), cerebral thrombosis or coronary thrombosis.
REGULATION OF BLOOD PRESSURE

Blood regulation depends on several factors such as heart rate, stroke volume,
resistance to blood flow by the blood vessels (peripheral resistance) and strength of
heart beat.
1. Heart rate and stroke volume, affect as discussed earlier.
2. Peripheral resistance
This is altered by contraction (vasoconstriction) or relaxation (vasodilation) of the
smooth muscle in the blood vessel walls, the arterioles. Peripheral resistance is
increased by vasoconstriction but decreased by vasodilation.
Increased resistance leads to a rise in blood pressure whereas a decrease in resistance

produces a fall in blood pressure. All these activities are controlled by a vasomotor
centre in the medulla oblongata. Nerve fibres from the vasomotor centre run to all
arterioles in the body, whose diameter changes arise by the activity of constrictor
muscles.
Vasomotor centre activity is regulated by impulses coming from pressure receptors

(baroreceptors) located in the walls of the aorta and carotid sinuses in the carotid
arteries.
Stimulation of parasympathetic nerves in these areas, caused by increased cardiac

output produces vasodilation throughout the body and hence reduction in blood
pressure as well as a slowing of the heart rate.
When blood pressure is low, a fall in blood pressure increases nerve impulse
transmission along sympathetic nerves. This causes body wide vasoconstriction and a
rise in blood pressure.
Chemical control of the vasomotor centre

Blood arriving at the carotid bodies carrying a high concentration of carbon dioxide
stimulates chemoreceptors in these regions to transmit impulses to the vasomotor
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centre. Nerve fibres from chemoreceptors link with fibres from the carotid sinus by
synapse before passing to the vasomotor centre.
When the vasomotor centre is stimulated in this way, it sends impulses to the blood
vessels to vasoconstrict and thus raises blood pressure. As increased carbon dioxide
concentration in the body is caused by increased activity by body tissues, the blood
containing the carbon dioxide is transported more rapidly to the lungs and removed
from blood more quickly.
Carbon dioxide can also directly affect the behaviors of smooth muscle of the blood
vessel itself. When a tissue becomes very active, producing much carbon dioxide, the
carbon dioxide acts directly on the blood vessels in the area and stimulate them to
dilate. This increases their own blood supply thus allowing more oxygen and glucose to
reach the active cells.
Other stimuli such as emotional stress e.g. excitement, pain and annoyance increases
sympathetic activity and therefore blood pressure.
Also when the adrenal medulla produces adrenaline by impulses from high nervous
centres, this again increases the rate of heart beat and therefore raises blood pressure.
Qns
Suggest the advantage of increased blood pressure in a wounded animal and swelling
around the wound due to local vasodilation.
Answer
Local vasodilation in the wounded area enables more blood carrying oxygen
and nutrients to arrive there and speed up the process of repair and
replacement. Increased body blood pressure prepares the body of the animal
to respond to any further stress more readily and efficiently.
Outline the main events that occur to the heart rate and circulatory system just before,
during and after a race.
Answer
Before the race
Adrenaline is secreted in anticipation of the race. This stimulates
vasoconstriction throughout the body in all but the most vital organs. Hence
blood pressure is raised. Heart rate is also increased. Extra blood is also
passed to the general circulation fro m the spleen.
During the race

Increased metabolic activities take place during the race, especially in the
skeletal muscles. Increased carbon dioxide levels in these regions promote
local vasodilation. The increased body temperature further enhances
vasodilation.
However, the general increase in carbon dioxide level in blood is noted by the
chemoreceptors of the aorta and carotid bodies which in turn stimulates the
vasomotor centre to promote vasoconstriction. This increases blood pressure
and therefore speeds up blood flow. Heart rate is also increased and a more
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complete emptying of the ventricles occurs.

Towards the end of the race the muscles will be respiring anaerobically and
producing lactic acid. Strong contractions of the muscles squeeze the veins
and promote faster venous return to the heart.
Recovery
The oxygen debt is paid off and lactic acid removed from the blood system.
Tissues subside in activity and the carbon dioxide levels decrease.
Consequently there is a return to normal of heartbeat and blood pressure.
2. Tachycardia and bradycardia

Tachycardia is a general term describing an increased heart rate. It is caused by
emotional states such as anxiety, anger and laughter; over activity of the thyroid gland
and electrical activity of the heart besides SAN.
Bradycardia is a condition where the heart rate is reduced below the mean level. It is
caused by long term training, under activity of the thyroid gland and electrical activity
of the SAN.
Both these conditions are counteracted temporarily by the regulatory effects of the
sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems on the SAN.
The figure below shows the interrelationship of cross – sectional area of

blood vessels, blood flow velocity and blood vessels with the blood vessels
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1. Cross – sectional area
The cross – sectional area increases in arterioles because they are relatively many in
number and possess very narrow lumens. The cross – sectional area is highest at the
capillaries because they are very numerous in the body. It then decreases in venules
because there is an overall increase in lumen diameter and reduction in number when
forming a single vein.
2. Blood flow velocity

