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Mental Health in Historical Perspective

The Cost of
Insanity in
Nineteenth-Century
Ireland
Public, Voluntary and
Private Asylum Care

Alice Mauger
Mental Health in Historical Perspective

Series Editors
Catharine Coleborne
School of Humanities and Social Science
University of Newcastle
Callaghan, NSW, Australia

Matthew Smith
History of Psychiatry
University of Strathclyde
Glasgow, UK
Covering all historical periods and geographical contexts, the series
explores how mental illness has been understood, experienced, diag-
nosed, treated and contested. It will publish works that engage actively
with contemporary debates related to mental health and, as such, will be
of interest not only to historians, but also mental health professionals,
patients and policy makers. With its focus on mental health, rather than
just psychiatry, the series will endeavour to provide more patient-centred
histories. Although this has long been an aim of health historians, it has
not been realised, and this series aims to change that.
The scope of the series is kept as broad as possible to attract good
quality proposals about all aspects of the history of mental health from
all periods. The series emphasises interdisciplinary approaches to the field
of study, and encourages short titles, longer works, collections, and titles
which stretch the boundaries of academic publishing in new ways.

More information about this series at

http://www.springer.com/series/14806
 Alice Mauger

The Cost of Insanity in

Nineteenth-Century
Ireland
Public, Voluntary and Private Asylum Care
Alice Mauger
Centre for the History of Medicine in
Ireland, School of History
University College Dublin
Dublin, Ireland

Mental Health in Historical Perspective

ISBN 978-3-319-65243-6 ISBN 978-3-319-65244-3 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-65244-3

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017949204

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2018. This book is an open access publication.
Open Access This book is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution
4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits
use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as
you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the
Creative Commons license and indicate if changes were made.
The images or other third party material in this book are included in the book’s Creative
Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material
is not included in the book’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not
permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain
permission directly from the copyright holder.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are
exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and
information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication.
Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied,
with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have
been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published
maps and institutional affiliations.

Cover credit: © book cover art Joana Kruse/Alamy Stock Photo

Printed on acid-free paper

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by Springer Nature

The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
In Memory of my Mother, Mary
 Acknowledgements

This book is the product of the immense levels of support and encour-
agement given to me over the last few years, not just in University
College Dublin, where I studied, but in archives, other universities and
at home. Dr. Catherine Cox was a constant source of guidance, provid-
ing me with the essential and thought-provoking feedback, comments
and criticism she is uniquely qualified to make. I would also particularly
like to thank Dr. Lindsey Earner-Byrne, for her kindness, thoroughness
and professional insights into all my academic pursuits and her continued
interest and support. In addition, I am indebted to my colleagues who
have worked at the School of History and Archives and the Centre for
the History of Medicine in Ireland at University College Dublin for their
stimulating academic conversations, helpful advice and friendship. These
include Drs. Anne Mac Lellan, David Durnin, Fiachra Byrne, Richard
McElligott, Sarah York, Niamh NicGhabhann, Sean Lucey, Philomena
Gorey, Clara Cullen, Claire Poinsot, Ian Miller and Keith Smith, and my
former colleagues at William Fry, including Maria Butler and Deirdre
McGuinness. I am also indebted to everyone who has provided feedback,
comments and questions at the various places I presented my work. I am
especially grateful to the Wellcome Trust, who kindly funded both my
master’s and doctoral studies and made it possible for me to spend peri-
ods of time in different parts of Ireland conducting research and to share
it with colleagues abroad. Thanks also to the editorial team at Palgrave
MacMillan, especially Molly Beck and the anonymous reviewer for their
generous and insightful feedback on drafts of this manuscript.

