lOMoARcPSD|43961460

Psychology Knowledge-Organisers

Cognitive Psychology (Royal Holloway, University of London)

Scan to open on Studocu

Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university

Downloaded by Iram Gulfaraz ([email protected])
 lOMoARcPSD|43961460

TYPES OF CONFORMITY [a type of social influence RESISTANCE TO SOCIAL INFLUENCE MILGRAM (1963) OBEDIENCE
where we choose to go along with the majority]. Social support Æ Asch found that unanimity promotes resistance. This
• Compliance Æ introduces the idea that there are other answers/ideas possible which • 40 male PPs. 2 confederates
.I increases personal confidence. (experimenter and learner). PP was
influence. Eg, Asch. Locus of control Æ perception of individual control. INTERNALITY (I have always the teacher who had to
• Identification Æ Conforming to a social roles for control) EXTERNALITY (controlled by other factors). High internals are likely to punish the learner for incorrect
.I seek information / goal oriented and resist coercion from others. answers via electric shocks.
influence. Eg, Zimbardo. Learners sat in a different room and
/P
• Internalisation Æ Genuinely accepting and received fake shocks. If the
will limit minority influence / teacher stopped, there were
joining a group publicly and privately. This is a
permanent influence. Eg Religion, Veganism. .
always successful and can • 26/40 PPs (65%) shocked until 450V.
/ Difficult to distinguish between compliance and make conforming people
internalisation. All PPs shocked to 300V. 5 stopped
riskier. at 300V (12.5%).
- Asch / Zimbardo / Sherif.
MINORITY INFLUENCE Æ Consistency / SOCIAL CHANGE
People conform because: Commitment / Flexibility needed to create • VIA MINORITY: VARIATIONS
• Normative Social Influence: a conversion process. • Draw attention to the issue Æ • Proximity Æ in the same room (40%
To be accepted or liked by a group despite cognitive conflict between obeyed) / Moving the learner's
.I . (Compliance, MOSCOVICI Æ groups of 6 (4 PPs, 2 beliefs Æ consistency Æ hand onto a plate (30% obeyed) /
Identification) confederates) asked to judge the colour augmentation principle Phone instructions (21% obeyed)
• Informative Social Influence: of different blue slides. Confederates (suffering) Æ the snowball • Location Æ Laboratory (65%) / Run-
C .I . effect. down office (48% obeyed to 450V)
avoids standing out (internalisation) Green consistently = 8% influence which • Eg, smoking ban, suffragette's • Uniform Æ the more authority
led to greater green chips being identified movement, gay marriage. people appear to have; the more

ASCH (1956) CONFORMITY in later trials. • VIA MAJORITY (CONFORMITY) likely obedience will happen. Eg,
• Social norms interventions Æ Police Vs homeless.
• 123 male US undergraduates sat around a table ZIMBARDO (1973) SOCIAL ROLES identifying widespread
to asked to match lines by length. 12/18 tasks
misperception related to risky
the confederates were told to give false • 24 male student volunteers were assigned behaviour M
answers. / Socially sensitive / Highly
U .
• On the 12 trials, 33% conformed and gave prison at Stanford University. Zimbardo unethical / lacks internal
incorrect answers. 50% conformed on 6+ trials. was the prison warden, all PPs were given validity (mundane realism) /
AGENTIC STATE Æ attributing
• When interviewed. PPs admitted that they had uniform and props. gender differences
responsibility to someone else (authority
conformed to avoid disapproval and disagreed • Guards started to create their own (Androcentrism & beta bias)
figure). Shifting responsibility is AGENTIC
privately (COMPLIANCE) punishments and volunteered to work - High historical validity (same
SHIFT.
longer hours. Prisoners started to riot, results now) / controlled /
Eg, following orders of experimenter in
VARIATIONS become passive and followed orders, 5 understanding of
M .
• Group size Æ Max of 3 saw 33% conformity, but prisoners had to be released early from
LEGITIMACY OF AUTHORITY Æ someone
obedience.
. the study 2 days in and the study was
who is perceived to be in a position of
• Unanimity Æ 1 confederate disagreeing terminated on day 6 of 14. - Milgram et al (1966) follow-
social control. Eg, the experimenter.
decreases conformity from 33% - 5%. VARIATION BBC PRISON STUDY (2006) up study of 1963. 20
• Task difficulty Æ Lines lengths were harder to • 15 male PPs were divided into 5 groups AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY Æ a PP 20
matched on her personalities. Random distinct personality patter PP
spot. Conformity increases.
allocation of 2 guards and 1 prisoner. 8 characterised by strict following of personality test to measure
/ Lack population validity (sample day study. values and a belief in obedience and authoritarian personality.
size/gender/students) / • PP .P submission to authority. Higher levels found in the
Androcentric / Beta bias / identified as a group and challenged ADORNO Æ The F Scale Æ rigid and PP .
/C guards. Guards failed to identify to role. B&W thinkers, obeyed authority and - Left wing views associated
to collectivist cultures / lacks likely to had been raised by with lower levels of
/C /H authoritarian parents. obedience / Less-educated
temporal validity / Unethical
unethical / Demand characteristics of - Altermeyer found a + correlation obey more than well-
(deception) / Women conform
BBC and SPE hidden cameras / Support between high authoritarian educated people.
more / Engineering students less
with Abu Grahib / Androcentric / beta personality and giving themselves / Social context/situation is
likely to conform. Downloaded by Iram Gulfaraz ([email protected])
@Findlotte bias. electric shocks for incorrect answers. stronger than disposition.
 lOMoARcPSD|43961460

