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Continental
Philosophy of
Psychiatry
The Lure of Madness

Alastair Morgan
Continental Philosophy of Psychiatry
 Alastair Morgan

Continental
Philosophy of
Psychiatry
The Lure of Madness
Alastair Morgan
University of Manchester
Manchester, UK

ISBN 978-3-031-09333-3    ISBN 978-3-031-09334-0 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09334-0

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature
Switzerland AG 2022
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether
the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of
illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and
transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar
or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or
the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any
errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG.
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
For Marion, with all my love
 Preface

I started thinking about the idea of a book on continental philosophy of

psychiatry just after finishing my doctorate over fifteen years ago. I had
written a thesis on the epigraph to Adorno’s Minima Moralia: “life does
not live”. Whilst studying part-time, I had also been working in the psy-
chiatric system mostly with people with diagnoses of severe mental illness.
I was thinking about a way of putting the two sides of my life together
intellectually and returned to reading the largely forgotten (at that time)
texts of continental psychiatry. Indeed, I remember rescuing Jaspers’
General Psychopathology from the remaindered pile in the medical library
of the university. On reading and rereading those texts I found that they
shared a theme with my previous studies. Madness was largely configured
as lifeless life and then dialectically related to a wider alienation.
I came to these texts already pre-armed, partly intellectually and partly
from experience, with a theoretical standpoint. I describe myself as a
critic of psychiatry; a critic of its tendency to reify mental processes and
reduce psychic illnesses to bodily pathologies. However, I was increas-
ingly aware that many critics of psychiatry seemed completely uninter-
ested in the history of psychiatry. The unfolding of a critique was always
prefaced with a potted history that denounced psychiatry for its unremit-
ting dour positivism and social control. Such a view did not match the

vii
viii Preface

fascinating and plural engagements with madness that unfolded in my

reading of the texts of continental psychiatry. Criticism that remained
only denunciation without interest in these multiple voices of psychiatry
seemed, to me, empty and sterile.
I always conceived this book, even from its inception, as a critical res-
cue: a rescue of a minor psychiatry that was open to difference and plural
in its practice and outlook. Such a rescue is an attention to parts of his-
tory that have been passed by, neglected or overlooked. This is not, hope-
fully, to downplay suffering or the violence of psychiatry. Such a rescue
always remains critical in its outlook.
Initially, I also played with the idea of a critical rescue of madness.
What is fascinating about continental philosophy of psychiatry is that its
central experiential moment is the encounter with madness, and with the
determination not to dissolve the strangeness of such an encounter. I saw
in some critics of psychiatry an attempt to dissolve this strangeness by
normalising it in one form or another. However, in writing the book I
became more sceptical about the rescue of an idea of madness, an idea
that is problematically paired with notions of silence, absence and death-­
in-­life in the continental tradition.
Philosophy lives in contradictions, and not only in their dissolution. A
philosophy of psychiatry, or even a critique of psychiatry, without an
attention to the shock of an encounter with madness would be sterile or
disingenuous. However, such an encounter must not rest in silence, but
open itself to the voices of madness, even without final answers or resolu-
tions. One of the affinities between psychiatry and philosophy is that
both survive through the unanswered question, and perhaps that is not
such a bad thing, after all.
I would like to thank the following people who have helped through
discussion, feedback and invitations to present my ideas; Sven Anders
Johansson, Brian O’Connor, Angela Woods and Matthew Broome. I
would like to thank anonymous peer reviewers of the draft text. I want to
thank Brendan George at Palgrave for supporting this project and Ruby
Pangrahi for her help in producing the book. Particular thanks to Tim
Calton for those afternoon conversations in Duncan Macmillan House.
 Preface ix

Above all, thanks to my wife Marion for all her love, intellectual advice,
support and encouragement with this project and with so much more.
This book would not have been produced without her help and is dedi-
cated to her.