vii
viii Acknowledgements

The archival research, which forms the basis of this book, would not
have been possible without the confidence vested in me by those who
granted me access to the nineteenth-century records of nine Irish psy-
chiatric hospitals. I am extremely grateful to these individuals and col-
lectives, who include Emma Balmaine, Sile McManus, Stewarts’ Ethics
Committee and the HSE. I would especially like to thank Dr. Denis
Eustace, who not only took the time to meet with me and grant me
access to his treasure trove of historic records but also provided me
with his keen insight and unparalleled knowledge of Hampstead and
Highfield Houses. His tour of the demesne, encompassing its unspoiled
nineteenth-century pleasure grounds, really brought to life for me the
history I was writing.
Archival research would have proven rather isolating and daunting
were it not for the kindness, patience and immeasurable assistance of the
archivists, librarians and records keepers at the various places I worked.
They include Brian Donnelly and Gregory O’Connor at the National
Archives of Ireland, Gráinne Doran at the Wexford County Council
Archive Service, Irene Franklin at Clare County Council, Richard
Bennett at Grangegorman Museum, Glynn and Shirley Douglas and all
the gang at the Friend’s Historical Library in Rathfarnham, Joan Rappel
and Sean Priestly at Stewarts, Kate McCallion at St John of God Hospital
and Harriet Wheelock at the Royal College of Physicians of Ireland.
Their inspiring suggestions and interest in my research made archival
visits an enjoyable and productive pursuit and were a testament to their
dedication in furthering the study of Irish history. Many went beyond
their call of duty, providing me with transport to and from archives and
even lunch! I would also like to thank the staff at the National Archives
of Ireland, the National Archives (Kew), the National Library of Ireland
and the Public Records Office Northern Ireland.
I want to thank all my close friends and my family, especially Ralph
Mauger, Jack and Emma Carroll, and Catherine, Philip and Sophie
Mitchell. Their endurance and encouragement have been unwavering
and I am forever indebted to them. I would not be where I am today
without the guidance, love and support of my mother, Mary, who always
believed in me. Finally, thanks to Richard for his unceasing patience,
direction and moral support, and for being my best friend.
Alice Mauger
 Contents

1 Introduction 1

Part I Governing Insanity

2 The Non-Pauper Insane: Private, Voluntary

and State Concerns 27

3 An Institutional Marketplace 69

Part II Understanding Insanity

4 ‘A Considerable Degree Removed from Pauperism’?:

The Social Profile of Fee-Paying Patients 115

5 ‘The Evil Effects of Mental Strain and Overwork’:

Employment, Gender and Insanity 149

6 ‘A Great Source of Amusement’: Work Therapy

and Recreation 189

ix
x Contents

7 Respect and Respectability: The Treatment and

Expectations of Fee-Paying Patients 207

Conclusion 253

Appendix: A Methodology and Sources for Chapter 4 259

Select Bibliography 261

Index 273
 Abbreviations

CCA Clare Country Archives

CSORP Chief Secretary’s Office Registered Papers
FHL Friend’s Historical Library, Rathfarnham, Dublin
GM Grangegorman Museum
NAI National Archives of Ireland
PRONI Public Records Office of Northern Ireland
SJOGH St. John of God Hospital
WCC Wexford County Council

xi
 List of Figures

Fig. 2.1 Patient numbers in voluntary and private asylums

in Ireland, 1830 to 1900 44
Fig. 2.2 Patient numbers in St Patrick’s, Bloomfield,
St Vincent’s and Stewarts, 1830–1900 45
Fig. 3.1 Advertisement for Hampstead House, Glasnevin,
Dublin, 1858 91
Fig. 7.1 Photograph of Michael C., male paying patient,
Richmond district asylum, 20 May 1900 217
Fig. 7.2 Photograph of Rebecca B., female paying patient,
Richmond district asylum, undated 239

xiii
 List of Tables

Table 2.1 Number of paying patients resident in district

asylums and the proportion of paying patients
to total patients resident in district asylums, 1857–1889 55
Table 2.2 Number of paying patients admitted to district asylums
and the proportion of paying patient admissions
to total admissions to district asylums, 1880–1890 55
Table 2.3 Proportion of paying patients and patients supposed
to have means but do not pay to total resident population
of district asylums in Ireland, 1865–1875 57
Table 3.1 Breakdown of amounts contributed to maintenance
of patients at Belfast, Ennis, Enniscorthy and Richmond
district asylums, 1868–1900 71
Table 3.2 Proportion of contributions towards patients’
maintenance at Belfast, Ennis, Enniscorthy and Richmond
district asylums, 1875–1895 81
Table 3.3 Documented maintenance fees, Stewarts and Bloomfield,
1858–1900 84
Table 3.4 Maintenance fees at Stewarts 85
Table 3.5 Known length of stay for patients admitted to the district,
voluntary and private asylums studied, 1868–1900 98
Table 3.6 Known outcome of stay for patients admitted to the district,
voluntary and private asylums studied, 1868–1900 99
Table 4.1 Gender of first admissions to the case studies, 1868–1900 117
Table 4.2 Known maintenance fees by gender of paying patients
admitted to Belfast, Ennis, Enniscorthy and Richmond
district asylums, 1868–1900 118