Sensory Register LTM TYPES OF LTM FORGETTING - INTERFERENCE Primacy effect Æ items are more likely
STM
A temporary store A permanent store. Declarative/Explicit Retroactive Æ new learning to be remembered from the start.
(conscious): interferes with past learning. Recency effect Æ items are more likely
Large Eg; Each eye has 7 items +/-2.
Capacity 100 million cells each (Jacobs, • Episodic Events and Proactive Æ past learning to be remembered from the end.
Unlimited
= amount storing visual data. 1887/ Miller, experiences (time/senses) interferes with new learning. FORGETTING RETRIVAL FAILURE
(Sperling, 1960) 1956)
• Semantic facts and / Artificial research /
Based on senses. 2 most Semantic knowledge Context dependent Æ Memory
common: ( ). I Implicit (unconscious) explain everything / recall is better when the
Acoustic
Coding Iconic (Visual is stored
(Baddeley,
into 3 stores: • Procedural skills and individual differences. environment is the same as where it
= format visually) or Echoic (sound is Episodic, Semantic
stored acoustically)
1966)
and Procedural. tasks. - Real-word application to was learnt. Eg, Scuba diver study.
(Sperling, 1960) (Baddeley, 1966) - Brain scans show memories advertising. State dependent Æ Memory recall is
in different places / HM better when your mental state is the
Limited If no attention
Duration given, spontaneous decay
Limited (18- case study / Alzheimer same as when you learnt it. Eg,
30) Unlimited patients.
= takes place and it fades
(Peterson, (Bahrick, 1975)
Drunk vs Sober study.
timeframe away quickly.
1959)
/ Case studies are limited / - Real world application (mental
(Sperling, 1960) brain scans are limited, reinstatement) / supporting
post mortem needed. research
MULTI-STORE MODEL (1969)
EYEWITNESS TESTIMONY - LEADING IMPROVING EYEWITNESS TESTIMONY
• Sensory register holds QUESTIONS Æ Loftus and palmer (1974)
sensory information. • 45 PPs shown 7 films of different traffic COGNITIVE INTERVIEW Æ a police
• If attention is focused, accidents and were asked to describe technique for interviewing witnesses to
information is passed onto the accident. reduce inaccurate information from
the STM. Maintenance • How fast were the cars going when they leading questions.
rehearsal is needed to move X each other? 1. Mental reinstatement context of
information into LTM, other it • Smashed = 40.8mph / collided = 39.3mph crime.
decays. / hit = 34mph / contacted = 31.8mph. 2. Report everything free recall.
/ Reductionist / unitary stored • Was there any broken glass? T 3. Change order reverse to challenge
challenged by WMM and were given the stronger verbs were likely schema.
Tulving / LTM needs more to say yes. 4. Change perspective other witness
than rehearsal. POV to challenge schema.
- Lots of evidence for - Real life application
separate stores / brain (police interviews) /
- Effective and increases accuracy /
damage case studies show supporting research
increases quantity of recall.
separate stores. (Disneyland false
/ Individual differences (negative
memory).
stereotypes) / time consuming for
WORKING MEMORY MODEL (1974) - dual-task performance and case / Artificial test
• Challenged MSM, stating that STM has police / artificial research / different
studies of brain damage (KF) (ecological validity) /
stores within it because we can see police regions will use slightly different
/ Central executive is vague and limited response bias /
and listen at the same effectively, but techniques.
/ reductionist / problems with case individual differences
struggle to listen or see 2 items at
studies. (children).
once.
• Central executive Æ directs EYEWITNESS TESTOIMONY - POST- EYEWITNESS TESTIMONY ANXIETY
EVENT DISCUSSION. • Weapon focus effect Æ PPs asked to sit in a waiting room where they heard an argument.
systems. • Memory can be altered or A man runs out with either a pen covered in grease or a knife in blood. They were asked to
• Phonological loop Æ limited capacity,
contaminated by co-witnesses identify the man.
auditory store which breaks down into
phonological store (inner ear) and
, • 49% identified the pen man, 33% identified the knife man.
articulatory processes (inner voice). interviewed multiple times or • Anxiety can have a negative effect by drawing people to specific details of the crime and
• Visuo-spatial sketchpad Æ able to discuss what they saw. away from features of the criminal.
visual/spatial awareness. • 71% of PPs who discussed an • Positive effect Æ evolutionary argument
• Episodic buffer Æ added in 2000. event before recall mistakenly survival. In real-life crimes, witnesses are likely to remember 75% of detail up to 15 months
collates all information together and recalled information. after the crime.
passes it onto LTM. Downloaded by• Iram EFFECT Æ too much anxiety will impair recall accuracy.
Gulfaraz ([email protected])
YERKES-DODSON
 lOMoARcPSD|43961460

CAREGIVER-INFANT ANIMAL STUDY HARLOW TYPES OF ATTACHMENT AINSWORTH CULTURAL VARIATIONS

INTERACTIONS • 8/16 Rhesus monkeys were caged with • Controlled observation, 8 episodes, 9-18m • Meta-analysis of 32 studies in 8 countries.
• Reciprocity Æ Communication 2 wire mothers; one provided comfort infants, mother and a stranger. 108 infants. • Secure is most common.
turn-taking between infants and the other food. Time spent on each • Separation anxiety, reunion behaviour, • Avoidant was 2nd most common except in
caregivers. Natural pauses. was measured. stranger anxiety and secure bases observed. Israel and Japan collectivist.
• When mums stopped showing • All monkeys spent up to 22h on the • Secure (B) 70% Æ moderate separation • Resistant is least common in individualistic
any expression or response to comfort mother, only leaving to feed. distress and stranger anxiety. Accepts reunion cultures.
their babies, the child becomes When frightened they would cling to comfort. • Germany Æ encourages independence and
upset and tried to provoke a • Avoidant (A) 15% Æ Low separation and
the comfort mother. interpersonal distance.
response. stranger anxiety. No reunion comfort needed.
• 90-day critical period & maternal • Italy Æ low rates explained by mothers
• Interactional synchrony Æ • Resistant (C) 15% Æ High stranger and
deprivation shown. retuning to work.
Mirroring of facial expressions separation anxiety, resists reunion comfort.
- Challenges the learning theory / - High reliability - .94 kappa score / real-world
• Korea / Japan Æ child rearing practices /
during communication.
Supports maternal deprivation / collectivist.
• Infants will imitate and expression application.
reformed animal treatment. / Lacks ecological validity / Disorganised - Secure are universal / large sample
or gesture shown by an adult
/ Confounding variables of mother attachment discovered / infants respond / Cultural differences within countries / imposed
from 2w of age.
/ difficult to test baby behaviour / heads / ethics / can't be generalised. differently with each parent / unethical / etic.
/I ethnocentric. EFFECTS OF INSTITUTIONALISATION RUTTER
differences (attachment). ANIMAL STUDY LORENZ (1935) • ERA 165 Romanian adoptees. 11 adopted
- Babies only imitate humans / • Greylag geese eggs were separated MATERNAL DEPRIVATION BOWLBY before 2y and the remaining 54 by 4y.
beneficial research for theory of between their natural mother and an Deprivation during the critical period Children were tested at ages 4, 6, 11 and 15.
mind. incubator. When incubator eggs hatched will have impact on development. Control group of 52 UK children adopted
the followed Lorenz around (imprinting) Deprivation Æ an extended before 6m.
DEVELOPMENT OF ATTACTMENT • Critical period of 2 days. separation and loss of emotional • Romanian children were smaller, weighed
SCHAFFER AND EMERSON (1964) - Chicks imprint onto yellow gloves. care. less and had low IQ, but caught up with
/ Imprinting can be reversed / limited Long term effects: British children if adopted before 6m.
1. Indiscriminate attachment application to humans. Lower IQ Æ the longer a child • Romanians adopted after 6m showed
(0-2m) same response to spends in care the lower their IQ and disinhibited attachment and longer
all objects. EXPLANATIONS LEARNING THEORY social maturity. consequences.
Classical Æ caregiver becomes a Affectionless psychopathy Æ 86% of • Physical underdevelopment / poor cognitive
2. Start of attachment (2-7m)
forming preferences juvenile thieves had frequent development / disinhibited attachment /
with food. separations. Leads to lack of guilt, poor parenting effects of institutionalisation.
3. Discriminate attachment
Operant Æ Negative reinforcement by empathy and remorse. - Real-life application / Longitudinal study.
(7m) - separation and feeding infants to remove discomfort. / Individual differences in children can
stranger anxiety towards Dwarfism Æ emotional deprivation
Drive reduction Æ by feeding an infant we can lead to stunted growth, sleep influence care received / deprivation is one
primary caregiver. are positively reinforcing their crying and of many factors in the orphanage / slower
4. Multiple attachment (8m+) - issues, delayed sexual development.
rewarding them with food, thus meeting a development rather than poor
secondary attachments Anaclitic depression.
need. development.
- Impact on child development.
develop. / Food- / Individual differences not all EARLY ATTACHMENTS ON
/ Biased sample / self-reported attachment / Infants have multiple children are affected / Rutter ADULTS HAZAN & SHAVER
data / supported by Bowlby / attachments / environmental reductionism / criticised lack of differentiation • Examined internal working
cultural differences / stages Geese imprint before feeding / Contact- between privation & deprivation. model.
are inflexible. comfort is more important than food. • Love quiz in local newspaper
Æ 620 responses (205 men /
ROLE OF THE FATHER EXPLANATIONS - BOWLBY 415 women)
• Fathers given more rights over children • Adaptive innate need to attach for both infant AND caregiver. • 56% secure / 25% avoidant /
(paternity leave). • Social Releaser innate behaviour that encourages attention for caregivers for survival. 19% resistant.
• Schaffer & Emerson Æ 3% of dads were primary • Critical Period 2-3y period but sensitive period of up to 5y. Can have irreversible effects • Positive correlation between
attachment / by 18m, 75% of infants had an otherwise. attachment type and love
attachment with dad. • Monotropy 1 main attachment figure. experience secure had
• Dads seen as playful parents, whereas mum is • Internal Working Model blueprint for future relationships based on your first attachment. longer relationships and
emotional support. Dads are risk-taking -S B /L &H / Brazleton & happier.
physical play. Tronick support social releasers / Internal working model has real life application. / Correlational
• Dads are capable of nurturing and showing / Little support for Monotropy Schaffer & Emerson say there are multiple attachments and a link / poor memories / self-
emotional sensitivity, but social and biological different parents have different roles / Temperament determines attachment / Deprived children reporting / ignores freewill,
factors may discourage this. Downloaded by Iram Gulfaraz ([email protected])
can form attachments / socially sensitive and can impact mothers' choices / IWM is deterministic. very deterministic.
 lOMoARcPSD|43961460

