WATER TREATMENT

CHAPTER 5
5.1 Introduction
• All surface water and some ground water require a treatment
prior to consumption.
✓To ensure that they do not represent a health risk to the user.
• Health risks due to Poor quality of water can be from;
✓ Micro-biological
✓ Chemical
Contaminations
✓ physical
✓ Radioactive
• Most importantly microbiological contaminations are leading to
infectious disease.
• Many of which may cause epidemics and can be fatal.
Cont….
• Chemical contamination, tends to represent a more long-term
health risk.
✓ Example nitrates which cause methaemoglobinaemenia in
babies.
✓ Heavy metals are carcinogenic
• Substances in water which affect the clarity, color or taste of
water may make water objectionable to consumers.
• Physical contamination may also represent a health risk as it
extends microbial survival.
✓ Many microorganisms are found associated with particles in
water.
Cont…
Objectives of water treatment
• The main objective of the treatment process is to remove the
impurities of raw water and bring the quality of water to the
required standard.
• Water treatment is required for:
I. Preventing disease transmission
II. Making water acceptable
III. Protecting the distribution system
Cont…
Methods of water treatment
• The common methods/processes of water treatment (water
purification) are:
i. Screening and grit removal
ii. Aeration
iii. Plain sedimentation
iv. Coagulation and flocculation
v. Secondary sedimentation and sludge management
vi. Filtration
vii. Softening
viii. Disinfections
Cont….
✓Typical treatment plant for surface water:
i. Screening and grit removal

ii. Aeration

iii. Primary sedimentation

iv. Coagulation and flocculation

v. Secondary sedimentation and sludge processing

vi. Filtration

vii. Disinfection
Cont….
✓Typical treatment plant for ground water:
i. Aeration (gas transfer method)

ii. Softening

iii. Re-carbonation

iv. De-fluoridation

v. Disinfection
Cont….
Water Intake Screening

Preliminary
Aeration
treatment
Coagulation Pre-Sedimentation

Flocculation Sedimentation pH Adjustment

Softening Filtration
Distribution Disinfection
5.2 Aeration and Gas Stripping

• Aeration is the process of gas (oxygen) addition and gas

stripping is gas removal (CO2, H2S, CH4) .
Objective:
✓Removes taste and odor caused by gases due to organic
decomposition like H2S, CH4, NH3.
✓Increases the dissolved oxygen (DO) content of the water
✓Decreases the CO2 content of water (> 10mg/l) and thereby
reduces its corrosiveness and raises its pH value.
✓Converts iron and manganese from their soluble states to their
insoluble states, so that, precipitated and removed.
Cont…

✓Due to agitation of water during aeration, bacteria may be

killed to some extent
✓Effective in removing volatile substances (benzene) from water
• Excessive amounts of CO2 in raw water can:
✓Increases the acidity of the water, making it corrosive.
✓Tends to keep iron in solution.
✓Cause an increase in the amount of lime needed for the
softening reaction.
Cont…
• When the water contains even small amounts of H2S:
✓Disinfection of the water become less effective because of H2S
chlorine demand.
✓Corrosion to piping systems and the water tanks.

Level of H2S(ppm) Effect

5 Moderate odor
10 Eye Irritation begins
30 Strong, unpleasant odor of rotten egg
100 Loss of smell
>300 Unconsciousness, death
Cont…

• Aeration removes or modifies the constituents of water using two

methods:
✓ Scrubbing action
✓ Oxidation
• Scrubbing action: Is caused by turbulence which results when the
water and air mix together.
• Oxidation: is the addition of oxygen, the removal of hydrogen,
or the removal of electrons from an element or compound.
✓When air is mixed with water, some impurities in the water,
such as iron and manganese, become oxidized.
4Fe2+ + O2 + 10H2O → 4Fe(OH) 3 + 8H+