Blood slows as it moves from arteries to arterioles to capillaries because the number of
capillaries is enormous. Each artery conveys blood to so many capillaries that the total
cross – sectional area is much greater in capillary beds than in the arteries or any other
part of the circulatory system. This results in a dramatic decrease in velocity from the
arteries to the capillaries.
The reduced blood flow velocity in capillaries is advantageous in the circulatory system
because it permits enough time for the exchange of substances between the blood and
interstitial fluid.
After passing through the capillaries, blood speeds up as it enters the venules and veins
because they have smaller total cross – sectional areas.
3. Blood pressure
Blood flows from areas of higher pressure to areas of lower pressure. Contraction of
heart ventricles generates blood pressure which exerts a force in all directions. The
pressure directed in the artery causes blood to flow away from the heart (aorta), the
site of highest pressure.
The force exerted against the elastic wall of an artery stretches the wall and the recoil
of the arterial walls maintain this pressure and hence blood flow throughout the cardiac
cycle.
Once the blood enters the millions of tiny arterioles and capillaries, the narrow diameter
of these vessels generates substantial resistance to blood flow. This resistance
dissipates much pressure generated by the pumping heart by the time blood enters the
veins.
Blood moves very slowly at lowest pressure in the veins and may be thought to flow
back. However, back flow of blood in the veins is counteracted by valves which
maintain a unidirectional flow of blood to the heart.
Effect of gravity on blood pressure

Gravity has a significant effect on blood pressure e.g. when standing upright. At this
state, the head is higher than the chest, so by gravity this reduces the arterial blood
pressure to the brain which causes adequate blood flow. This problem is solved by
fainting on the ground. Fainting places the head at the level of the heart which quickly
increases blood flow to the brain and a person regains consciousness.
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Another challenge of gravity is blood flow in veins especially those in the legs, this
tends to pull back blood downwards hence reducing blood pressure. However, this is
solved by the following mechanisms which assist to return venous blood to the heart.
 Rhythmic contraction of smooth muscles in the walls of venules and veins aid in the
movement of blood.
 The contraction of skeletal muscles during exercise squeezes blood through the
veins towards the heart.
 The change in pressure within the thoracic cavity during inhalation causes the vena
cava and other large veins near the heart to expand and fill with blood.
 The relatively low pressure in the atria during atrial diastole also enables blood from
veins in to the heart.
FUNCTION OF BLOOD
 Transport of soluble organic compounds (digested food) from the small intestine to
various parts of the body where they are stored or assimilated (use), and transport
from storage areas to place where they are used, such as transport of glucose from
the liver to the muscles when glycogen is converted to glucose.
 Transport of soluble excretory materials to organs of excretion. Urea is made in the
liver and transported to the kidneys for excretion, and carbon dioxide is made by
cells and taken to the lung to be excreted.
 Transport of hormones from the glands where they are produced to target organs,
for example insulin from the pancreas to the liver. This allows the communication
with in the body.
 Distribution of excess heat from deeply seated organs. This helps to maintain a
constant body temperature.
 Transport of oxygen from the lungs to all parts of the body, and transport of carbon
dioxide produced by the tissues in the reverse direction. This involves red blood
cells.
 Defence against diseases. This is achieved in three ways:
Clotting of blood, by platelets and fibrinogen which prevent excessive blood loss
and entry of pathogens.
Phagocytosis, performed by monocytes and macrophages, which engulf and digest
bacteria which find their way in to the blood stream and body tissues.
Immunity, achieved by antibodies and lymphocytes.
 Maintenance of a constant blood solute potential and pH as a result of plasma
protein activity. As plasma proteins and haemoglobin possess both acid and basic
amino acids, they can combine with or release hydrogen and so minimize pH
changes over a wide range of pH values. In other words, they act as buffers.
OXYGEN TRANSPORT
Oxygen is transported by a protein haemoglobin which is found in red blood
cells/erythrocytes.
A haemoglobin molecule has a quaternary structure with four polypeptide chains (2
alpha and 2 beta). Each polypeptide chain has a globin polypeptide chain that is linked
to a haem prosthetic group at the centre of the chain. Haem contains an iron atom in
the ferrous form (Fe2+) and this is responsible for the red colour of blood. Each haem
group combines with one molecule (2 atoms) of oxygen.
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Hb + 4O2 High oxygen concentration HbO8

Deoxyhaemoglobin Oxyhaemoglobin
Molecule Low oxygen concentration
When one haem molecule combines with an oxygen molecule, a conformational change
occurs that exposes the next haem group to bind with another oxygen molecule. Thus
oxygen easily binds to a haemoglobin molecule that already possesses oxygen.
Combination of oxygen with haemoglobin to form oxyhaemoglobin occurs in condition
when the concentration of oxygen is high e.g. in the lung alveolar capillaries.
When the concentration of oxygen is low as in the capillaries of active tissues, the
bonds holding oxygen to haemoglobin become unstable and oxygen is released. This
diffuses in solution in to the surrounding cells.
Release of oxygen from haemoglobin is called dissociation.
OXYGEN DISSOCIATION CURVES