DEPRESSION CHARACTERISTICS Explanations of DEPRESSION

Abnormal implies • 5 or more symptoms (1 must be low • Hypersomnia/ BECK:
something is undesirable mood or loss of interest in pleasure) insomnia Negative self-schema + negative automatic
• 2-week period. • Low mood / low self- thoughts = increased vulnerability to developing
and requires change. • Daily life affected (work, school, esteem depression. This leads to the Negative Triad.
social, relationships) • Absolute thinking
DEVIATION FROM SOCIAL NORMS • Suicidal thoughts. ELLIS:
Æ Any behaviour which breaks the PHOBIAS Irrational thoughts increases the likelihood of
unwritten rules of society. Eg, • Persistent fear of a social or • Panicked response. depression.
Homosexuality. performance situation which provokes • Avoidance of A Activating event (trigger)
/ Lacks cultural bias / Normal anxiety which lasts 6 months. stimulus. B Belief (values and thoughts)
changes over time (single • The individual knows they are • Excessive, irrational C Consequence (behaviour)
mothers & Homosexuality) / unreasonable, excessive and irrational and unreasonable
Treatment of DEPRESSION
ignores context / subjective but actively avoids the stimulus. thoughts.
CBT Æ 50 min sessions / goal-orientated / present focus /
• Daily life affected (work, school, • Irrational beliefs.
definition. / E B
- Easy to distinguish normal from social, relationships) • Self-critical
treatment.
abnormal. OCD REBT Æ D (E ,
• Irrational obsessions
STATISTICAL INFREQUENCY • A presence of obsession that are Logical, Pragmatic) which will leader to a desired Effect /
• Hypervigilant
Æ Statistically uncommon, rare or intrusive and or compulsions that Feeling.
• Avoidance of
anomalous behaviours. Eg, High reduce anxiety. CT Æ Therapist identifies negative automatic thoughts and
stimulus
IQ & normal distribution curve. • Time consuming (1+ a day) over 2 challenges them using dysfunctional thought diaries or goals
• Anxiety and distress
/ Lacks cultural bias / some weeks. outside of therapy.
• Compulsions.
behaviours are desirable (high • Daily life affected (work, school, - Real life application / root cause / very effective
• Coping strategies.
IQ) / some behaviours are social, relationships) / Time consuming / therapist experience / willingness to seek
common but undesirable therapy
Explanations of PHOBIAS
(Depression) / Labelling causes Classical + Operant conditioning = TWO Explanations of OCD
more distress. PROCESS MODEL (Mowrer) Æ We acquire NEURAL EXPLANATIONS Æ damaged orbitofrontal cortex
- Objective measure / real-life phobias through classical and maintain them .H
application. through operant. dopamine and low serotonin can cause a damage.
DEVIATION FROM IDEAL MENTAL Alternate explanations Æ Vicarious GENES Æ COMT gene regulates the production of dopamine.
HEALTH reinforcement / Irrational thinking / biological SERT gene transports serotonin. If these genes are faulty, it can
ÆJ 6 preparedness lead to damages in the brain.
( -attitude, SAPAP3 animal study shows that mice lacking these gene
self-actualisation, integration, - Real life application / Little Albert research excessively groomed themselves which stopped when given
autonomy, reality, mastery) / Diathesis-stress model / ignores cognition and the protein
/ Too unrealistic / culture bias / evolution. / Alternate explanations / cause or effect / polygenic
reality changes over time. Treatment of PHOBIAS disorder / real life application.
- Can be used as an aspiration. SYSTEMATIC DESENSITISATION Æ gradual
Treatment of OCD
process, counter-conditioning. Clients create an
FAILURE TO FUNCTION ADEQUATELY anxiety hierarchy and are taught relaxation
Æ Unable to cope with he DRUG THERAPY Æ SSRIs increase serotonin
techniques and gradually exposed to their fear
demands of daily life. Eg, which can reduce symptoms of OCD /
.
interpersonal rules, observer synaptic transmission.
discomfort, personal distress, Alternatives to SSRIs Æ SNRIs / Tricyclics /
FLOODING Æ Immediate exposure over 2-3h.
irrational or dangerous)Eg, Psychosurgery
Clients are exposed to their phobias after
Schizophrenia. learning relaxation techniques until it no longer
- Very effective / quick and effortless
fears them (extinction).
/ Difficult to define / ignores / Drugs take a while to start working / only
- Effective in results / Flooding is cost-effective.
context. treats symptoms? / relapse likely /
/ SD is time consuming / ignores cognition
- Real-life application we self- publication bias / cognitive treatment
behind phobia / not suitable for all people.
Downloaded by Iram Gulfaraz ([email protected])
refer. needed for obsessions.
 lOMoARcPSD|43961460