2Mn2+ + O2 + 2H2O → 2MnO2  + 4H+

Cont…

Efficiency of aeration:
• Depends almost entirely on the amount of surface contact
between the air and water.
• This contact is controlled primarily by the size of the water
droplet or air bubble.
Problem with aeration:
• It may cause oversaturation of water that leads to:
✓ Corrosion (the gradual decomposition of metal surfaces).
✓ Promote algal growth in the water and can clog filters.
✓ Aeration is highly energy consumptive process.
Cont…

Types of Aerators
✓Different types of aerators are available
i. Gravity aerator
ii. Spray aerator
iii. Air diffuser
iv. Mechanical aerator
Cont… Types of Aerators

i. Gravity aerator
A. Cascade towers
✓Consists a series of steps that the water flows over.

✓The splashing of water creates turbulence and water droplets

B. Inclined apron possibly shaded with plates
Inlet
chamber

Collection
Chamber
Cont… Types of Aerators

C. Tray aerator
✓ Water falls through a series of trays
perforated with small holes, 5 -
12mm diameter and 25 - 75mm
spacing center to center.
✓ They are often built in stacks of 4 -
6 trays giving a total height of 1.2 -
3m
✓ May be filled with layers of
activated charcoal or gravel of
50mm size to insure purification.
Cont… Types of Aerators

ii. Spray aerator

✓Spray droplets of water into the air from stationary or moving orifices
or nozzles.
✓Water is pumped through pressure nozzles to spray in the open air as
in fountain to a height of about 2.5m.
Cont… Types of Aerators

iii. Air diffuser

✓In diffused aeration systems, water is contained in basins.
✓Compressed air is forced into this system through the diffusers.
✓The air bubbles up through the water, mixing water and air and
introducing oxygen into the water.
Cont… Types of Aerators

iv. Mechanical aerator

✓ These aerators work by vigorously agitating source water with
mechanical mixers.
✓ Mechanical aeration systems are able to remove most volatile
contaminants
Cont… Theory of Gas Transfer

Henry's Law
• In a closed vessel containing both, gas and water, the concentration
of a volatile component in the gas phase will at last be in
equilibrium with the concentration in the water phase.
𝐶𝑠 = 𝐾𝐻 ∗ 𝐶𝑔
Cs = Saturation(equilibrium) concentration of a gas in water (g/m3)
KH = Henry’s constant or distribution coefficient. It depends on the
type of gas, and the temperature,
Cg = concentration of the gas in air (g/m3)
• In addition, pollution and impurities in the water influence the
equilibrium concentration.
Cont… Theory of Gas Transfer

• Before calculating the equilibrium (or saturation) concentration, the

gas concentration in the air Cg must be known.
• Universal gas law
𝑝𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇
• The gas concentration in the air can be calculated:
𝑛 𝑃
𝐶𝑔 = . 𝑀𝑊 = . 𝑀𝑊
𝑉 𝑅𝑇
o p = partial pressure of gas in gas phase (Pa) o MW = molecular weight of a
gas (g/mol)
o V = total gas volume (m3) 𝑛
o = molar gas concentration in air
o n = number of moles of a gas (mol) 𝑉
[mol/m3]
o R = universal gas constant (= 8.3142 J/(K.mol))
o T = (air) temperature (K)
Cont… Theory of Gas Transfer

Gases properties
Cont… Theory of Gas Transfer

• The partial pressure of a certain gas is proportional to the volume

fraction of that gas in air:
𝑝 = 𝑝𝑜 𝑉𝑓
p0 = standard pressure at sea level (=101,325Pa)
Vf = volume fraction
Cont… Kinetics

• The direction of net gas transport depends on the gas concentration

in the water (Cw) and the equilibrium concentration Cs.
• If the gas concentration in the water is equal to the equilibrium
concentration the gas transport from water to air and vice versa
become equal.
• The velocity of gas transfer is determined by the kinetic equation:
𝑑𝐶𝑤
= 𝐾2 𝐶𝑠 − 𝐶𝑤
𝑑𝑡
o Cw = concentration of a gas in water (g/m3)
o k2 = gas transfer coefficient (s-1)
 Cont… Kinetics