xv
xvi List of Tables

Table 4.3 Known maintenance fees by gender of first admissions

to Bloomfield and Stewart’s, 1868–1900 118
Table 4.4 Known maintenance fees by gender of first admissions
to Hampstead and Highfield, 1868–1900 119
Table 4.5 Known marital status by gender of first admissions
to the case studies, 1868–1900 and in the Irish census,
1871–1901 119
Table 4.6 Maintenance fees by gender by marital status of first
admissions to the case studies, 1868–1900 120
Table 4.7 Known religious persuasion of first admissions
to the case studies, 1868–1900 121
Table 4.8 Former occupation of male first admissions
to the case studies, 1868–1900 122
Table 4.9 Known maintenance fees for male farmer first admissions
to Belfast, Ennis, Enniscorthy and Richmond district
asylums, 1868–1900 123
Table 4.10 Relationship between land acreage and maintenance
fees charged for paying patients admitted to Enniscorthy
district asylum, 1868–1900 130
Table 4.11 Former occupations of female first admissions to the case
studies, 1868–1900 136
Table 4.12 Female first admissions to the case studies associated with
farming, 1868–1900 137
Table 5.1 Supposed cause of illness of first admissions
to the case studies, 1868–1900 152
Table 5.2 Physical and moral causes by gender most commonly
assigned to first admissions to the case studies, 1868–1900 153
Table 7.1 Proportion of patients described as ‘Dangerous to Others’
in case notes on Bloomfield, Stewarts, St John of God’s,
Hampstead and Highfield patients, c. 1890s 232
Table 7.2 Recorded diagnoses of first admissions to the case studies,
1868–1900 233
 CHAPTER 1

Introduction

Recent decades have witnessed growing fascination with the development

of Irish mental healthcare.1 Scholars have delved into nineteenth-century
records to uncover astonishingly colourful and detailed accounts of insti-
tutionalisation. Their studies have recaptured the very fabric of asylum
life: the sort of people committed, their behaviour, the treatments they
received and their experiences and views of incarceration. The emerging
pictures tend to be punctuated by staff violence, filth, overcrowding and a
mounting pessimism about medicine’s ability to cure ‘insanity’. In spite of
this undeniable progress in reclaiming the history of Ireland’s mentally ill
and their caregivers, scholarship has focused overwhelmingly on the poor.
This tendency arguably reflects a historical reality. Those admitted
to asylums, but not as paupers, were relatively few. Yet by shifting our
focus away from the poor and assessing the assortment of care options
for other social groups, we can gain vivid insights into how families
from a variety of social backgrounds coped with mental illness. A far
cry from Charlotte Brontë’s ‘madwoman in the attic’, more than one of
Ireland’s asylums was kept exclusively for respectable ladies. As this book
will reveal, the sense of class identity and social status shared by fami-
lies, along with their collective spending power, had overwhelming con-
sequences for patients’ care and treatment. The high importance rural
Irish families placed on property—especially land—lends to this study a
particularly interesting dimension. This book interrogates the popular
notion that relatives were routinely locked away to be deprived of land

© The Author(s) 2018 1

A. Mauger, The Cost of Insanity in Nineteenth-Century
Ireland, Mental Health in Historical Perspective,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-65244-3_1
Another random document with
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Romancero gitano
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the
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Title: Romancero gitano

Author: Federico García Lorca

Release date: January 9, 2024 [eBook #72665]

Language: Spanish

Original publication: Madrid: Revista de Occidente,

1928

Credits: Ramón Pajares Box (This file was produced

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ROMANCERO GITANO ***
Índice

Nota de transcripción

Los errores de imprenta han sido corregidos.

La ortografía y puntuación originales han sido conservadas, con
estas tres excepciones:
p. 95: Aladren → Aladrén (Para Emilio Aladrén.)
p. 111: horzas → orzas (y las orzas de moneda.)
p. 141: llemas → yemas (y en las yemas de tus dedos.)

Las páginas en blanco han sido eliminadas.