ORIGINS OF PSYCHOLOGY COGNITIVE Æ internal mental processes. We BIOLOGICAL Æ ALL behaviour is internal (brain, genes,
Philosophical roots which led to Wundt rely on inference a to predict behaviour and neurochemistry, hormones, evolutionary)
opening the 1st experimental lab in use models. • Monozygotic twins (100%) & Dizygotic twins (50%) Æ
Germany 1879. The higher the concordance rate the higher the
Introspection examining your • Input genetic basis.
thoughts, feelings, emotions and • Process • Adoption studies combat twins shared environment,
sensations. Metronome used Æ first • Output Family studies show concordance through
attempt at controlled lab. generations.
Psychology as a science (needs to be We develop schema (metal shortcut) to help • Genotype (DNA code) & Phenotype (external
empirical, objective, replicable with a us understand the world Æ can lead to feature)
hypothesis and general laws) stereotypes! • Brain structure (4 lobes)
/ Reductionist / Subjective / non- Cognitive Neuroscience Æ combination of • Neurochemistry (serotonin & Depression)
observable cognitive & biological. Study of brain • Evolutionary theory (Adaptation and innate)
- Led to the development of alternate structure and neurology.
approaches / real-life application. / Lab-based / machine reductionism / Biological reductionism / determinism / lab-based /
- Lab-based / real-life application ignores environment.
BEHAVIOURISM (PAVLOV & SKINNER) - Scientific / real-life application / nature-nurture Æ
ALL behaviour is learnt and only measure Social Learning Theory diathesis-stress model.
observable behaviour. Observation + Vicarious reinforcement /
Classical Conditioning Æ Learn through Identification = Imitation HUMANISM Æ Focuses on conscious experiences in the
association to create to CR. Mediational processes: present day, humans have free will over their behaviour
Operant Conditioning Æ Learn through + / - 1. Attention and should be viewed holistically.
reinforcement. 2. Retention
3. Motor Production MASLOW Æ Hierarchy of needs. We are all striving
/ Animals Æ unethical / deterministic / 4. Motivation (Vicarious reinforcement) towards self-actualisation and will oscillate through the
ignores cognition & biology BANDURA Æ Bobo doll / role models / 72 children / hierarchy of needs during life until we meet it. Our
- Controlled / Scientific / Real-life all imitated their model. behaviour adapts to meet our needs.
application - Explains cultural norms / mediational processes. - Real-life application Æ education / business.
/ Lab study / ignores biology / difficult to test Æ / Individualistic / abstract / idiographic.
PSYCHODYNAMIC Æ Freud believed that all / HOW
ROGERS Æ Humans have a basic need to feel valued
behaviour and feeling and influenced by children learn aggression.
and accepted by others (Unconditional Positive
unconscious drives which stem from childhood
Regard) but we live in a society where there are
experiences. Psychosexual stages Æ Stages that each child Conditions of Worth placed upon us which affect our
Iceberg analogy Æ Under the water is the progresses through. They experience conflicts congruence.
unconscious, at each stage that they must resolve. Self-concept Æ Self-worth / Self-image / Ideal-self
unaware of. Under the surface is the • Oral Congruence Æ When our ideal self and our self-image
preconscious, where dreams and parapraxes • Anal Psychoanalysis Æ
Psychological problems are match.
seep through and above the water is our • Phallic Incongruence Æ When our ideal self and our self-image
rooted in our unconscious
conscious, our present and current awareness. • Latency .T -worth and
which create symptoms.
• Genital • Dream analysis increased use of defence mechanisms to hide the
Tripartite personality Æ ID (demands instant • Free association difference.
pleasure), EGO (in contact with reality and - Real-life • Freudian slips Q-SORT test Æ an objective test to produce a
responsible for compromise to reduce tension) application / • Transference relationships congruence score.
and SUPEREGO (morals, responsible for guilt and evidence of DM / Oedipus complex Æ During the PERSON CENTRERD COUNSELLING Æ A talking therapy
pride) qualitative data. phallic stage, boys will develop
which creates an atmosphere of unconditional positive
/ Gender bias / unconscious desires for his
regard, aims to identify conditions of worth and
Defence mechanisms Æ Protect the ego and Determinism / mother and will want to rid
their rival father. They develop supports the client in reaching self-actualisation.
reduces conflict and anxiety between the id and abstract and
castration anxiety and - Real-life application / holistic / tried to be scientific
superego. DENIAL, DISPLACEMENT and difficult to test /
eventually identify with their with Q-Sort.
REPRESSION cultural bias
father. / Not scientific / relies on self-awareness.
Downloaded by Iram Gulfaraz ([email protected])
Philosophy Æ Wundt Æ Psychodynamic Æ Behaviourism Æ Humanism Æ Cognitive Æ Social Learning Theory Æ Biological Æ Cognitive Neuroscience.
 lOMoARcPSD|43961460

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM Æ collects, LOCALISATION OF FUNCTION Æ specific areas of the brain CIRCADIAN RHYTHMS Æ 24h cycle (sleep/wake)
processes and responds to the have specific functions Eg, Broca, Wernicke, Occipital lobe. • Primarily controlled by the SCN but needs light
environment & coordinates muscles • Frontal Lobe Æ motor cortex / movement. to reset each day.
and glands via neurotransmitters. • Parietal Lobe Æ Somatosensory / senses. • Siffre case study Æ Lived in a cave for 61 days*
• Central Nervous System • Occipital Lobe Æ Visual. and found that his free-running body clock
• Peripheral Nervous System Æ • Temporal Lobe Æ Auditory. increased to 25 hours. When repeated at 60, his
Autonomic Nervous System (F&F) / • B Æ LEFT frontal lobe / speech production. body clock increased to 36 hours.
Somatic Nervous System (R&D) • W Æ LEFT temporal lobe /language • Shift work and jet lag.
comprehension. • Aschoff and Wever Æ 4 weeks in a bunker. All
FIGHT OR FLIGHT / Biologically reductionist / gender differences ppts increased to 25h.
• Survival mechanism - Broca & Wernickes aphasia / fMRI scans • Folkard Æ reduced the time of the day, nobody
• ANS & endocrine system work could adjust.
together. PLASTICITY Æ The brain develops FUNCTIONAL RECOVERY Æ A form of plasticity where
• Dilated pupils / digestion and new neuronal connections and the brain compensates for damaged areas. INFRADIAN RHYTHMS Æ A cycle longer than 24h
bladder inhibited / increased physical changes throughout • Neuronal unmasking Æ dormant synapses (menstruation)
heartrate / increased sweat / life. . FSH / Oestrogen / Progesterone all linked to the
pale skin / dry mouth. Synaptic pruning Æ • Stem cells Æ Implanted or transplanted from menstruation cycle.
unused connections. healthy areas. - McClintock Æ pheromone study found that
THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM Æ secretes • Spontaneous recovery Æ Natural recovery which women who smelled the pheromones of other
hormones through blood vessels via MAGUIRE Æ MRI scans of 16 right slows down./ women altered the length of their cycle
glands. handed taxi drivers with 1.5y • Axonal sprouting Æ New nerve endings grow and SAD Æ yearly rhythm which creates depressive-like
• Hypothalamus Æ controls the experience and compared to connect to damaged nerves. symptoms during winter months
pituitary gland. 50 non-taxi drivers. Found / Spontaneous recovery is short-term / negative
• Pituitary gland Æ controls all other increased grey matter in the taxi plasticity
glands with its hormones. drivers in the hippocampi. - Musicians / animal studies with complex
• Pineal gland Æ melatonin / sleep environments / cognitive reserve.
• Thyroid Æ Thyroxine / metabolism SPLIT-BRAIN RESEARCH each hemisphere is responsible for a specific
• Ovaries Æ oestrogen / reproduction function. Left and right eye process information on the OPPOSITE hemisphere.
• Testes Æ testosterone / SPERRY Æ 11ppts who had their corpus callosum removed.
reproduction Describe what you see Left hemisphere can describe, right cant.
• Adrenal medulla Æ adrenaline Tactile test Left hemisphere can describe and identify an item, right can NOT
• Adrenal cortex Æ cortisol describe but CAN identify. ULTRADIAN RHYTHMS Æ A cycle which repeated within
NEURONS Æ chemical and electrical signals. Drawing task Left hemisphere draw poorly; Right hemisphere can draw 24h (5 stages of sleep)
• Sensory Æ carry information towards the CAN. clearly.
• Relay Æ Found within the CNS, connect sensory and / Case study of JW / pop-psychology 5 stages of sleep which last about 90 minutes and
motor. - Controlled experiment / chickens can perform 2 tasks at once.
• Motor Æ Carry information away from the CNS to - Dement Found ppts who were woken during REM
muscles/glands. ENDOGENOUS PACEMAKERS Æ internal biological clocks recorded dreaming whereas PPTs woken during N-
• Receptors Æ collect information from senses / Suprachiasmatic nucleus Æ responds to light Æ melanopsin REM struggled to return to sleep.
Effectors Æ receive information (glands/muscles) releases melatonin which causes drowsiness/sleep. - Klietman We live our entire sleep/wake cycle in
• They can only travel in one direction Æ binding / - Decoursey chipmunks had their SCN destroyed and returned periods of 90 minutes. And move from being alert to
receptors / vesicles. tot heir habitat. All died. tired.
- Ralph bred mutant hamsters and adapted their cycles to 20
hours.