Alastair Morgan
 Contents

1 Introduction  1

Part I Three Inclusive Exclusions  11

2 “A Subtle, Pervasive and Strangely Uncertain Light”:

Jaspers on Understanding Madness 15

3 “As Strange to Me as the Birds in the Garden”: Bleuler,

Jung and the Creation of Schizophrenia 29

4 A Distance from All That Is Human: Freud and Psychosis 45

Part II Through a Glass Darkly  67

5 Vital Contact 71

6 Ipseity 91

xi
xii Contents

7 The Body107

8 Being-in-the-World131

Part III It’s A Mad World 163

9 “The World Cannot Acknowledge Its Own Madness”:

Alienation and the Destruction of Experience167

10 Reification and Schizophrenia: A Socio-­pathological

Parallelism185

11 “Beware, Marcuse”!201

12 “O My Body…”: Fanon and the Pathologies of

Recognition223

Part IV A Certain Madness Must Watch Over Thinking 249

13 “In the Distance of Madness”: Foucault and the

History of Madness.253

14 The Lure of Madness269

15 Lacan: The Shadow of Madness283

16 The Ineffable and Limit-experience307

Part V Anti-psychiatry and Madness 327

17 Capitalism and Schizophrenia331

 Contents xiii

18 A Germinal Anti-Psychiatry: R.D. Laing’s Wild Empathy355

19 “It all began with a ‘no’”: The Institution Negated383

20 Epilogue: The End of Madness?405

Index415
 1
Introduction

This book begins with an experience of philosophical failure. The tradi-

tion of continental philosophy of psychiatry attempted to understand
madness using the methodological principles of the newly formed human
sciences: understanding, empathy and the reconstruction of narrative
meaning. However, when faced with madness, these methodologies
crumbled.
Within two years of each other, from 1911–1913, three texts
approached madness and inaugurated a tradition. In 1913, Karl Jaspers
wrote General Psychopathology, emphasising the necessity of an approach
based on understanding and meaning for a truly humane psychiatry.
However, famously, he concluded that madness is ununderstandable. In
1911, Eugen Bleuler, following a period of great conceptual productivity
and direct contact with psychoanalysis, gave the name of schizophrenia
to a range of puzzling and strange experiences encountered in the clinic.
Schizophrenia became the archetypical clinical concept of madness in the
twentieth century. However, Bleuler’s dynamic psychiatry that was open,
eclectic, and formed by direct contact with patients, could ultimately
only understand madness through a specific concept of autism, as lack of

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 1

A. Morgan, Continental Philosophy of Psychiatry,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-09334-0_1
2 A. Morgan

life. In the same year, 1911, Freud turned his attention to psychosis by
writing his text on the Schreber case. He argued that psychoanalysis could
only focus on neurosis because transference is impossible with people
experiencing psychosis. The new hermeneutic of psychoanalysis, based
on a deep attention and attentiveness to unconscious and irrational ele-
ments within the psyche, could not communicate with madness.
I emphasise this as an experience of philosophical failure. One could say
that it became a kind of neurotic experience for philosophy; something
that lingered and could not be extinguished from thought. It is a failure
that inaugurates a tradition not by resolving the problem but by dwelling
within the paradox; how can reason understand that which is beyond
reason? This failure launched a tradition that continued for much of the
twentieth century yet fades by the turn of the century; a tradition that
attempted to understand madness as another world.

Continental Philosophy
Simon Glendinning, in his argument against the idea of continental phi-
losophy lays down a gauntlet for any writer engaging in a project such as
this. Glendinning (2006: 13) writes that, “… there is no such thing as the
tradition of continental philosophy”. He argues that continental philoso-
phy should be considered as the construction of its other by analytic
philosophy. The only thing that unifies the so-called tradition of conti-
nental philosophy is that it contains everything that analytic philosophy
wants to disavow as not properly philosophical. Those writing in the
“continental” tradition should have the courage of their convictions and
stop applying labels that have little or no meaning.
Despite this anxiety, I think there is a specific tradition of continental
philosophy of psychiatry in the twentieth century and I hope to articulate
this tradition in the pages that follow. As Kearney (1994: 1) writes, this
tradition may be more a “patchwork of diverse strands” than a “seamless
fabric”, but I demonstrate a series of overlapping themes that do cohere
across a range of philosophers and psychiatrists working in the continen-
tal tradition.
 1 Introduction 3

