RESEARCH

Research is formed by two words

namely " RE" a prefix meaning to do
it again and a suffix "Search"
meaning to investigate or look for.
Definitions of Research
• Research defined as systematic and
scientific process to answer questions about
facts and relationship between the fact. It is
an activities involved in seeking answers to
questions(Burns,1997)
• Research seeks to generate answers/
solutions to problems as well as suggesting
additional questions in need of further inquiry
 Definitions cont'd
Research is a scientific, systematic,
controlled, orderly and objective
investigation to develop, refine and
expand body of knowledge.
 Definitions cont'd
•American sociologist defines research
as a systematic inquiry to describe,
explain, predict, and control the observed
phenomenon(Babbie,2014). It involves
inductive and deductive methods.”
 Research
Inductive method analyze observed event while
deductive method verify observed event.
Inductive reasoning aims at developing theory
while deductive reasoning aims at testing an
existing theories.
Inductive approaches are associated with
qualitative research, and deductive methods are
more commonly associated with quantitative
analysis.
 Nursing Research
Nursing research is a rigorous scientific
inquiry that provides a significant body of
knowledge to advance nursing practice,
shape health policy, and impact the health
of people(American Association of
Colleges of Nursing, AACN2016).
Nursing Research cont'd
Nursing research is a purposeful,
planned and systematic attempt to
answer a question, to find solution to
identified problems or to search for
new knowledge or about or facts(
Best,1970)
 Characteristics of
Research
• Systematicapproach; research must be
done in orderly manner with one step leading
to another
• Objectivity; it mush be free from individual
or personal bias or subjective judgment
•Accuracy; research must be accurate and
we'll defined problems for which solutions are
sought.
• Planning; a well planned research must have
target population,sample variables, hypothesis, data and analysis
Characteristics Cont'd
• Operational definition; this is required in
order to make terms measurable
• Research involve test of hypothesis or
answering of questions
• There must be a proposal which shows
every stages and aspect of the
investigation.
•
 Terminologies used in
Research
✓ Abstract
✓ Data or datum
✓variable
✓ concepts
✓Sample
✓ Operational definition
✓ population
✓ Assumption
✓proposition
✓manipulation
✓Inference
✓Validity
 Terminologies cont'd
✓ sampling
✓Research setting
✓literature review
✓conceptual or theoretical framework
✓ fact
✓Theory
✓Law
✓ Halo effect
✓ Bias
✓ Hawthorne (newness) effect
Terminologies cont'd
•Abstract:

a clear concise summary that communicates

the important information about the study. It
gives the reader a clear, and precise idea of
what the work is all about at a glance.
•Data
a units of information or any facts, figures,
general materials, evidence or knowledge
collected during the course of study.
 Terminologies cont'd
• Variables are attributes or
characteristics that can have more than
one value.
• In other words, any factors or entity that
varies or change from time to time, for
example; age, time, height, weight.
 Variables cont'd
Variables are qualities or quantities,
properties, characteristics of people,
things or situation that can change or vary.
Types of variables;
• Independent variables
• Dependents variables
•Extranous variables
 Variables cont'd
• Independent variables are variables that are
purposely maniputed by researcher.
• It is factor manipulated by researcher in order
to cause effect in dependent variable.
•Independent variable is a predictor variable
that has ability to affect/change other variables
but can not be changed by others.
Examples are treatment, programme or cause.
 Variables cont'd
Dependents variables are outcome variables that can be
changed by others. It is the effect or outcome
Cause > < effect
Cause > independent variable
Effect > dependent variable
Example 1: new educational programme on student's
achievement programme > independent variable while
Student's achievement > dependent variable
Example 2: studying one's book carefully for long time
leads to a good academic performance
Independent variable > study one's book carefully
Dependent variable > academic performance
 Variables cont'd
Extraneous variables:
are factors that are not part but may affect
the measurements of the study variables. It
also called mediating variables
Demographics variables:
are characteristics or attributes of study
subjects such as age, gender, place of living
educational status, religion, social class,
marital status, occupation and income.
Terminologies cont'd
Concepts
Mental idea of a phenomenon. It symbolize
some aspect of reality, e.g love, pain

Proposition
A statement or assertion of the relationship
between the concepts e. g relationship between
anxiety and performance.
A statement characterizes something as of true
or false
Terminologies cont'd
Assumption
Basic principle that is being true on the basis
of logic or reason without proof or
verification.

Limitations
Restrictions in a study that may reduce the
credibility and generazability of research
findings
 Facts
Something that has actual existence
which is supported by evidence.
Theory
A statement or group of statement or
general principle established based on
known facts intended for use in
explanation of a phenomenon
 Law
A Theory that has been thoroughly tested
and has become certain.