EXOGENOUS ZEITGEBERS Æ external environmental cues.

Entrainment Æ getting babies into a routine to control their
sleep/wake cycle.
@ Campbell light on the back of the knees wakes PPs
SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION Æ the BRAIN SCANS
movement of information from one neuron fMRI Æ measures a change in energy released by haemoglobin in the brain. Low temporal resolution / High spatial
to the next. resolution / non-invasive but expensive.
Presynaptic membrane holds vesicles full EEG Æ M .H /L /
of NT / electrical current encourages record deep brain / non invasive and cheap.
secretion across the synaptic cleft / ERP Æ Measures brain activity via electrodes on the scalp when the ppt performs a task. High temporal resolution / low
binding on to the receptors of the post / / .
synaptic membrane. Post Mortem Æ structural examination after death. Detail examination on humans rather than animals / invasive / time
Summation Æ the higher net value of between death and post-mortem / small samples.
Downloaded by Iram Gulfaraz ([email protected])
excitatory / inhibitory neurons will fire.
 lOMoARcPSD|43961460

Content analysis Æ analysing the content of secondary data by Alternative hypothesis Æ A testable statement about the Directional Æ My hypothesis directly predicts the
creating a code and sample method. Eg, every 2nd page, tallying relationship / difference / association between 2+ variables. direction of the results (X will have a positive effect on
the number of gender stereotypes. Null hypothesis Æ An assumption that there is no Y)
Thematic analysis Æ converts qualitative data into quantitative relationship / difference / association. Nothing is going on. Non-directional Æ my hypothesis states there is a
data by creating a category/code and tallying the number of When conducting research, we aim to reject our null state which way (X and Y will
times these appear within the data. Eg dream themes. hypothesis (Falsifiability) have a difference)
One tailed Æ Y .
RELIABILITY Æ how consistent is the data? Can it produce the same TYPE 1 ERROR Æ F .I Two-tailed Æ -directional
results on different occasions? hypothesis when I should have accepted it. You believe hypothesis.
IV Æ W .T / .
Inter-observer reliability Æ When another observer repeats the test on. Eg, a male being pregnant because they have all the
DV Æ W .I
and compares their results with yours to see if you have high symptoms.
operationalised so it can be measured clearly.
agreement (1) or low (0) this is a kappa score. To improve this score TYPE 2 ERROR Æ You fail to reject the null hypothesis (you
Confounding Æ A variable which can change the DV
you can include/amend behaviour categories. accept )
( )
Test-retest Æ Giving the same group of PPs the same test at a . A
caused confusion in the results (time of day).
different time and assessing the score similarity. This can be pregnant because of other factors.
Extraneous Æ Aspects which you try to control time
improved by making your test question detailed and specific.
SAMPLIING of day, light, temperature of room.
Standardisation Æ to ensure that each procedure is robust and
Opportunity Æ Use PPs that are the most convenient or
repeated consistently across trials. This will improve reliability. JOURNAL REFERENCE
most available. Eg, students in a school.
VALIDITY Æ How accurate is your data? Are you measuring what Random Æ names/numbers out of a hat. • Authors name, date, title of article, journal title,
you intended? Stratified Æ subgroups of the population are identified, and volume (issue number)
a proportionate amount is selected. Eg 2 from Y7, 2 from Y8 BOOK REFERENCE
Ecological Æ the ability to generalise the research results to etc. • Authors name, date, title of book, place of
different environments and achieve the same results. Systematic Æ Every 5th, 7th, 10th person from a list of people. publication, publisher.
Mundane realism Æ how realistic are the tasks to the real world. Eg Eg a phonebook.
counting backwards in 3s. Volunteer Æ Advertise in a newspaper/notice board and DESIGN A STUDY QUESTION Æ Answer the BULLET
Temporal Æ the ability for the research results to be generalised to wait for people to volunteer. POINTS and JUSTIFY your choices / KEEP IT SIMPLE.
different time periods. Eg Asch. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
Calculated DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
Population Æ Can the research results be generalised to other Repeated measures Æ All PPs do each condition. BUT this
value Æ The Measure of central tendency
samples of participants. could cause an ORDER EFFECT so we need to
number they provide averages or information
Concurrent Æ to compare your research results to other similar COUNTERBALANCE (ABAB or ABBA).
. Independent Æ Separate groups do separate conditions give you in the
data:
Face Æ to extent in which the test measures what it claims to and we need to RANDOMLY ALOCATE PPs to groups. exam. Their
• Mean add all the data, divide
measure Eg, IQ test intelligence or memory? Matched Pairs Æ 2 groups of PPs who are matched on a CALCULATED
by the number of values. Can
, DV. I PILOT score.
5 FEATURES OF A SCIENCE: PEER REVIEW Æ Specialists only be used with ration and
STUDY to consider which variables need controlling. Critical value
in the field assess the interval data.
table Æ The • Mode Most frequent data.
1. Empirical methods scientific work produced by SINGLE BLIND Æ The PP is not aware of the aims of the
observable and quantitative others to assess the quality
table you plot Used with nominal data.
data. and accuracy of their the score into. • Median Middle values of an
or react.
2. Objectivity no bias or research. DOUBLE BLIND Æ The researcher and PP are not aware which ALWAYS ordered list. Used with ordinal
opinions involved. ETHICS - Can Do C Do condition the pp is receiving, so both researcher and PP ASSUME 0.05 data.
3. Replicability does it produce With Pps . UNLESS TOLD. Measure of dispersion provides
the same results with different information about the spread of
TYPES OF DATA: Testing difference
people? Testing difference Testing data.
Primary / Secondary /
4. Theory construction general (unrelated)
(related)
association or • Range the distance between
Qualitative / Quantitative Repeated Measures /
principals, laws or Independent Groups correlation the top and bottom values in
/ Meta-analysis Matched Pairs
classifications can be made. data.
• Nominal Æ named
5. Hypothesis testing test and Chi-Squared • Standard deviation precise
categories Nominal Chi-Squared test Sign test
refine / theory and test. measure of spread which
• Ordinal Æ data that test
measures the average
can be ordered.
Falsifiability Æ always aiming to distance between each data
• Interval Æ Data with Ordinal Mann-Whitney Wilcoxon S .
prove your hypothesis wrong. item above and below the
equal measurements
Paradigm Æ a set of ideas which mean.
in-between each Unrelated t-Test Related t-Test Pearson s r
can change over time due to a
value and that can go Interval
paradigm shift. Downloaded by Iram Gulfaraz ([email protected])
below 0. (parametric) (parametric) (parametric)
 lOMoARcPSD|43961460