The greater the concentration or partial pressure of oxygen, the more saturated
haemoglobin becomes with oxygen. The degree to which the haemoglobin is saturated
at different partial pressures can be measured, this relationship produces an S – shaped
or sigmoid curve. This curve is called oxygen – dissociation curve as shown below.
The graph is read by starting with an oxygen concentration in the environment

surrounding the blood capillaries on horizontal axis, then reading off the state of
haemoglobin in the blood that results from the vertical axis.
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The graph shows several features useful in the transport of oxygen in the blood.
 In the alveoli of lungs, oxygen enters during inhalation thus its concentration is high
at 14KPa. As blood passes through the capillaries surrounding the alveoli,
haemoglobin binds oxygen to almost 100% saturation. Although alveolar oxygen
falls a little, haemoglobin remains saturated because the curve is flat here.
 In tissues like muscles, liver or brain, oxygen is used in respiration so is low at about
4KPa. At this pO2, haemoglobin is only 50% saturated, so it unloads about half of its
oxygen to the cells for respiration.
 In tissues that are respiring quickly such as contracting muscle cells, the pO 2 drops
to about 2%, so haemoglobin saturation drops to about 10%, so almost 90% of the
oxygen is unloaded, providing more oxygen for the muscle cells.
THE BOHR EFFECT

This is the shifting of oxygen dissociation curve to the right due to increased partial
pressure of carbon dioxide in tissues.
This shift is a physiological advantage because the increased carbon dioxide is to cause
oxygen to be released from haemoglobin molecule.
Oxygen dissociation curves of haemoglobin at different partial pressures of

carbon dioxide shiwung the Bohr effect

Carbon dioxide is a product of respiration. The faster respiration is occurring, the faster
it is produced. High levels of respiration are therefore associated with high partial
pressures of carbon dioxide.
These are the conditions when oxygen is most needed, so it is an advantage that the
carbon dioxide makes haemoglobin release oxygen.
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Carbon dioxide has this effect because it dissolves to form a weak carbonic acid which
dissociates to releases hydrogen ions. The ions combine with haemoglobin forming
haemoglobin acid (HHb) and make it less able to carry oxygen.
This is also shown on the graph above by the dotted line which is lower than the
normal dissociation curve.
Oxygen dissociation curves of fetal and maternal blood

The oxygen dissociation curve of the fetus is to the left of that of its mother.
Because the foetal blood has a greater affinity for oxygen than the maternal blood since
it has to obtain all of its oxygen from its mother’s blood at the placenta. So at any given
partial pressure of oxygen the foetal blood will always be more saturated with oxygen
than the maternal blood.
Oxygen dissociation curve of a llama (small mammal) and human (large

mammal)
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The oxygen dissociation curve for small mammals is displaced to the right of that of
humans.
Because small mammals possess a much higher metabolic rate than humans due to the
need to restore much energy losses as a result of large surface area to volume ratio,
therefore it is appropriate that oxygen should be released much more readily.
Oxygen dissociation curve showing the effect of temperature
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Explanation
Increased metabolic activity increases the temperature in part of the body. This
produces a reduction in the oxygen of haemoglobin and an increased dissociation of
oxygen. Thus the dissociation curve is shifted to the right. This is physiologically
advantageous as more oxygen is delivered to the active regions.
Oxygen dissociation curve showing the effect of altitude
Explanation
The oxygen dissociation curve of mammals at higher altitudes is on the left of most
mammals at lower altitudes.
Because the blood has to have a high affinity for oxygen so as to combine with it at the
low oxygen tensions experienced at high altitude. This is a physiological advantage.
MYOGLOBIN
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This is a red pigment very similar in structure to one of the polypeptide chains of
haemoglobin.
It is found in skeletal muscles and it is why meat appears red.
It shows a greater affinity for oxygen and it oxygen dissociation curve is displaced to
the left of haemoglobin.
It retains its oxygen in the resting cells but gives it up when the muscles is in a vigorous
activity and when the supplies of oxyhaemoglobin are exhausted.
Note
The affinity for Iron II in haemoglobin for carbon monoxide is greater than as it is for
oxygen. Therefore haemoglobin combines with any carbon monoxide available in
preference of oxygen. To form a relatively stable compound called
carboxyhaemoglobin.
This prevents oxygen from combining with haemoglobin and thus oxygen transport
around the body is impossible, the person quickly collapses.
Recovery is when removed from the gas.
Other respiratory pigments

 There are other respiratory pigments mostly found in the lower animals which
include haemocyanin which consists of copper and mostly found in some snails
and crustaceans
 Other pigments include haemocrythrin which contains iron and is also found in
some in annelids
 Chlorocruorin which also contains iron is also found in some annelids.
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TRANSPORT OF CARBON DIOXIDE

Carbon dioxide is readily soluble in water and is carried both by plasma and red blood
cells. As an active cell gives out CO2, it enters the blood where only about 5-8% forms
the solution in the blood plasma and the rest 92-95% enters the red blood cells where
it is transported by two means. In all carbon dioxide is carried by three different means.
By plasma in solution form (5-8%). Carbon dioxide combines with water to

form carbonic acid H2CO3. It is a very slow process and hence a very small amount
is carried this way.
CO2 + H2O H2CO3
By the R.B.C as compounds with proteins of haemoglobin (l5 %.). Some