PRIMER ROMANCERO GITANO
(1924-1927)
PRIMER ROMANCERO
GITANO
1924-1927

por
FEDERICO GARCÍA LORCA

Re v i s t a d e O cc i d e n t e
Madrid
 COPYRIGHT BY
REVISTA DE OCCIDENTE
MADRID, 1928

Tipografía Nacional. San Marcos, 4, Madrid.

 1
ROMANCE DE LA LUNA, LUNA

A Conchita García Lorca.

ROMANCE DE LA LUNA, LUNA

La luna vino a la fragua

con su polisón de nardos.
El niño la mira mira.
El niño la está mirando.
En el aire conmovido
mueve la luna sus brazos
y enseña, lúbrica y pura,
sus senos de duro estaño.
Huye luna, luna, luna.
Si vinieran los gitanos,
harían con tu corazón
collares y anillos blancos.
Niño, déjame que baile.
Cuando vengan los gitanos,
te encontrarán sobre el yunque
con los ojillos cerrados.
Huye luna, luna, luna,
que ya siento sus caballos.
Niño, déjame, no pises
mi blancor almidonado.
 El jinete se acercaba
tocando el tambor del llano.
Dentro de la fragua el niño,
tiene los ojos cerrados.
Por el olivar venían,
bronce y sueño, los gitanos.
Las cabezas levantadas
y los ojos entornados.

Cómo canta la zumaya,

¡ay cómo canta en el árbol!
Por el cielo va la luna
con un niño de la mano.

Dentro de la fragua lloran,

dando gritos, los gitanos.
El aire la vela, vela.
El aire la está velando.
 2
PRECIOSA Y EL AIRE

A Dámaso Alonso.
PRECIOSA Y EL AIRE

Su luna de pergamino
Preciosa tocando viene,
por un anfibio sendero
de cristales y laureles.
El silencio sin estrellas,
huyendo del sonsonete,
cae donde el mar bate y canta
su noche llena de peces.
En los picos de la sierra
los carabineros duermen
guardando las blancas torres
donde viven los ingleses.
Y los gitanos del agua
levantan por distraerse,
glorietas de caracolas
y ramas de pino verde.

Su luna de pergamino
Preciosa tocando viene.
Al verla se ha levantado
el viento, que nunca duerme.
San Cristobalón desnudo,
lleno de lenguas celestes,
mira a la niña tocando
una dulce gaita ausente.

Niña, deja que levante

tu vestido para verte.
Abre en mis dedos antiguos
la rosa azul de tu vientre.

Preciosa tira el pandero

y corre sin detenerse.
El viento-hombrón la persigue
con una espada caliente.

Frunce su rumor el mar.

Los olivos palidecen.
Cantan las flautas de umbría
y el liso gong de la nieve.

¡Preciosa, corre, Preciosa,

que te coge el viento verde!
¡Preciosa, corre, Preciosa!
¡Míralo por dónde viene!
Sátiro de estrellas bajas
con sus lenguas relucientes.

Preciosa, llena de miedo,

entra en la casa que tiene
más arriba de los pinos,
el cónsul de los ingleses.

Asustados por los gritos

tres carabineros vienen,
sus negras capas ceñidas
y los gorros en las sienes.

El inglés da a la gitana
un vaso de tibia leche,
y una copa de ginebra
que Preciosa no se bebe.

Y mientras cuenta, llorando,

su aventura a aquella gente,
en las tejas de pizarra
el viento, furioso, muerde.
 3
REYERTA

A Rafael Méndez.
 REYERTA

En la mitad del barranco

las navajas de Albacete
bellas de sangre contraria,
relucen como los peces.
Una dura luz de naipe
recorta en el agrio verde,
caballos enfurecidos
y perfiles de jinetes.
En la copa de un olivo
lloran dos viejas mujeres.
El toro de la reyerta
se sube por las paredes.
Ángeles negros traían
pañuelos y agua de nieve.
Ángeles con grandes alas
de navajas de Albacete.
Juan Antonio el de Montilla
rueda muerto la pendiente,
su cuerpo lleno de lirios
y una granada en las sienes.
Ahora monta cruz de fuego
carretera de la muerte.

El juez, con guardia civil,

por los olivares viene.
Sangre resbalada gime
muda canción de serpiente.
Señores guardias civiles:
aquí pasó lo de siempre.
Han muerto cuatro romanos
y cinco cartagineses.