STEREOTYPES AND ANDROGYNY BIOLOGICAL AYTPICAL GENDER DEVELOPMENT

SEX Æ biological / genetic. CHROMOSOMES Æ Humans have 23 pairs, GENDER IDENTITY DISORDER Æ incongruence between assigned gender
GENDER Æ personal identification. which contain all genes. XX (female) XY and expressed gender with a desire to remove sexual characteristics.
STEREOTYPES Æ societies expectations for (male) chromones will encourage the BIOLOGICAL:
gender and sex behaviour. development of sexual organs. • Pesticide Æ DDT contains oestrogen which exposes males to high
ANDROGYNY Æ a combination of male and KLINEFELTERS SYNDROME Æ XXY levels. Could lead to more feminised play.
female characteristics measured using the BSRI configuration. Penis and typical male but • Gene Æ MtF transsexuals more likely to have a longer androgen
(BEM). less testosterone means they look less receptor gene which reduces testosterone levels and impact prenatal
BSRI Æ 7-point Likert scale of feminine and masculine, less facial hair, broader hips and development.
masculine characteristics. some breast tissue. They may be infertile. • Brain-sex theory Æ BSTc is 2x larger in male brains which correlates
- Mothers treat boy/girl babies differently / real- TURNERS SYNDROME Æ XO configuration. with preferred sex rather than biological sex.
world applications to gender-neutral The 2nd chromones is missing meaning • Cross-wiring Æ sex organs send mixed signals to the brain leading to
parenting / test-retest reliability of 0.94. females are born with a vagina/womb, lack PP
/ Adjectives in BSRI are restrictive / response of monthly periods, possibly infertile. early age.
bias / temporal validity. INTERSEX Æ SOCIAL:
typical male/female characteristics Eg, • Mental health / trauma Æ GID
BIOLOGICAL - HORMONES
David Reimer / Caster Semenya but this has been challenged heavily (ethnocentrism / determinism /
TESTOSTERONE Æ produced prenatally and
/B case study)
affects genital development. Some XY
development Eg Batista boys and their • Mother-son Æ distorted parent attitudes leads to confused gender
individuals have an insensitivity to the hormone
culture. identify and female identification.
- real-world application Olympics/surgery • Father-daughter Æ identify to males due to severe paternal rejection,
. XX
/ female monkeys exposed to high so become male to gain acceptance (psychic determinism)
high testosterone levels show interest in male-
testosterone during pregnancy were more • Conditioning Æ via SLT and parenting.
activities and tomboyish behaviours.
aggressive.
OESTROGEN Æ XY babies will develop as female
without testosterone exposure. Female CULTURE AND MEDIA
PSYCHODYNAMIC - FREUD
hormone for menstruation/pregnancy. • Culture changes over time (Uk gender roles) / Tribal
OEDIPUS COMPLEX Æ boy desires
OXYTOCIN Æ bonding hormone. Content/calm research shows reversed gender roles (ethnocentrism?) /
mother, sees dad as rival and
feelings. Required for breastfeeding. Links or there are universal characteristics that both sexes prefer
develops castration anxiety, so
orgasms, wound healing and fight/flight. in mates / both sexes are biologically redetermined to
identifies with father and
COGNITIVE - GENDER SCHEMA internalises his gender identity to perform certain tasks efficiently (social role theory).
COGNITIVE - KOHLBERG THEORY form his own. • Culture expresses itself through media Æ modelling and
• As we age our cognitive abilities • Challenges Kohlberg, Martin imitation.
ELECTRA COMPLEX Æ Girl desires
explains that children learn • Gender differences within the media, both sexes
enhance and we can start to think mother but has penis envy,
schemas of gender roles by 3y.
abstractly about gender and transfers desires to father and portrayed differently (androcentric/alpha bias).
• Gender schemas develop via
development.
socialisation, parenting, media, overcomes this by desiring a / Difficult to measure the impact of culture and media
1. GENDER LABELLING Æ 2-3y children
culture to create a personal baby. She identifies with mother /
label themselves and others as boy/girl. definition of gender. to develop gender identity and gender roles (Disney, GoT)
I Eg, long hair = girl. • Children identify to ingroup find a mate. - Canada TV study / gender stereotyping is reduced if
2. GENDER STABILITY Æ 4y gender schema to enhance their self- • Genital stage requires counter-stereotyping is displayed.
knowledge is stable but not consistent esteem and help them successful resolution of the
across situations. Eg men playing with evaluate their opposing SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
dolls are still men. View gender outgroup and become resilient healthy. Unable to identify can • Children learn appropriate gender roles through indirect
superficially on external features to challenge gender schemas. reinforcement (socialisation) which increases if they
lead to immoral behaviour or
(appearance) • Same-sex peers and play will identify with their model.
3. GENDER CONSTANCY Æ 6y gender reinforce gender schemas and
homosexuality.
- case study support (Little Hans) • Positive / negative reinforcement via mediational
is constant across situations and will ingroups.
/ Requires child sexual processes (attention, retention, reproduction,
learn gender-appropriate behaviour. - Organises memory via
motivation)
- Supported by research ingroup/outgroup schema /
have at 5y / lacks predictive - Children are likely to pick gender-neutral items if they
/ Methodology of tasks / age supporting research.
differences / gender differences / Schemas hard to override and validity for single parent families / identify with the model / gender roles are reinforced by
(beta bias) / stages not needed. can create distorted psychic determinism / Feminism society / BANDURA
stereotypes / sexism. Downloaded argument
by Iram Gulfaraz
for ([email protected])
penis envy. / Biology plays a role before birth.
 lOMoARcPSD|43961460

DIAGNOSIS BIOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS ALTERNATE EXPLANATIONS