carbon dioxide that enters the R. B. C forms a reversible compound with amino (-
NH2) group of the globin (protein) part of reduced haemoglobin. The reaction is
similar to that with oxygen but is not with the haem part but is with the protein part
of the haemoglobin. The compound formed is called as carbamino-haemoglobin.
HHbNH2 + CO2 Hb NHCOOH + H+
Reduced haemoglobin Carbamino haemoglobin
As sodium bicarbonate (80%). As carbon dioxide diffuses into the blood plasma,
only a part combines with water to form carbonic acid because it is a very slow
reaction.
A large part enters the R.B.C where a zinc enzyme carbonic anhydrase speeds up
the formation of carbonic acid tremendously.
The carbonic acid thus formed dissociates into bicarbonate HC03- and hydrogen ions
H+. The hydrogen ions are buffered by the hemoglobin itself to form HHb as shown
in figure below.
The bicarbonate ions diffuse out into the plasma where they combine with sodium
ions to form sodium bicarbonate. At the same time the loss of bicarbonate ions is
balanced by chloride ions diffusing into the R. B.C. from the plasma. This is called
chloride shift.
Sodium bicarbonate in plasma forms an important buffering system and helps to

neutralize any acids or bases formed.
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Release of gases at the tissue and at the lung level

At the tissue level, oxygen is released from oxyhaemoglobin and carbon dioxide is
picked by plasma and red blood cells. At the lung level, carbon dioxide is released from
its three states so as to expire it out from blood to the alveoli and oxygen is picked up
by haemoglobin.
HbO2 Hb + O2
The dissociation of oxyhaemoglobin depends on PO2 and PCO2 of the cell.

Oxyhaemoglobin gives off its oxygen more readily in the presence of increased carbon
dioxide or PCO2. Increased CO2 actually increases acidity and lower the pH value by the
formation of carbonic acid. All these factors favour the release of oxygen from haemoglobin.
Release of CO2 from all its three states at the lungs

All the processes described above in transport of carbon dioxide are reversible. At the
lung alveolus the situation is just reverse of what it is at tissue level. At the alveoli. the
blood capillaries are subjected to high oxygen and low carbon dioxide concentration. As
a result there is a speedy reversal of chemical events releasing carbon dioxide and
picking up oxygen simultaneously.
Carbonic anhydrase also rapidly converts carbonic acid back to carbon dioxide and
water when blood reaches the lungs.
BLOOD CLOTTING
This is the coagulation of blood from a wounded tissue. The coagulant is a blood clot.
Thus prevents further blood loss and entry of pathogenic microorganisms.
Blood escaping from the skin wound is exposed to air and mixes with substances oozing
from the damaged cells and ruptured platelets e.g. thromboplastin (a lipoprotein from
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injured tissues), clotting factor VIII and X (enzymes found in plasma) and calcium ions.
These substances together with vitamin K catalyze the conversion of prothrombin (a
protein in plasma) to thrombin (an active enzyme).
Thrombin hydrolyses fibrinogen (another soluble plasma protein) to fibrin (an insoluble
and fibrous protein).
Fibrin then forms a mesh network around the wound that entangles blood cells and a
blood clot is formed. This dries to form scab which acts to prevent further blood loss
and mechanical barrier to entry of pathogens.
PHAGOCYTOSIS
This is the engulfing of invading microorganisms and the clearing up of dead cells and
debris such as dust in the lungs.
The white blood cells that carry out this process are called phagocytes.
Phagocytes show amoeboid movement to areas of damaged tissues through chemotaxis
by chemicals produced by damaged blood cells, tissues, blood clotting products and
bacteria.
They are able to recognize invading bacteria, being enhanced by proteins called
complement, activated by bacterial infection.
The complements have the following effects:
- Some attract phagocytes by chemotaxis.
- Some are involved in opsonization.
- Some punch holes in the cell membrane of bacteria causing the cells to swell and
burst.
- Some promote inflammation.
OPSONIZATION
This is the coating of bacteria with proteins called opsonins which are complement
proteins or an antibody.
During the process, the complement and antibodies called opsonins coat on the cell
membrane of bacterium forming complement – coated bacterium.
Once coated, the bacterium is then recognized by phagocytes (neutrophils and
monocytes) with a matching receptor that recognized the complement, and engulfed.
A phagocytic vacuole is formed, small lysosomes fuse with the phagocytic vacuole
forming phagolysosome.
Lysozyme and other hydrolytic enzymes together with acid are poured in to the
phagocytic vacuole from the lysosome and bacterium is digested.
The soluble products of bacterial digestion are absorbed in to the surrounding
cytoplasm of the phagocytic.
INFLAMMATION
This is the process of swelling and paining of the tissues surrounding a wounded or
infected area of the body.
This is due to the escape of chemicals like histamine from the damaged tissues.
These cause vasodilation of capillaries, increasing the amount of blood in the area and
raise in temperature locally.
Leakiness of the capillaries also increases allowing escape of plasma and white blood
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cells in to the surrounding tissues hence the swelling of the area, a condition called
oedema.
The plasma contains chemicals interferons produced by macrophages which inhibit
growth of bacteria, viruses or kill them, antibodies and phagocytes. Phagocytes also
engulf dead cell debris. Fibrinogen is also present to assist blood clotting.
WOUND HEALING
Towards the end of inflammatory phase, cells called fibroblasts appear and secrete
collagen (fibrous protein) that links to polysaccharide to form a mesh work of fibrous
scar tissue under the influence of ascorbic acid.
After about 14 days, the fibres are reorganized in to bundles around the wound.
Numerous small blood vessels begin to spread through the wound to provide oxygen
and nutrients for the cells involved in repairing and hearing the wound.
At the same time, some epidermal cells migrate in to the wound and ingest the debris
and fibrin of the blood clot. When the epidermal cells meet, they unite to form a
continuous layer under the scar.
After this, scab sloughs off thus exposing the epidermis to the atmosphere.
BLOOD GROUPS AND BLOOD TRANSFUSION

