Science Y2

Chapter 9: Application of Forces and Transfer of Energy

How do forces in nature affect us?
Many Natural Disasters are forces in nature, for example the tropical cyclones, earthquakes,
volcanic eruptions and tsunamis.

A little something from the curriculum map for Science:

Interactions usually involve the transfer of energy which can cause changes in motion and/or
conditions. Our interactions with the world can lead to changes or influence the stability of a
system. Thus, we must make responsible choices in our daily lives. Our interactions with the
environment drive the development of science and technology. At the same time, science and
technology influences the way we interact with the environment.

9.2. Types Of Forces

Forces can have both physical contact and not. Those that have physical contact like friction and
elastic force are called contact forces. Those that have no physical contacts like gravitational
force and magnetic force are called non-contact forces.

Friction
Friction is the force that opposes motion between two surfaces in contact. It’s the force that
allows us to hold onto things without dropping them

Elastic Force
Elastic force is the force acting on a stretched or compressed elastic object to return it to its
original shape

Gravitational Force
Gravitational force is a force that attracts two objects towards each other. When a planet exerts
gravitational force on an object and pulls it towards its center, the object is known to have
weight. Gravitational force keeps the moon orbiting around Earth. Earth’s gravitational force
pulls all things towards its center.

Magnetic Force
Magnetic force is the force exerted between a magnet and another magnetic material such as
iron or steel. Magnetic force also exists between two magnets.

Normal Force
The normal force is the force that surfaces exert to prevent solid objects from passing through
each other. Normal force is a contact force. If two surfaces are not in contact, they can't exert a
normal force on each other.
(Perpendicular to the force of the object)
Tension Force
Tension is defined as the force transmitted through a rope, string or wire when pulled by forces
acting from opposite sides. The tension force is directed over the length of the wire and pulls
energy equally on the bodies at the ends.

Intermolecular Force
the attractive and repulsive forces that arise between the molecules of a substance.

Weight VS. Mass

Weight
Weight is the measure of the gravitational force acting on an object. As weight is a type of force,
the SL unit of weight is the same as the SL unit of force, which is newton(N)

Mass
Mass is the amount of matter in an object. The SL unit of mass is the kilogram(kg)

Example:
If you place a bag of rice on Earth and another on the Moon, the mass of the bag of rice on Earth
is 10kg. This mass remains the same on the Moon as the amount of rice in the bag did not
change. However, less gravitational force acts on the bag of rice on the moon than on Earth,
hence, the bag of rice has a smaller weight on the moon than on Earth.
The amount or quantity of matter does not change regardless of location. Therefore, the mass of
an object remains while the weight of the object may vary depending on the gravitational force
exerted on the object, which may change with its location.

9.3. What Happens When Two or More Objects Interact?

The transfer of energy between objects may cause changes in the state of rest or motion of an
object. It can:
1. Move a stationary object
2. Change the speed of a moving object
3. Change the direction in which an object moves
4. Stop a moving object

Changes due to the turning effect of a force on an object

A force applied on an object can cause a turning effect about a fixed point called the pivot.
This turning effect can help us to carry out an action with little force, such as removing the lid of
a tin can or tightening a nut.

Changes in size and/or shape of an object

The transfer of energy between objects may cause changes in the size and/or shape of the object
such as inflating a balloon or kneading dough.

Changes in pressure on an object

Factors affecting pressure
Pressure is an effect of force acting on an object. When we carry a backpack, it exerts a pressure
on our shoulders. The amount of pressure depends on whether we carry the backpack using one
or two straps, and how much the contents in our bags weigh.

Why is it such that we can push a pin into a cork board easily but it is difficult to push a nail into
the cork board using the same amount of force?
The pin and nail have different areas of contact with the cork board. The pin, which has a very
small area of contact exerts a very high pressure on the cork board. Thus, it can be pushed
into the cork board easily. However, the nail is the opposite of the pin, it has a bigger area of
contact which exerts a lower pressure on the cork board, thus, it cannot be easily pushed
into the cork board.

Air Resistance
Air particles hitting against the object coming towards air to produce friction

Gravitational Field Strength

N kg ^-1
Earth exerts about 10 Newtons(N) of force on everything on Earth
Weight=Mass x g (g being the gravitational field strength)

Calculating Pressure
Measuring the amount of force applied on a surface and its area of contact allows us to calculate
the pressure applied. Pressure is defined as force per unit area.
Formula:
Pressure=Force/Area
The amount of force applied is measured in Newton (N), and the area of contact is measured in
square metre (m^2). The unit of pressure is newton per metre (N/m^2), also known as
the pascal (Pa)

Acceleration
- Rate of change of sped (velocity)

When resultant force is 0, it means the forces acting on the sides of it are equal. If the object is in
motion, it would continue moving at a constant speed. If it is stationary, it would remain
stationary.

When is Work done?

Transfer of energy
When the motion is in the same direction as force applied
The applied force has to be present throughout the distance, if not, there is no work done as
when the applied force is only present at the start, it is the force’s effect that lets the object move,
not the force being applied (Idk how to explain)

What is energy?
- Energy is the ability to do work
- The SI unit of energy is Joules (J) or kilojoules (kJ)
- One kilojoule is 1000 Joules (kilo)

Energy transformed model

Take energy as a “invisible” substance that can be transferred from one energy (store) to another
Eg of energy stores, kinetic stores

Sound energy
The energy produced when objects vibrate

Electrical energy
The energy that results form the flow of charged particles

Nuclear energy
The energy stored in the nucleus of an atom and which is released during nuclear reactions.
During nuclear fusion or fission, the energy released is used to generate electricity.
Potential Energy
The enrage that is stored in a body as a result of its position or condition
Examples of potential energy are:
(i) chemical potential energy. The energy stored in food, fuels (eg patrol) and electric cells that
can be released through chemical reactions
(ii) gravitational potential energy. The energy that an object has due to its elevated position
(iii) elastic potențial energy. The energy that an object has when it is pushed or pulled

Kinetic energy
The energy that a body possesses due to its motion
Examples include a bird flying, a person walking and a car speeding down the road.