POSITIVE SYMPTOMS GENETICS • Smoking during pregnancy Æ heavy nicotine increases risk of Sz
Æ Additional to • polygenic / diathesis-stress model plays a big role. by 38%
normal experiences, • 16% of children with Sz mother developed Sz compared to 2% of children with a non-Sz • Evolution Æ there must have been an advantage to Sz
mother. symptoms for it to still be common.
distort behaviour or
• Gottesman Æ MZ twins (48%) both parents (46%) DZ twins (17%) • Socio-cultural Æ deprivation, city life, population density,
thoughts and
• Joseph Æ meta-analysis. MZ twins (40%) DZ twin (7%) unemployment and increased inequality increases risk.
respond to
• Tienari Æ adoption study. 7% of children with biological Sz mothers developed Sz
medication. compared to 2%. DRUG THERAPY Æ blocks dopamine receptors on the post-
• Hallucinations (all / Concordance s never 100% synaptic neuron.
senses) TYPICAL Æ 1st gen. Only treats positive symptoms and only acts on
• Delusions DOPAMINE HYPOTHESIS dopamine. Symptoms reduce in a few days. Severe side effects.
• Snyder Æ Too much = positive symptoms Æ Sz drugs REDUCES dopamine / L-Dopa ATYPICAL Æ modern drugs with side effects. Treats positive,
NEGATIVE SYMPTOMS INCREASES dopamine and gives symptoms / drugs INCREASE dopamine and gives negative and cognitive symptoms. Acts on serotonin and
Æ disrupt normal symptoms. dopamine.
• Davis Æ Not everyone has high levels Æ atypical drugs affect dopamine and serotonin. / only treats symptoms / biologically reductionist / reinforces
functioning, respond
He suggests that positive symptoms are caused by TOO MUCH (Mesolimbic) and diagnosis and removes accountability.
poorly to medication.
negative symptoms are caused by a DEFICIT (Mesocortical) supported by rat study. - Medication is more effective than placebo / cost effective /
• Avolition economy / atypical advantageous.
• Speech poverty
NEURAL CORRELATES
• Affective flattening • MRI scans show enlarged ventricles which are associated with negative symptoms. PSYCHOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS - FAMILY DYSFUNCTION
• Anhedonia SZ MOTHER (1948)
• Psychodynamic / focus on childhood / cold, rejecting,
RELIABILITY & VALIDITY PSYCHOLOGICAL TREATMENT
controlling, tension and secrecy leads to paranoid delusions.
RELIABILITY Æ Consistency of the diagnosis tool / VALIDITY Æ CBTP Æ NICE recommend 16 sessions to treat residual
• Can be supported by EE / Double-bind and Insecure
Accuracy of the tool and clinician. /A
Avoidance attachment.
challenge delusions and hallucinations and establish
DOUBLE-BIND THEORY
DIAGNOSIS & CLINICIANS links between thoughts, feelings and actions.
• Contradictory messages from parents leads to failure to
DSM & ICD used in different countries and have different • Reality-testing examining evidence, challenging
develop internal construction of reality Æ affective
criteria. and assessing delusions & hallucinations (NIGEL)
flattening, paranoid delusions and disorganised thinking.
/ Lack of inter-rater reliability (0.11 / 0.46 / 0.4) between • Normalising reduces stigma and anxiety.
EXPRESSED EMOTION
clinicians using DSM, which means low criterion validity - Reduces rehospitalisation / no side effects or
• The communication style of the family is critical, hostile, over-
the tools are inaccurate, and clinicians misinterpret. addiction.
involving, intense, conflicting and negative.
- ROSENHAN study all PPs were admitted. Hospital / Limited availability / only beneficial at certain stages
• Can lead to relapse if vulnerable to stress.
/ Æ socially sensitive of illness / often used alongside drugs.
• Vaughn Æ High EE and no drugs = 92% relapse / High EE on
research. FAMILY THERAPY Æ aims to treat family dysfunction for
drugs = 53% relapse / Low EE and no drugs = 15% relapse.
GENDER BIAS 10 sessions over a year.
• Healthy adult behaviours is based around male norms • Psychoeducation understanding the illness.
COGNITIVE DYSFUNCTION
(androcentric) / clinicians ignore male symptoms / male • Support network / Improving communication /
Metarepresentation Æ inability to reflect on own thoughts
clinicians are likely to over diagnose female patients. decrease guilt and responsibility.
which impacts insight into intentions and goals explains
CULTURE BIAS - meta-analysis show smallest readmission rates and
auditory hallucinations.
• Hearing voices is acceptable in some cultures / Clinicians highest medical compliance, reduction in relapse for
Central control Æ inability to supress automatic responses, this
are ethnocentric towards voices and abnormal behaviour up to 2y / positive impact on whole family / cost-
can explain derailment (disorganised speech)
/ white clinicians distrust and misinterpret black patients / saving for NHS.
• Impaired insight leads to an inability to recognise cognitive
negative voices common in western cultures where its not TOKEN ECONOMY (MANAGEMENT) Æ operant
distortions and failure to substitute realistic explanations for
accepted / diagnosis more likely in western cultures. conditioning within institutions. Clinicians set targets and
events.
SYMPTOM OVERLAP are rewards when desirable behaviour is displayed.
• Sz with hallucinations are hypervigilant so expect to
• DID patients have more Sz symptoms / Sz and Bipolar - Works best in institutions when paid hourly.
experience them more and less likely to reality-test noises or
often misdiagnosed / SZ and Bipolar share genetic / Make patients socially acceptable / targets can
sounds.
overlap. breech human rights.
COMORBIDITY Æ 2+ conditions developing at the same time. INTERACTIONIST APPROACH Æ we need to look at biological, behavioural and cognitive explanations to understand Sz
• OCD and Sz common (Dopamine?) / co-morbid Sz are (biopsychosocial).
often excluded from research which impacts treatment Diathesis Æ biological vulnerability. Eg early trauma which can encourage the HPA to become overactive and make a
and validity / diagnosis of patients rarely share same person more vulnerable to stress.
symptoms, so outcome will be different for all / lacks Stress Æ stressful life event. Eg, children who experience trauma before 16 are Sz likely to develop Sz / High EE 4x more likely
predictive validity Æ too many outcomes to predict to relapse / Cannabis increases risk of Sz 7x.
treatment/recovery. / Too manyDownloaded by IramatGulfaraz
treatments once can([email protected])
be time-consuming
 lOMoARcPSD|43961460

NEURAL & HORMONAL INSTITUTIONAL AGGRESSION (PRISON) Æ 10% more deaths and
LIMBIC SYSTEM Æ coordinates behaviours that satisfy motivation and emotional urges Eg aggression and fear. 23% more self-harm in 2018.
• Amygdala Æ quickly evaluates the emotional importance of sensory information and prompts and appropriate
response (animal studies) DISPOSITIONAL Æ Norms, values, beliefs attitudes and
• Hippocampus Æ involved in forming long-term memories and learning from previous aggressive events.
SEROTONIN Æ low levels allow the amygdala to fire, which leads to impulsive and aggressive behaviour BUT low levels .T
can also reduce aggression by inhibiting response to emotional stimuli. negotiate, establish power and status and gain access to
- PPs with lower amygdala volumes showed higher levels of violence and aggression / MRI scans show asymmetries in resources Æ gang membership.
impulsive criminal brains / increasing serotonin via diet decreased aggression within monkeys. -I /
TESTOSTERONE Æ male hormones which influences aggression. Removing testosterone from animals results in lower violence is likely if they were violent pre-prison.
aggression / violent criminals had higher testosterone levels in saliva. / Ignores situational explanations and the role of prison officials.
SITUATIONAL Æ Stressful and oppressive conditions can cause
GENETIC EVOLUTIONARY EXPLANATION
aggressive responses. Eg, prison regimes, loss of freedom, loss of
MAOA GENE Æ regulates the metabolism of serotonin, Adaptive behaviour which promotes survival and
autonomy, loss of resources, loss of relationships Æ frustration /
low levels leads to impulsive and aggressive behaviour - reproduction.
Prison-specific overcrowding, heat, noise, prison staff burnout.
Dutchy family / MAOA-L linked to anti-social behaviour if Sexual competition Æ Those who are successfully
- In 371 US prisons overcrowding, lack of privacy and
maltreated during childhood (warrior gene) aggressive are successful in acquiring mates and passing
meaningless tasks increased assaults / interviews with 35
/ Poor sample / difficult to assess aggression. on genes, which leads to a genetic transmission of
homicide inmates found motivations were linked to
- Finnish prisoners have MAOA-L and CDH13 which is aggressive tendencies. Eg, men have larger muscle mass,
deprivation, power, relationships and goods.
associated with extreme aggression/ MAOA linked to x thicker jawbones and robust skulls.
/ Interactionist approach both are needed.
chromosome, which explains gender differences. Sexual jealousy Æ violent threats to other mates to
prevent female infidelity. 17% of UK murder cases are due MEDIA EXPLANATIONS
ETHOLOGICAL EXPLANATION to sexual jealousy. Links to domestic violence.
INNATE RELEASING MECHANISMS Æ an innate neural DESENSITISATION Æ numerous repeated exposures to violent
Aggression in warfare Æ aggressive behaviour is
mechanism which when exposed to specific triggers will attractive to women with male warriors having more
release a FAP. which reduces anxiety that would usually inhibit them from being
sexual partners and children. It also increases status. violent.
FIXED ACTION PATTERNS Æ innate stereotyped behaviours / Socialisation explains why genders are different /
which occur in specific conditions in specific species. - Adaptive in the Army / PPs show reduced physiological
/ changes after watching and playing 30 mins of violent media.
/ / It reduces altruism / inconclusive evidence.
Ritualistic aggression Æ threat displays (chest pounding) mass aggression (genocide/mutilation).
are used to intimidate opponent without the need for DISINHIBITION Æ Violent media which justifies violence can
physical contact. SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL SLT change our perception of social norms and morals which
Animals Æ when a wolf loses, it submissively exposes its • Children observe role models they identify with and legitimises violence and undermines social sanctions.
neck which prevents the dominant wolf from continuing imitate their behaviour through vicarious reinforcement. / Less likely when negative consequences are shown /
the fight. Doves simply fly away, as do humans. • Children learn mental representations of expectant future identification needed / not all children affected by high
- Humans display FAPs (smiling, eyebrow flashing) / outcomes and will perform acts if the reward is expected action.
ritualised aggression is beneficial for animals and to be larger than the punishment. COGNITIVE PRIMING Æ Cues in the media can trigger us to
humans to deescalate conflict. • Children also develop self-efficacy the more successful become pro-social or anti-social Eg, C . P
they are with their actions which increases their refers to the accessibility of thoughts and ideas a s a result of
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL - DEINDIVIDUATION confidence and directly rewards them. these cues.
• When part of an anonymous group, people can / BOBO / - Violent games had frequent violent thoughts / PPs who
lose their personal identity and inhibitions about differences watched violent clips had faster reaction times / pro-social
violence. - real-life application counterconditioning learned radio messages leads to higher cooperation.
• Being part of a group gives people anonymity and violence with positive parenting programmes.
removes personal consequences but can also lead SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL - FRUSTRATION- MEDIA INFLUENCES - COMPUTER GAMES Æ Aggression is measured using
to prosocial behaviour too. AGGRESSION HYP. experiments, correlations, longitudinal studies and meta-analysis.
• Zimbardo Æ SPE guards wore uniforms and Frustration is caused when people are prevented • Experiment Æ Students played violent and non-violent game and
mirrored glasses. from getting something they want. This is essential for blasted white noise at a non-existent opponent. Students who played
• Zimbardo Æ hooded/anonymous PPs are more aggression and is a cause-effect relationship violent game delivered higher Db of white noise.
likely to give electric shocks to victims and hold the between frustration, aggression and catharsis. • Correlation Æ 227 US juvenile offenders with aggressive histories had
buzzer for twice as long compared to identifiable Unjustified frustration produces anger and aggression group interviews on violent video game playing. Significant correlation
PPs. rather than justified frustration. found between how often and enjoyment of violent games.
- Changing appearance evident in cultural tribes / Aggression is displaced when the object is • Longitudinal Æ 26y study in New Zealand. The more TV watched, the
/ unattainable. more convictions for aggressive and violent crime and more APD
severity. /A diagnosis.
/ Gender differences / inconclusive evidence can frustration / lack of research for catharsis. • Meta-analysis Æ 431 studies (68k PPs) found that exposure to media
be anti-social or pro-social. - Real world application mass killing / sports violence on behaviour, thoughts or feelings significantly increased
Downloaded by Iram Gulfaraz ([email protected])
violence. aggression in both genders and all cultures (universal)
 lOMoARcPSD|43961460