This is the transfer of compatible blood from the donor to the recipient.
Blood transfusion based on the ABO system of grouping blood

Blood group A has antigen A on the surface of its red blood cells and antibody
b in the blood plasma of that person. Blood group B has antigen B on the
surface of its red blood cells and antibody a in the blood plasma of that
person. Blood group AB has antigen B and A on the surface of its red blood
cells and no antibody in the blood plasma of that person. Blood group O has
no antigen on the surface of its red blood cells and both antibody b and a in
the blood plasma of that person.
Blood Antigen on the red blood cell Antibody on
group membrane plasma
A A b
B B a
AB A and B Lacks antibodies
O No antigens a and b
Blood plasma permanently contains antibodies depending on a particular blood
group. However these antibodies do not correspond to a specific antigen, if
they correspond then agglutination occurs (precipitation of blood).
That is why an individual with blood A having antigen A cannot donate blood
to an individual with blood group B having antibody a in the plasma which
corresponds to antigen A to cause agglutination.
Similarly, blood groups A and B cannot donate blood to an individual of blood

group O because antigen A will be attacked by antibody a in blood group O
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and antigen B will be attacked by antibody b in blood group O to precipitate

the recipient’s blood. The table below summarizes the possible blood
transfusions and the impossible ones.
Blood group compatibilities

Recipient Donor’s blood
group
Blood group Antibody in A B AB O
plasma
A B X X
B A X X
AB None
O a and b X X X
compatible with recipients blood
x – Agglutination
Individuals with blood group AB possess antigen B which stimulates blood group B of
the recipient to produce antibody a that reacts with antigen A in the donor’s blood to
cause agglutination and therefore this transfusion from AB to B is impossible. Similarly
blood group O individuals can donate blood to blood group A because the donor’s blood
has no antigens which would react with antigen A in the recipient’s blood and therefore
agglutination is impossible.
Individuals with blood group O are called universal donors because they lack
antigens which would react with the corresponding antibodies in the recipient’s blood.
Individuals with blood group AB are called universal recipients because they lack
antibodies in their blood plasma which would have reacted with the corresponding
antigens in the donor’s blood.
NOTE; the recipient’s antibody is the one expected to attack and react with the
corresponding antigen in the donor’s blood. Whenever the antigen of the donor
corresponds with the antibody of the recipient’s blood group, an antibody-antigen
reaction occurs, leading to agglutination (precipitation or clotting of blood)
RHESUS FACTOR (D-Antigens)

These are antigens which were first observed in the bodies of the Rhesus monkeys.
These antigens are also carried on the surface of the erythrocytes of some human
beings. Those people with D-antigens on the surface of their red blood cells are called
Rhesus positive (Rh+) while individuals missing such D-antigens are called Rhesus
negative (Rh-).
The bodies of individuals do not have already manufactured antibodies against the D-
antigens. When an expectant mother who is Rh- bears the foetus with which is Rh+,
some foetal erythrocytes with D-antigens will cross the placenta and enter into the
blood circulation of the Rh- mother towards the end of the gestation period
(pregnancy). It is also possible for the blood of the foetus to mix with that of the
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mother during birth so that the mother gets Rh+ by getting the D-antigens from the
child.
The D-antigens that have entered the mother’s blood circulation stimulate the maternal
body to manufacture corresponding antibodies (antibody-d or anti-D antibodies) which
attack and react with the D-antigens in the mother. Some formed antibodies-d can also
pass via the placenta and enter the foetal blood circulation where they attack and react
with the D antigens which results into clumping together and bursting of the foetal red
blood cells, a condition called erythroblastosis foetalis (Haemolytic disease of the
new born). This disease results into acute anaemia which can lead to death of the
feotus.
The first born rarely dies because the time is too short for the mother to produce
enough antibodies that can pass to the foetus to cause death but subsequent Rh+
foetus can die due to the many antibodies of the mother entering its circulation to
cause agglutination.
To prevent this disease, pregnant mothers are always given anti-D chemicals 72hours
to delivery, to render her immune system insensitive towards the D-antigen i.e. the
mother may be infected with antibody-d within 70-72hours to delivery or within 72
hours after her first born. Also the blood of the foetus can be transfused with normal
blood to dilute antibody-D so as to save the child.
NOTE:
If a rhesus negative mother of blood group O is carrying a rhesus positive child of any
blood group other than O, the problem will not arise. This is because if fetal cells enter
the mother’s circulation, the mother’s a and b antibodies will destroy the blood cells
before the mother has time to manufacture anti-rhesus antibodies.
THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

It consists of widely distributed lymph capillaries which are found in all tissues of the
body. These capillaries merge to form lymph vessels which possess as veins. The fluid
in these vessels called lymph is carried in one direction, away from tissues.
The lymph vessels from the right hand of the head and thorax and the right arm
combine to form the right lymphatic duct which drains in to the right subclavian vein
near the heart.
The lymph vessels from the rest of the body form the thoracic duct which drains in to
the left subclavian vein.
Along the lymph vessels are series of lymph nodes. These contain a population of
phagocytic cells e.g. lymphocytes which remove bacteria and other foreign materials
from the lymph.
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THE HUMAN LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
TISSUE FLUID AND ITS FORMATION