Hallo effect
Observation or report is influenced in
some ways because of similar
observation or report.
 Bias
A tendency to be in favour of or against
something. To form a settled opinions wether
favourable or not without knowing enough to
judge fairly.

Hawthorne(newness) effect
Subject of the study change their behaviour
because they are aware of behind observed
 Expost facto
Means after the fact. Results are usually confirmed
after experiment or from analysis of previous data.
Extra polation
To go beyond the data and make conclusion

Inference
Applying characteristics of sample to general
population
 Sample
A sub-set/ part of a population or a portion
of a population which has been selected to
make inference about general population.
Sampling
The process of selecting sample from the
target population to represent the entire
population.
It can be probability and no probability
sampling method.
 Population

A totality of all units, conceivable elements or

subjects available for inclusion in a study. E .g
pregnant women

Population is the entire set of individuals/

objects having the common characteristic
selected for a research study.
 Target population is the entire population that
researcher are interested in or set ofpeople/ objects
that researcher want to use for study

Accessible population are population accessible as

subjects for study

Research setting
This is the location in which research/study is
conducted.
 Pilot study
A small-scale study on a sample of subjects similar to
those who will be involved in the main study. It allows
instrument to be tested for validity and reliability.

Reliability
The degree of consistency of an instrument. This can
be known by getting the same answer or response
many times from measurements of instrument under
same condition.
 Validity
The degree to which an instrument reflect what
is supposed to measure.

Objectivity
The degree to which a technique or instruments
administered to same individual or sample by
different researcher leads to same results.
 Terminologies cont'd
Hypothesis

This is a statement of predicted relationship

between two and more variables in a research
study. It can be educated or calculated guess.
Hypothesis is an intelligent,reasonable but
tentative solution a or conclusion set up for
testing or validation because it is inadequate in
evidence.
 Sources of human
knowledge
1) life experience,
2) social customs and traditions,
3) authority,
4) deductive and inductive reasoning,
5) scientific method,
6) social inquiry method.
Life Experiences
Humans need to find solutions to their problems
Less Structured Structured
Intuition Induction
Trial and error Deduction
Tradition Scientific method
Authority Research process
 General purpose of
Research
 Extension of knowledge: it allows us
to accumulate knowledge and make
improvement,to find out new facts
without discarding old wisdom. I.e to
extend existing knowledge available.
 Problem Solving: research attempts
to find out objectivity, qualitatively
and scientifically the solutions to
problems.
 Purpose cont'd
 Theory development: some research are
carried out to develop new theories.Theory
is formed when hypothesis is supported by
large amount of different types of
observations and experiments.
 Hypothesis testing: the testing of
hypothesis for it's truth or falsity is usually
done through research.
 Purposes cont'd
 Theory testing: research is conducted to test a
theory, an existing theories and to find out
wether the predictions of the theory are true or
not.
 Evaluation of programme or situations: research
is carried out in order to find out whether
something has worked out or not. Such as
curriculum, educational program, health services,
events, situation s. To determine the worthiness
or usefulness.
Objectives of Nursing
Research
 To discover new facts

 To confirm and expand the present body of nursing knowledge

 To verify and test important facts

 To analyse an event or process or phenomenon to identify the

cause and effect relationship

 To develop new scientific tools, concepts and theories to solve

and understand scientific and nonscientific problems

 To find solutions to scientific, nonscientific and social problem

 To overcome or solve the problems occurring in our everyday life.