La tarde loca de higueras

y de rumores calientes,
cae desmayada en los muslos
heridos de los jinetes.
Y ángeles negros volaban
por el aire del poniente.
Ángeles de largas trenzas
y corazones de aceite.
 4
ROMANCE SONÁMBULO

A Gloria Giner
y
A Fernando de los Ríos.
ROMANCE SONÁMBULO

Verde que te quiero verde.

Verde viento. Verdes ramas.
El barco sobre la mar
y el caballo en la montaña.
Con la sombra en la cintura,
ella sueña en su baranda
verde carne, pelo verde,
con ojos de fría plata.
Verde que te quiero verde.
Bajo la luna gitana,
las cosas la están mirando
y ella no puede mirarlas.

Verde que te quiero verde.

Grandes estrellas de escarcha,
vienen con el pez de sombra
que abre el camino del alba.
La higuera frota su viento
con la lija de sus ramas,
y el monte, gato garduño,
eriza sus pitas agrias.
¿Pero quién vendrá? ¿Y por dónde?...
Ella sigue en su baranda
verde carne, pelo verde,
soñando en la mar amarga.

Compadre, quiero cambiar,

mi caballo por su casa,
mi montura por su espejo,
mi cuchillo por su manta.
Compadre, vengo sangrando,
desde los puertos de Cabra.
Si yo pudiera, mocito,
este trato se cerraba.
Pero yo ya no soy yo,
ni mi casa es ya mi casa.
Compadre, quiero morir
decentemente en mi cama.
De acero, si puede ser,
con las sábanas de holanda.
¿No ves la herida que tengo
desde el pecho a la garganta?
Trescientas rosas morenas
lleva tu pechera blanca.
Tu sangre rezuma y huele
alrededor de tu faja.
Pero yo ya no soy yo.
Ni mi casa es ya mi casa.
Dejadme subir al menos
hasta las altas barandas,
¡dejadme subir!, dejadme
hasta las verdes barandas.
Barandales de la luna
por donde retumba el agua.

Ya suben los dos compadres

hacia las altas barandas.
Dejando un rastro de sangre.
Dejando un rastro de lágrimas.
Temblaban en los tejados
farolillos de hojalata.
Mil panderos de cristal,
herían la madrugada.

Verde que te quiero verde,

verde viento, verdes ramas.
Los dos compadres subieron.
El largo viento, dejaba
en la boca un raro gusto
de hiel, de menta y de albahaca.
¡Compadre! ¿Dónde está, dime?
¿Dónde está tu niña amarga?
¡Cuántas veces te esperó!
¡Cuántas veces te esperara
cara fresca, negro pelo,
en esta verde baranda!

Sobre el rostro del aljibe,

se mecía la gitana.
Verde carne, pelo verde,
con ojos de fría plata.
Un carámbano de luna,
la sostiene sobre el agua.
La noche se puso íntima
como una pequeña plaza.
Guardias civiles borrachos,
en la puerta golpeaban.
Verde que te quiero verde.
Verde viento. Verdes ramas.
El barco sobre la mar.
Y el caballo en la montaña.
 5
LA MONJA GITANA

A José Moreno Villa.

 LA MONJA GITANA

Silencio de cal y mirto.

Malvas en las hierbas finas.
La monja borda alhelíes
sobre una tela pajiza.
Vuelan en la araña gris,
siete pájaros del prisma.
La iglesia gruñe a lo lejos
como un oso panza arriba.
¡Qué bien borda! ¡Con qué gracia!
Sobre la tela pajiza,
ella quisiera bordar
flores de su fantasía.
¡Qué girasol! ¡Qué magnolia
de lentejuelas y cintas!
¡Qué azafranes y qué lunas,
en el mantel de la misa!
Cinco toronjas se endulzan
en la cercana cocina.
Las cinco llagas de Cristo
cortadas en Almería.
Por los ojos de la monja
galopan dos caballistas.
Un rumor último y sordo
le despega la camisa,
y al mirar nubes y montes
en las yertas lejanías,
se quiebra su corazón
de azúcar y yerbaluisa.
¡Oh!, qué llanura empinada
con veinte soles arriba.
¡Qué ríos puestos de pie
vislumbra su fantasía!
Pero sigue con sus flores,
mientras que de pie, en la brisa,
la luz juega el ajedrez
alto de la celosía.
 6
LA CASADA INFIEL

A Lydia Cabrera y a su negrita.