As blood passes from arterioles in to the narrow capillaries, a hydrostatic pressure is
created which helps fluid escape through the capillary walls. This fluid is called tissue
or intercellular fluid and it bathes all cells of the body.
Tissue fluid contains glucose, amino acids, fatty acids, salts and oxygen which it
supplies to the tissues; from the tissues it obtains carbon dioxide and other excretory
materials. Thus it is a means by which materials are exchanged between blood and
tissues.
The majority of this tissue fluid passes back in to the venules by osmosis. The plasma
proteins which did not leave blood exert an osmotic pressure which draws much of the
tissue fluid back in to blood.
The fluid which does not return by this means, passes in to the open – ended lymph
capillaries, from which point it becomes known as lymph.
The movement of lymph in the lymphatic system is achieved through three ways below;
 Hydrostatic pressure; the pressure of tissue fluid leaving the arterioles helps push
the lymph along the lymph system.
 Muscle contraction; the contraction of skeletal muscles compresses the lymph
vessels, exerting a pressure on the lymph within them. The valves in the vessels
ensure that this pressure pushes the lymph in the direction to the heart.
 Inspiratory movements; on breathing in, pressure in the thorax is decreased. This
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helps to draw lymph towards the vessels in the thorax.
FUNCTIONS OF LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

The lymphatic system is a linear network of lymphatic vessels and secondary lymphoid
organs. It is the site of many immune system functions as well as ite own functions.
 It is responsible for the removal of interstitial fluid from tissues in to lymph fluid,
which is filtered and brought back in to the blood stream through the subclavian
veins near the heart.
 Edema accumulates in tissues during inflammation or when lymph drainage is
impaired.
 It absorbs and transports fatty acids and fats as chylomicrons from the digestive
system.
 It transports white blood cells and dendritic cells to lymph nodes where adaptive
immune responses are often triggered.
 Tumors can spread through lymphatic transport.
THE IMMUNE SYSTEM

The study of the immune system is called immunology.
Immunity is the capacity to recognize the intrusion of materials foreign to the body and
to mobilize cells and cell products to help remove that foreign material immediately it
enters the body or before it enters the body.
The immune response is the production of antibodies in response to antigens. Each
antigen is recognized by a specific antibody. This is the second line of defense after
phagocytes.
ANTIBODIES, ANTIGENS, B – CELLS AND T – CELLS

Antibody/immunoglobulin protein
This is a molecule that is synthesized by an animal in response to the presence of
foreign substances called antigens.
Its structure consists of four polypeptide chains; two heavy chains (H – chains) and
two light chains (L – chains). It has a constant and variable part; the variable part
acts like a key which specifically fits in to a lock that can build different models (shuffle)
to recognize all kinds of foreign substances.
Antigens are bound between the light and heavy chains of the variable regions.
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Antigen/agglutinins
This is a molecule which stimulates an immune response or antibody formation.
Usually proteins, polysaccharides, nucleic acids, lipids can also act as antigens and other
inorganic molecules important for self – recognition.
Self – antigens; are found only on cell surface membranes of cells which act as
markers, enabling cells to recognize each other. These do not trigger immune response.
Non self – antigens; are found on foreign cells entering the body e.g. bacteria, viruses
and another person’s cell. These can cause immune response or antibody formation.
TYPES OF IMMUNE RESPONSE

The immune system defends the body in the following ways; non – specific way and
the specific way.
1. The non – specific immune response
This works by attacking anything foreign. It involves the first and second line of
defense.
a) First line of defense: this is a barrier that helps to prevent pathogens from
entering the body. The body has several different types of such barriers as
shown below.
 Tears – wash and kill germs away from eyes.
 Skin – germs can only enter the skin when cut, burnt/scrapped.
 Mucous membranes – in the nose, mouth and throat secrete a fluid called mucus
that traps germs.
 Saliva – washes germs from teeth and keeps mouth clean.
 Gastric juice – destroys germs that enter through food or drink.
b) Second line of defense: when microbes get in to the body from the first line of
defense, they encounter the second line of defense. This limits the spreads of
invaders in advance of specific immune response. There are three types
 Inflammatory responses
 Phagocytes
 Interferons
2. The specific immune response

This involves lymphocytes that undergo maturing before birth, producing different types
of lymphocytes, the T – cells and B – cells.
a) B – lymphocytes (humoral response)
These cells are produced in the bone marrows/bursa in birds though mature in
the thymus gland.
B – cells release antibodies in to blood plasma, and tissue fluid.
It is called humoral because antibodies are released in to fluids and the attack on
the microorganisms takes place in the fluid.
The antibodies of B – cells attack bacterial and some viruses. They recognize
antigen directly.
b) T – lymphocytes (cell – mediated response)

These cells are produced and mature in the thymus gland.
The response is called cell – mediated because the whole cell is involved in the
attack.
T – cells attack the following
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o Cells that have become infected by microorganisms, mostly virus.