Importance of Research
in Nursing
 Research is an important tool for the continual
develop of a relevant body of knowledge in
nursing.
 It define unique role of nursing profession by
generating information from nursing
investigation
 It allows nurses to demonstrate profession
accountability to client by incorporating
research evidence to their clinical decision.
 Importance cont'd
 Research facilitates evaluation of the
efficacy of nursing practice in the delivery of
health services
 Research reduces cost of health care and
practices; costly trial and errors and unsafe
intervention avoided.
 It allow nurses to make more informed
consent
 It enable nurses to understand a particular
nursing situation about which little is known
 Importance cont'd
 It enable nurses to assess the need for
intervention
 It enable nurses to identify factors to be
considered when planning patients care
 It allows nurses to predict the probable outcome
of certain nursing decisions
 It enable nurses to control the occurrence of
undesired outcomes
 It enable nurses to initiate activities to promote
appropriate client behaviour
 Importance cont'd
 Research enable nurses to render
evidence based care by transforming
knowledge from research to clinical
practice
 Research reinforce the identity of nursing
as a profession in understanding patients
healthcare experience
 Sources of human
knowledge/method of
enquiry in research
1. Tradition: involves the handing over knowledge
from now generation to others and leads to
actions that occur because " we have always done
it that way"
2. Authority : experts in the field often provide
knowledge for other people. In the past, nurses
looked for physicians for great deal of their
practice knowledge.
 Sources cont'd
Recently, nurses have begun to build a
unique body of nursing knowledge.
3. Trial and error: as a means of
discovery knowledge. If one approach
did not work, another one will be used.
When certain approach is found effective,
then trial and error process ceased. The
goal is " if it works, we will use it."
 Main Types of Research
1. Fundamental or basic research
2. Applied research
Fundamental/Basic research is solely concerned about
making empirical observations that can be used to formulate
or refine theory.
It's goal is extension or discovery of knowledge.
It is concerned about finding out truth and doesn't seek to
solve any problem.
It investigate on basic principles and reasons for occurrence
of particular event, process or phenomenon.
 Types cont'd
It is original or basic called theoretical research.
It provides systematic and deep insight into a
problem and facilitates extraction of scientific and
logical explanation and conclude on it.
It helps build frontiers of knowledge.
An applied research make use of outcomes of basic
research and explore the utility of them. Example is
pure science( physic, chemistry, biochemistry.
 Type of cont'd
Applied research: is carried out to find solution to our
practical day to day problems.

It is interested in the relationships of laws and the use of

such understanding as the basis for prediction and control.

It is a research the outcome of which has immediate

application because it is of practical use to current activity.

It is concerned with actual life research like increasing

efficiency of machine, pollution control, vaccination for
disease, obviously they have immediate potential
application.
 Types contd
Action research is a research method that aims
to simultaneously investigate and solve an issue.
In other words, as its name suggests, action
research conducts research and takes action at
the same time. it prioritizes reflection and
bridges the gap between theory and practice.
Due to the nature of the research, it is also
sometimes called a cycle of action or a cycle of
inquiry.
Difference between basic and
applied research
• Basic research • Applied research
• Study individual or specific
• Seeks generalization
cases without the objectives to
• Aims at basic processes generalize

• Attempt to explain why • Aims at any variable which

makes the desired difference
things happen
• Tries to say how things can be
• Tries to get all the facts changed
• Reports in technical • Tries to correct the facts which
are problematic
language of the topic.
• Reports in common language.
 Classification of
research method
Research could be classified into various
categories based on:
subject matter,
Research methods,
source of data to be used,
types of data to be used,
objective of the research,
purpose of the research,
scope of the research etc.
 Classification based on
data
Qualitative research is a method that
collects data involving quality using
conversational methods, usually open-
ended questions.
The responses collected are essentially
non-numerical, descriptive, applied
reasoning and uses words.
 Classification on data
cont'd
It's aim is to get the meaning, feelings and describe the
situation.
It provides insights into the problem or helps to develop
ideas or hypotheses for potential quantitative research.
Types of qualitative methods include:
One-to-one Interview
Focus Groups
Ethnographic studies
Text Analysis
Case Study
Classification based on
data
Quantitative research methods deal with
numbers and measurable forms.
It is used to quantify the problem by way of
generating numerical data or data that can be
transformed into useable statistics.
It is used to quantify attitudes, opinions,
behaviors, and other defined variables – and
generalize results from a larger sample
population.
 Classification on data
cont'd
Quantitative Research uses measurable data to
formulate facts and uncover patterns in research.

Quantitative data collection methods are much more

structured than Qualitative data collection methods.

Types of quantitative methods include:

Survey research

Descriptive research

Correlational research
Classification based on
the source of data:
Primary Research: is defined as
factual, firsthand study written by a
person who was part of the study. In
other words primary research is the
original research.
Classification cont'd
Secondary research is defined as an analysis
and interpretation of primary research.
The method of writing secondary research is to
collect primary research that is relevant to a
writing topic and interpret what the primary
research found.
In other words secondary research is conducted
to explain or refer or come up a concluding
decision by explain a primary research
Classification based on
data
Qualitative Research is primarily exploratory research.
It is used to gain an understanding of underlying
reasons, opinions, and motivations.
It provides insights into the problem or helps to
develop ideas or hypotheses for potential quantitative
research.
Qualitative Research is also used to uncover trends in
thought and opinions, and dive deeper into the
problem.
Classification based on
data
Quantitative Research is used to quantify the problem by
way of generating numerical data or data that can be
transformed into useable statistics.
It is used to quantify attitudes, opinions, behaviors, and
other defined variables – and generalize results from a
larger sample population.
Quantitative Research uses measurable data to
formulate facts and uncover patterns in research.
Quantitative data collection methods are much more
structured than Qualitative data collection methods.
Classification based of
purpose:
Theoretical Research: A non-empirical approach
to research, this usually involves perusal of
mostly published works like researching through
archives of public libraries, court rooms and
published academic journals.