GENDER BIAS CULTURE BIAS REDUCTIONISM HOLISM

• Alpha bias Æ exaggerates differences between men • Alpha bias Æ exaggerates the differences between cultures. HOLISM Æ to view humans as
and women • Beta bias Æ ignores or minimises cultural differences. Assumes universality. whole beings and understand their
• Beta bias Æ Minimises differences between men and • Ethnocentrism Æ Believing that your own culture is normal and correct. context.
women. • Cultural relativism Æ There is no right or wrong, we need to understand the • Humanism Æ PCT/Gestalt. We
• Androcentrism Æ male point of view. context.
• Universality Æ conclusion that can be applied to • Emic approach to research Æ Studying one culture to understand specific behaviour; we must consider the
everyone regardless of time, gender or culture. behaviour as an insider, leads to alpha bias. whole person to understand how
• Etic approach to research Æ Observing cultural behaviour without they function.
• Kohlberg (moral development) Beta bias, because he understanding the context within, leads to beta bias
only tested males and assumed both sexes developed REDUCTIONISM Æ I
morals in the same way.
• Ainsworth Æ Ethnocentric - assumed all cultures had secure attachment as
• Schizophrenia Æ Androcentric because society is male down into smaller components
their majority.
dominated, male over diagnose and the criteria is such as levels of explanation.
based on healthy males.
• IQ tests Æ Beta bias because they only test specific cultures and their context.
• Freud (psychosexual stages) Alpha bias Æ femininity is • DSM/ICD Æ Link to Sz and different diagnosis rates between cultures and the
• Interactionist approach Æ levels of
failed masculinity; females experience penis envy. different criteria.
explanation combine to give a
FREE WILL DETERMINISM NATURE NURTURE Sociology better understanding of behaviour.
Free will Æ we are self-determining NATURE Æ Behaviours is caused by inheritance, innate Culture, sub-cultures, social • Diathesis-stress model Æ by
and have control and choice over all mechanisms and evolutionary ideas. groups, interaction. understanding different causes and
.C • Attachment Æ Innate and adaptive to attach to triggers of behaviour we can
tested scientifically. caregivers and infants. create different combinations of
Psychology treatment (Sz drug therapy / CBTp
Rogers (HUMANISM) Æ PCT, • Concordance rates Æ the closer the relation, the higher Cognition, Learning, / FT)
congruence, conditions of worth, the concordance (genetic) Eg, MZ and DZ twins. Emotions.
UPR, self-actualisation. • Biological approach.
NURTURE Æ All behaviour is learnt by different levels of the ETHICAL IMPLICATIONS & SOCIAL
Biology
Determinism Æ Behaviour is environment (socialisation, culture, parenting). SENSITIVITY
Brain structure Ethical issues Æ a conflict between PP
controlled by internal or external • Behavioural approach. Genetics rights and Researcher aims (deception to
forces. Interactionist approach Æ We must use both together.
get accurate results).
Soft D. Æ[COGNITIVE] Humans have • Diathesis-stress model genetic vulnerability + life Chemistry Ethical implications Æ the impact or
free will, but some behaviours are stressor = risk of developing disorder. Neurochemistry consequence that research has on the
controlled (Aggression/Mental • Biopsych. EP and EZ are needed to reset circadian wider context.
health) rhythms. Physics Social sensitivity Æ Research has a
Hard D. Æ [BIO/BEHAV/PSYCH] • Epigenetics Lifestyle can alter genetic activity Eg Quantum potentially sensitive/controversial
Human behaviour is a result of smoking, drinking. physics. consequence or implication on society.
internal or external forces which are • The research question / the methodology
predictable and causes. IDIOGRAPHIC NOMOTHETIC (an approach to researching) / the institutional context and
Biological D Æ Genes, IDIOGRAPHIC Æ to focus research on individuals with an emphasis on the self and interpretation can reduce socially
neurotransmitters, hormones, brain .I . sensitive research.
structure all control behaviour. • Prefers to use qualitative data, self-reporting, case studies, unstructured interviews.
• Humanism Æ self-reporting within therapy / we all have unique self-actualisation • Milgram Æ Positive ethical implication
Environmental D. Æ Socialisation, because we understand how/why people
conditioning, law of effects. goals and free will. obey BUT social sensitive because we can
Psychic D. Æ Unconscious, NOMOTHETIC Æ Studying populations of groups of people to make generalisations and use this to manipulate people.
psychoanalysis, psychosexual stages, conclusions about behaviour. Uses general laws (Classification, principles and • Bowlby Æ reformed childcare practices BUT
ide, ego, superego, parapraxes. dimensions). encouraged the view that mothers need to
Doubly-determined Æ When 2 or • Prefer to use quantitative data, objective measures and structure interviews. raise children instead of returning to work or
more forces are responsible for • Behavioural Æ Very scientific and aims to make predictions about behaviour. they would face a burden.
• Biological Æ Very scientific and aims to make classification systems to predict • Biopsych. Æ Research into shift work and
behaviour (parenting and hormones) health effects can be socially sensitive
Causal explanation Æ Determinism behaviour. because it can encourage people to leave
can show that all behaviour has a Combination Æ Each approach complements each other. We need idiographic to their jobs.
cause and can be controlled within a create nomothetic laws, and we need nomothetic laws to understand group influences • Cyril Burt and 11+ exams.
scientific study. ( ). W • Loftus Æ EWT research reformed cognitive
same by doing so? Downloaded by Iram Gulfaraz ([email protected]) interview.