o Transplanted organs and tissues.
o Cancer causing cells.
They do not release antibodies.
T – cells bind to antigens carrying cells and destroy them and/or activate the
humoral response.
They also recognize foreign antigens displayed on the surface of normal body
cells.
T – cells also promote inflammation.
Stimulate B – cells to make antibodies.
c) Primary response
This produces memory cells that remain in the circulation.
d) Secondary response
Here, new invasion by same antigen at a lower state causes immediate
recognition and destruction by memory cells faster and larger response usually
prevents harm.
T – CELLS AND THE CELL – MEDIATED RESPONSE

T – cells mature from thymocytes which are developed cells of the bone marrows that
have passed through the thymus gland. T – cells leave the thymus gland in the blood
stream, some stay in blood and some migrate to the tissue fluid, lymph nodes and the
spleen.
The cell membranes of T – cells have specific receptors with particular shapes that bind
only to fragments of antigens (but not whole antigen molecules) or other foreign
molecules presented to them by cells called macrophages.
Mature T – cells possess a T4 molecule (T4 cells) or a T8 molecule (T8 cells).
T4 cells or helper cells are the main cells infected by the HIV virus which causes AIDS.
There are two types of T8 cells: the suppressor cells and killer cells/cytotoxic
cells. Each type of T – cells produces a different type of lymphokines or cytokines
or interleukins which are small peptide molecules.
When the macrophage captures an antigen – carrying organism it “chops off” a piece of
the antigen and presents it at its cell surface where it is recognized as a foreign peptide
by a T4 cell with a matching receptor. The T4 cell then produces large amount of
lymphokines, that:
- Stimulate T – cells to multiply or form a clone.
- Promote inflammation.
- Stimulate B – cells to make antibodies.
Killer cells kill body cells which have become infected by viruses and cancer cells
through a chemical attack or by punching holes in the cells. They also secrete chemicals
which attract and stimulate phagocytes.
Helper cells stimulate the activity of the cytotoxic and B – cells by releasing interleukins.
Suppressor cells switch off the T – cells and B – cells responses when infection clears.
Memory T – cells remain in the circulation and can respond quickly when same
pathogen enter body again.
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B – CELLS AND THE HUMORAL RESPONSE

Each B – cell recognizes a particular antigen and produces antibodies that bind to it.
The cell surface membrane of B – cells contains antigen receptors whose specific shape
is identical to the antibodies that that cell can make, thus each cell only recognizes one
antigen.
When the B – cell binds to an antigen, the cell is activated to clone under the influence
of interleukins secreted by helper T – cells as well as antigen.
Two types of B – cells are formed i.e. memory cells and effector/plasma cells.
Effector cells secrete antibody molecules in to the blood, tissue fluid and lymph.
Memory cells enable a rapid response to be made to any future infection.
THE IMMUNE SYSTEM HAS A MEMORY

The memory cells are important if a second infection of antigen occurs.
The population of memory cells is much larger than the original population of B – cells
from which they came. Therefore, the response to the second infection called the
secondary response is much more rapid and is also greater than the primary response
to the original infection.
A graph showing the primary and secondary response or the specificity of

immunological memory

The primary response against a first infection of a certain antigen, say A. because
antibodies are immediately against antigen A by the immune system, though it may not
be rapid enough to prevent a person suffering from an infection hence it decreases with
time.
During the second exposure to antigen A and B, a secondary immune response to

antigen A increases more rapidly to the primary immune response to antigen B.
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because the long – lived memory cells generated in the primary response to the same
antigen but does not affect the primary response of a different antigen B.
TYPES OF IMMUNITY
There are two types of immunity i.e. innate/inborn immunity and acquired immunity.
1. INNATE IMMUNITY
This is the type of immunity an individual is born with. In involves the physical barriers
such as skin, mucus membranes, etc. which prevent penetration of pathogens.
2. ACQUIRED IMMUNITY
This is the resistance developed by the body during its life time towards diseases.
Acquired immunity can be obtained naturally or artificially.
a) Natural acquired immunity
This involves developing antibodies in the body of an organism. It can be either
passive or active.
(i) Natural active immunity: this is the kind of immunity which is obtained as
a result of an infection. The body manufactures its own antibodies when
exposed to an infectious agent. This is made possible by the memory cells
produced on exposure to the first infection which stimulate the production
of massive quantities of antibody when exposed to the same antigen
agent.
This type of immunity is the most effective and persists for long time
sometimes even for life.
(ii) Natural passive immunity: this is where already formed antibodies from
one individual are passed to another of the same species. E.g. antibodies
from the mother can cross the placenta and enter the foetus thus
providing protection for the baby; from colostrum, the first secretion of
the mammary glands to the foetus during breast feeding, the baby
absorbs the antibodies through its gut.
b) Artificial acquired immunity