The animating motivation underpinning continental philosophy in

the early twentieth century was a reaction against positivism, and against
a dominance of a scientific worldview. As Critchley (2001: 103) notes,
this anti-scientism is marked by a belief that the model of the natural sci-
ences cannot serve as a template for understanding human beings and
tends to reduce the richness of experience to a causally determined realm
of facts. It is important to emphasise that anti-scientism is not against
science, but in favour of a new kind of science, informed by the under-
standing of meaning and self-consciousness.
This hostility to a conception of philosophy based on the natural sci-
ences, was exacerbated by a crisis of reason that was intensified by the
First World War and continued through the atrocities of the twentieth
century. Continental philosophy is marked by an underlying and con-
stant crisis of enlightenment rationality that is concerned that an abstract
reason has separated human experience from the sources of life and pro-
duced a series of disasters. At the beginning of the twentieth century,
philosophical movements in the human sciences, in phenomenology, in
life-philosophy (Lebensphilosophie) and in psychoanalysis are all formed,
and all concern a crisis in rationality in one form or another. The solution
to such a crisis lay in a concept of experience as a fulfilled, qualitative
rationality; this was often configured, problematically, as a concept of
authenticity.
The tradition of continental philosophy of psychiatry that I outline in
this book covers the short twentieth century from 1910 through to 1980.
At the end of the twentieth century the move against anti-psychiatry and
the attempt to re-assert a biological psychiatry displaced the centrality
of a thinking of madness in both philosophy and psychiatry. Kusters
(2020: 2) has written of this as a process where madness becomes “neu-
tralised, anaesthetised and ultimately ‘fragmented’ or ‘annihilated’”.
From 1910 to 1980, I narrate a tradition that is structured around six
core themes that are interwoven in both philosophical thought and psy-
chiatric practice.
First, there is a focus on pre-reflective experience. This is a dominant
theme in phenomenology but also present in critical theory,
4 A. Morgan

post-­structuralism, and psychoanalysis. Rather than understanding a

rationality separated from embodiment, continental philosophy outlined
a concept of experience structured by a fundamental affective, embodied,
and temporal ipseity of experience. This is an attention to a grounding
attunement or vital contact with life that serves both as the grounds for
reason and also as a critique of what reason has become.
Second, the challenge of psychoanalysis to the autonomous rationality
of the self is central to continental understandings of reason and mad-
ness. The decentering of rationality and human autonomy and the unveil-
ing of irrational grounds for reason poses a challenge to conceptions of
philosophical rationality based on a transparent and autonomous
subjectivity.
Third, critical theory unfolds a dialectic of madness and reason. The
attempt to understand madness results in a reflection on the question of
the pathology of reason itself. This is framed either by understanding
madness as an apotheosis of a reason gone astray or understanding mad-
ness as a possibility of moving beyond the alienation of what Weber
famously termed the “iron cage” of reason.
Fourth, the question of language as a structure for human experience
but also as a prison-house for human subjectivity is a central theme in
continental philosophy of psychiatry and in psychoanalysis. Can mad-
ness speak? If it can speak, how does it distort or subvert language and to
what end? Is madness condemned to silence?
Fifth, there is a constant interrogation of the difference between the
ego and the self. What is the relationship between an ego that conforms
to the rational necessities of adaptive life and a more immaterial self that
lies beyond the ego, in the unconscious drives, or in the free projection of
human experience? There is a contrast between egoic rationality and an
immaterial concept of the self that has problematic dualistic overtones,
but that sees the loss of ego in madness as both an index of suffering and
possibility.
Finally, the concept of power is a focus for continental philosophy of
psychiatry. How does the power of psychiatry and the power of societal
oppression determine and situate forms of madness and how can these
powers be contested or transgressed?
Another random document with
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lighted it with the other that was low, and set it alongside.
“I have a daughter,” she said, “nearly as big as you.”
—I want to speak! What can I say to this woman? It is hard, it will be
braver to keep silent: not to break this stillness in which her will so
strangely works—toward what? For her sake, I am still.
“I am a failure. Look at me, Boy. Look at me. Look at Fanny Dirk. There
is light enough to look.”
He looked at her. But he saw only her eyes that were very strong and
clear.
“You have talked with me long,” she said. “Be quiet with me now.”
They faced each other over the mellow table. It broadened, it narrowed:
they were far and close. There was a wave in the room, making the table
and the two flames and their own forms curve and refract, as if their eyes
caught this reality of them together through some substance quick like
flowing water.
“Be still,” she whispered.
The clock gave a stroke: “Half ... past ... eleven.”