Theoretical research is research driven by

curiosity or interest in a scientific question.

The main motivation is to expand man’s

knowledge, not to create or invent something.
Classification cont'd
Applied Research: The practical approach
consists of the empirical (based on testing
or experience) study.
This involves first hand research in the
form of questionnaires, surveys, interviews,
observations and discussion groups.
An applied research is designed to solve
practical problems of the modern world.
Classification based of
the objective
Exploratory Research: Research conducted
for formulating a problem for more clear
investigation.
Descriptive Research: Research that
explore and explains an individual, group or
a situation. It is concerned with describing
the characteristics of a particular individual
or group.
Classification based on
the scope of research:
 Diagnostic Study: refers to studies that
aim to quantify a test’s added contribution
beyond test results readily available to the
physician in determining the presence or
absence of a particular disease.
 Evaluation Study: Evaluation is the
systematic acquisition and assessment of
information to provide useful feedback
about the outcome of a project or
intervention.
Classification based
on application:
 Action Research: Action research is either research
initiated to solve an immediate problem or a reflective
process of progressive problem solving led by
individuals working with others in teams or as part of
a "community of practice" to improve the way they
address issues and solve problems. It is conducted to
find solutions to problems in a specific context.
 Educational Research: refers to a variety of methods,
in which individuals evaluate different aspects of
education including: "student learning, teaching
methods, teacher training, and classroom dynamics". It
is conducted to develop and test educational theory
and derive generalizations.
Classification based on
target
i. Problem Oriented Research: Research conducted by
the apex private sector institutions / development
agencies to identify development barriers of any
particular sector is known as problem oriented research.

ii. Problem Solving Research: Research conducted

by individual organization to solve a problem faced by it
is known as problem solving research.
 Classification based on
the researchers
 Colaborative Research: this type of research team
generally includes more than one academic faculties
/ disciplines to get the study done. Biomedical
physics could be an example of such research field.
 Practitioner Research: addresses the investigator, the
setting and the purpose. The investigator is the
practitioner, in workplace settings ranging from
hospitals, to schools and communities. The general
purpose is to better align the practitioner’s purpose
with their actions.
 Othe class are:
 Experimental Research: is a systematic and
scientific approach to research in which the
researcher manipulates one or more variables, and
controls and measures any change in other
variables.
 Ex Post Facto Research or after-the-fact research
is a category of research design in which the
investigation starts after the fact has occurred
without interference from the researcher.
 Other class cont'd
 Comparative Research: Research conducted to
compare two phenomena is known as comparative
study. It could be a concurrent comparison or
historical comparison between two phenomena.
 Historical Research: Historical research is a method
of social science that examines historical events in
order to create explanations that are valid beyond a
particular time and place, either by direct
comparison to other historical events, theory
building, or reference to the present day.
 Other types cont'd
 Ethnographic Research: a qualitative method
for collecting data often used in the social and
behavioral sciences. Data are collected
through observations and interviews, which
are then used to draw conclusions about how
societies and individuals function or behave
 Phenomenological Research: is a study that
attempts to understand people's perceptions,
perspectives and understandings of a
particular situation (or phenomenon).
 Other class cont'd
Correlational Research: Study conducted to identify interrelation
between two or more variables is known as correlational research.
It is a quantitative method of research in which you have 2 or more
quantitative variables from the same group of subjects, &
researchers are trying to determine if there is a relationship (or
covariation) between the 2 variables (a similarity between them,
not a difference between their means).

vii. Grounded Theory Research: Grounded theory is a

systematic methodology in the social sciences involving the
construction of theory through the analysis of data.
 Other class cont'd
Explanatory Research: Explanatory research is
defined as an attempt to connect ideas to
understand cause and effect, meaning
researchers want to explain what is going on.

x. Predictive Research: Predictive analytics /

research is a form of advanced analytics that
uses both new and historical data to forecast
future activity, behavior and trends.
 Differences
Action Research:
v A consideration of action (reflection and reconnaissance);
v Implementation of an action for improvement to individual practice;
v The use of data collection on the action;
v A review of the action through consideration of data;
v Identification of further opportunities for improving intervention

2. Applied Research:
v Based on the concept of the pure research.
v It is problem oriented.
v Helps in finding results or solutions for real life problems.
v Provides evidence of usefulness to society.
v Helps in testing empirical content of a theory.
v Utilizes and helps in developing the techniques that can be used for
basic research.
v Helps in testing the validity of a theory but under some conditions.
v Provides data that can lead to the acceleration of the process of
generalization.