This involves injecting in to the body either antibodies extracted from other
sources or small amounts of wild forms of antigens (vaccine) to stimulate the
production of antibodies. Providing immunity artificially is called immunization.
It can also be passive or active.
(i) Artificial active immunity: this is achieved by injecting or administering
orally small amounts of antigen called the vaccine in to the body of an
individual. The antigen stimulates the body to manufacture antibodies
against the antigen. Often a second, booster injection is given and this
stimulates a much greater production of antibody which is longer lasting
and protects the individual from the diseases for a considerable time.
(ii) Artificial passive immunity: this involves the introduction of usually

manufactured chemical substances in to the person’s body to fight a
diseases or infection e.g. swallowing antimalarial medicine when a person
is suffering from malaria. The antibodies may be extracted from another
individual of either different or similar species.
They can be used for immediate protection if a person has been or is
likely to be exposed to a particular disease.
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TYPES OF VACCINES
1. Vaccines containing dead pathogens. Some dead viruses and bacteria are able to be
recognized thus cause an immune response; these are used for immunization
purposes. E.g. flu vaccine, Salk polio vaccine (polio vaccine is injected), whooping
cough, typhoid and cholera vaccines.
2. Vaccines containing a toxin (toxoids). Toxins are detoxified but still retain their
antigen properties. These stimulate antibody production without producing
symptoms of the disease. E.g. tetanus and diphtheria vaccines.
3. Vaccines containing attenuated organism (live vaccines). An attenuated organism is
one which is modifies or weakened in a way which is harmless. E.g. TB, measles,
mumps, rubella and polio vaccine (taken orally).
4. Purified antigen. Using molecular biology and genetic engineering, e.g. hepatitis B, a
gene coding for a surface protein of a virus is inserted in to a yeast cell which
produces the protein when grown in fermenters.
5. Extracted antigens. The chemical with antigenic properties may be extracted from
the pathogenic organism and injected. E.g. influenza vaccine.
6. With small pox, a live virus vaccine was used. The virus in the vaccine was not an
attenuated virus but a closely related and harmless form.
Note
Monoclonal antibodies are single pure antibodies produced by isolating clones of B –
cells that produce only one type of anybody.
TRANSPLANTATION
This is the replacement of diseased tissues or organs by healthy ones through surgery.
It is less successful than blood transfusion because the organ contains more antigens
than blood so they are likely to be rejected by the body’s immune system.
TYPES OF TRANSPLANT
Tissue typing can be effected through the following ways:
- Autograft: the tissue is grafted from one area to another on the same individual e.g.
skin grafting. Rejection is not a problem.
- Isograft: a graft between two genetically identical individuals such as identical twins.
Rejection is not a problem.
- Allograft: a tissue grafted from one individual to a genetically different individual of
the same species.
- Xenograft: a graft between individuals of different species such as from a sheep to
human.
PREVENTION OF REJECTION
- Tissue matching involving analyzing the major Histo – MHC.
- Exposure of bone marrow and lymph tissue in radiation by x – rays to inhibit
production of white blood cells.
- Immunosuppression using chemicals which inhibit the entire immune system. This
may cause cancer.
- Using monoclonal antibodies that recognize and destroy the Killer T – cells
responsible for rejection.
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A LEVEL

Explain the necessity for transport systems in large complex

Similarities between vascular systems in plants and circulatory

Water as a medium of transport in flowering plants and animals

GENERAL FUNCTIONS OF CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF A BLOOD VASCULAR SYSTEM

TYPES OF BLOOD SYSTEMS

1. THE OPEN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Blood system in arthropods e.g. insects

Mechanism of blood flow in insects

2. THE CLOSED CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Blood system in annelids e.g. earthworm

Mechanism of blood flow

The functions of blood circulatory system of earthworm are;

BLOOD SYSTEM IN VERTEBRATES

Fibrinogen (soluble) Fibrin (insoluble)

2. Prothrombin. This is the inactive form of the proteolytic enzyme, thrombin,

ERYTHROCYTES (RED BLOOD CORPSUCLES)

LEUCOCYTES (white blood cells)

1. Granulocytes (polymorph nuclear leucocytes)

Basophils (0.5%) produce heparin and histamine. Heparin is an anticoagulant

Eosinophils (1.5%) possess anti-histamine properties and their number increases in

Neutrophils (phagocytes) (70%) engulf pathogens by phagocytosis and digest them

2. Agranulocytes (mononuclear leucocytes)

 Adaptations of white blood cells to their function

NB: WBC has a life span of 21 days

BLOOD PLATELETS (thrombocytes)

Systemic flow of blood in double circulation in man

Advantages of a double closed circulatory system over open one

Single circulation of fish

Differences between open and closed circulatory system

Diagrams showing the transverse sections of the vein, artery

Comparison between arteries, vein and a capillary

Adaptations of blood capillaries

of materials between blood and the tissues.

THE MAMMALIAN HEART

Structure and function of the mammalian heart

Mitral valve Semilunar valve

Structure of cardiac muscle

THE CARDIAC CYCLE

Ventricular systole (VS)

MYOGENIC STIMULATION OF HEART RATE

REGULATION OF HEART RATE

Nervous control of heart rate

Hormonal control of heart rate

Other factors controlling heart rate

A graph showing the effect of exercise on a marathon runner stroke volume

Explanation of the graph

Other effects of exercise on cardiovascular system include

MEASURING BLOOD PRESSURE

Blood pressure is affected by age, sex and health status.

REGULATION OF BLOOD PRESSURE

1. Heart rate and stroke volume, affect as discussed earlier.

Increased resistance leads to a rise in blood pressure whereas a decrease in resistance

Vasomotor centre activity is regulated by impulses coming from pressure receptors

Stimulation of parasympathetic nerves in these areas, caused by increased cardiac

Chemical control of the vasomotor centre

During the race

complete emptying of the ventricles occurs.

2. Tachycardia and bradycardia