—He stays!
—He has listened to my words. He has heard my will.
Carnally he came.
That is swept away.
My will has cleaned him unto me. He stays.

She watched him. Blond warm boy, with eyes tender and virgin: afraid
of the brusque world. Boy with heart beating a measure beyond the reach of
your eyes!
 —Shall I learn now?
What Leon promised? what the dolorous years
Failed to fulfill?
Shall I learn now from you?...
He has stayed and been kind. Soon he will go away,
Forgetting Thelma. Will you leave me knowledge?
—O I do not understand ...
Why I have wanted, why I have wanted ...
Why I have fallen and fallen, looking for God!
You, Boy, won’t you go away
And leave me Knowledge?...

Her hands were upon the table. His hands were near her hands upon the
table. Their eyes joined. He rested upon the yearning of her eyes. His mind
was empty.

—Go away. Yes. Before I have lost!

Go, before your staying slays me, Boy.
Go—leave me Knowledge!

He did not stir. His eyes lay within her own as in a womb, resting
omnipotent, knowing no act. She held him.
—Go. Reveal to me!
The bell rang.
—Go!
The bell rang.
The bell drove an iron finger between his eyes and her own. His eyes
stirred. The bell rang.
—Go! By the will of God, go!
Leave me what my life has bled away
To find at the Bottom ...

The bell rang. His eyes were quickened, for his senses knew not her but
that the bell rang.
Fanny got up. He was fixed.... She felt a stirring under her heart.
“Hush, Edith my child,” she murmured, getting up.
 Her body was stiff and leaden. But she felt with all her body how his
eyes were quickened. Her own eyes turned her about.
Fanny moved with her eyes. His eyes, stirring to life beyond her, were
within her womb like a child unborn.... “Hush Edith!”
She moved through the tunnelling hall, a shadow darker than it, about
eyes that were wells of fire. She had put back the chain upon the door.
Groping she loosed it. Thelma burst in....
Thelma Clark was there: exhilerant, laughing, savage.
“O you dear ... waiting all this time for me.” She swayed. “In the dark!
Waiting, you sillies, with a candle between you. What’s the matter with the
gas?”
The room flared bright.
—Give me your eyes. Not to her! Let me hold your eyes.
Thelma flung herself on Samson’s lap. She kissed him.
Fanny saw his eyes draw in, swerve to another orbit, flame away.... The
line of Thelma’s thigh lashed in blue silk, the crumple of her little breasts
bursting within the lowcut waist ... there, there.
The eyes of Samson died from the eyes of Fanny.
He stood. He touched Thelma’s lips with his hand.
“Come.”
They were gone....

Fanny heard the door shut. She was alone. She sat down where she had
sat before at the table. She arose. She shut out the gas. A peal of Thelma’s
laughter pierced the door. The room clapped close about the fainting flame
of the one candle.
Fanny sat down where she had sat before. Beyond her rigid gaze was an
empty place. Beyond the empty place was the Night. Within her gaze was
the Night. Her eyes held nothing.
“And a Jew,” she murmured “a Jew was to bring me Light.”
She faced the Emptiness about her. She met it. Emptiness? The little
candle stilly laid it whole, perfect, before her. Behind her a shut door. About
her Emptiness.
“—and God?”
Sudden her eyes were hard. “Think of him,” she spoke. Her mouth full
of tears made her voice liquid. “Think of him. Think of him, Fanny. No one
else!... Your Light-bearer, your Prophet, your Voice in the Wilderness—
there he is, out there, in the arms of Thelma.... Fanny, dare to think.”
She was still. She was a little woman huddled in the Dark with hard
eyes, daring to think.
Daring to see!
Her mouth tremored. Her hands reached open before her. They clasped.
She drew her hands in upon her breasts: and as they pressed, her eyes
blazed with anguish as if she held flame to her flesh. She pressed ... she
pressed. Her face broke.... Then, from the wreckage of her features there
was born a smile making them clear and sharp, making them fair and high.
A Light shone in them.
1916-1921

Typographical errors corrected by

the etext transcriber:
stook still=> stood still {pg 57}
football thrust her=> footfall thrust
her {pg 86}
Take the chancet=> Take the chance
{pg}106
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