Oxygen concentration in water as a

Gas transfer from air to water
function of contact time
 Cont… Cascade
• Cascade is one of the oldest aeration systems, is robust and consists
of several steps.
• In each step, the water falls over a weir into a lower placed trough,
creating an interface between air and water.
• When the jet submerges into the receiving body of water,
significant amounts of air are entrained.
• The entrained air is then dispersed in the form of bubbles
throughout the receiving body of water.
• This is leading to a mixture of gas and water in which gas transfer
will occurs.
 Cont… Cascade
Efficiency of the cascade:
𝐶𝑤,𝑒 − 𝐶𝑤,𝑜 𝑛
𝐾= =1− 1−𝑘
𝐶𝑠 − 𝐶𝑤,𝑜
o k = efficiency for each step
o n = number of steps
• In practice a maximum fall height of 1 meter per step is chosen.
• A higher efficiency can be obtained by using more steps.
 Cont… Cascade

Scheme of the width

of a cascade trough

Scheme of cascade Weir loading of a cascade

 Cont… Cascade
Weir loading:
• It is the amount of water per meter per hour that flows over the weir.
𝑄𝑤
𝑞𝑤 =
𝐿𝑛𝑒𝑡
o qw = Weir loading (m3/m.h)
o Qw = Design flow rate (m3/h)
o Lnet = Total weir length (m)
• The gas transfer is still satisfactory at production flows that are
lower than the design flow.
• Cascades generally have a weir loading between 50 and 100
m3/(m.h).
 Cont… Cascade
Trough depth:
• The trough depth of a cascade is chosen in such a way that the
falling water jet will not reach the bottom.
• Air bubbles are dragged to a maximum depth.
• This results in a maximum contact or retention time and a maximum
gas transfer time.
• As a rule of thumb, the trough depth must be more than two-thirds
of the fall height, to obtain sufficient contact time.
 Cont… Cascade
Trough width:
• The trough width must be large enough to receive the falling water
jet.
• The fall time of the water jet can be calculated with the following
equation:
1 2
ℎ = 𝑔𝑡
2

2ℎ
𝑡=
𝑔
 Cont… Cascade
• To calculate the velocity, the equation of the complete overflow is
used:

𝑄𝑤 2 𝑄𝑤
𝑑3 = 2, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝑜 =
𝑔𝐿𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑑𝐿𝑛𝑒𝑡
o Qw = discharge (m3/s)
o d = thickness of the falling water jet (m)
o Vo = velocity of the falling water jet (m/s)
• The distance x can be calculated using the water velocity and fall
time
𝑋 = 𝑉𝑜 ∗ 𝑡
• As a rule of thumb, the trough width is about twice the distance x:
𝐵 =2∗X
 Cont… Example 1
The following parameters are given:
• Annual flow: 70,000,000 m3/y
• Daily peak factor: 1.5
• Initial oxygen concentration in the water: 0.2 mg/l
• Water temperature: 10°C
• The aeration process consists of 2 cascade steps with a fall height of
0.5m.
• Weir loading rate: 100 m3/m.h
Complete the following assignments:
1. Calculate the oxygen saturation concentration of the water in mg/L.
2. Determine the total aeration efficiency. What is the oxygen
concentration after aeration in mg/L?
3. Calculate the length of the cascades.
4. Determine the total width of the cascade steps.
 Cont… Example 1
The following parameters are given:
• Annual flow: 70,000,000 m3/y
• Daily peak factor: 1.5
• Initial oxygen concentration in the water: 0.2 mg/l
• Water temperature: 10°C
• The aeration process consists of 2 cascade steps with a fall height of
0.5m.
• Weir loading rate: 100 m3/m.h
Complete the following assignments:
1. Calculate the oxygen saturation concentration of the water in mg/L.
2. Determine the total aeration efficiency. What is the oxygen
concentration after aeration in mg/L?
3. Calculate the length of the cascades.
4. Determine the total width of the cascade steps.