How are energy and work related?

When work is done on an object, energy is converted from one form(store) to another.

An archer pulling his bowstring

Kinetic energy -> potential energy
An archer releasing his bowstring
Potential energy -> kinetic energy

Law of conservation of energy

The law of conservation of energy stated that energy can be converted from one form(store) to
another, but it cannot be created nor destroyed

10.1. Heat and Temperature

Why is metal cooler to touch than wood?
Metal is a better conductor of heat than wood. Metal would gain heat from our hands faster than
the book, causing our hands to lose heat, thus leaving us with the impression that the hard drive
is cooler than the book.

If an ice cube was set on a metal plate and a plastic plate, which would melt first?
The one on the metal plate would lose heat faster to the ice cube than the plastic plate as metal is
a better conductor of heat so the ice would gain heat from the plate and melt faster on metal
than plastic.

Thermal energy is always transferred from an object of higher temperature to an object with
lower temperature.

Water (Solid) - Molecules are closely packed. Nearly all motion is vibrational; no translational
motion. Water is solid.

Water (Liquid) - The majority of motion is both vibrational and translational (with molecules
loosely packed and sliding past one another). Few or no free molecules. Water is a liquid.
Water (Boiling) - The majority of motion is translational movement. Molecules loosely packed.
Free molecules come and go. Water is boiling.

Water (Gas) - The majority of motion is translational movement. Many free molecules are
widely spaced out. Water is a hot steam (gas).

Even below the freezing point, the molecules still vibrate but are almost stationary. So there is
still motion until it reaches absolute zero, where all motion of the molecules would stop.
(Temperature known as: Absolute Zero)

Thermal Equilibrium: When both objects (starting with one having a higher temperature than
the other) reach the same temperature.

Temperature is the measure of average kinetic energy of all the molecules.

Absolute zero is when there is no kinetic energy in the molecules (no motion) it occurs at 0K
(kelvin)

Lower temperature: 0K (kelvin) —> Absolute zero

Heat is not a physical entity and cannot be contained in a body

It is the transfer of thermal energy from a region of higher temperature to a region of lower
temperature until thermal equilibrium is achieved between two regions.

The transfer with stop when both regions have equal temperature

This transfer of thermal energy is referred to as heat

The temperature at thermal equilibrium depends on the material of the object and the mass.

Bigger mass would have a smaller increase/decrease in temperature compared to the smaller
mass.

Temperature of an object determines the sensation of warmth or coldness felt from contact with
it.
They can both have the same temperature but there are more molecules in B (greater mass) than
A (smaller mass).

When a hot object is placed next to a cold object, there is a net transfer of thermal energy from
the hot object to the cold object.
The objects are said to be in thermal equilibrium when the net transfer of thermal energy stops.
At thermal equilibrium, the objects have the
temperature

Thermal energy is transferred ONLY when there is a difference in temperature.

Thermal energy always flows from a region of higher temperature to a region of lower
temperature.
When thermal equilibrium is reached between two bodies (i.e. both bodies are at the same
temperature) there is no net flow of thermal energy between them.

ANSWERING FORMAT
QNS: What do you think causes the hot and cold blocks to eventually reach the same
temperature?
ANS: Particles with higher kinetic energy pass the energy to the particles with lower kinetic
energy. Eventually, both blocks have the same average KE, which means the same temperature.

QNS: Two identical beakers are filled with water at 30 ºC. Beaker A contains 100 g of water
while beaker B contains 200 g of water. They are heated for 1 minute with identical flames.
Comment on the amount of thermal energy received and the rise in temperature of the water in
both beakers. Explain your answer.

ANS: Both beakers received the same amount of thermal energy. Beaker B will have a smaller
rise in temperature than beaker A. Beaker B has a greater mass of water thus contains more
water molecules and average amount of energy gained by the molecules will be lower. Thus
average kinetic energy of all molecules will be lower for Beaker B.

QNS: What is the relationship between mass, the number of atoms, the amount of thermal
energy you add, and the rise in temperature in an object?

ANS: An object of larger mass has more number of particles, which require a greater amount
of thermal energy to have the same rise in temperature.

QNS: A substance composed of particles A and another substance composed of particles B are at
the same temperature. Particle A is ten times more massive than atom B. How does the average
kinetic energy and average speed of all particles A compare to that of all particles B?

ANS: The average kinetic energy of particles A in the first substance is

(higher / lower / the same) as the average kinetic energy of particles in the second substance.

The average speed of particles A is

(higher / lower / the same) than the average speed of particles B.

Heavier particles have more inertia, making it harder to change their speed compared to lighter
particles.
Lighter particles, having less mass, can more easily accelerate and move faster on average.

A bottle of cold juice feels cold because the thermal energy is transferred away from our
hands.

Temperature refers to how hot or cold an object is.?????

Temperature refers to the average amount of kinetic energy of the particles.????

Temperature is measured in kelvin (K).

Thermal energy is measured in joule (J).

Thermometric Substance is particular substance that exhibits changes in the thermometric

property like mercury or alcohol in a specific (unique) and predictable way which is continuous
or linear
Converting Kelvin to Degree Celsius and vise versa

The Celsius scale is created by defining 0°C as the freezing point of water and 100°C as the
boiling point of water

The Kelvin scale is defined from absolute zero (where no heat remains in an atom) and the triple
point of water (the point at which a compound exists in the solid, liquid, and gaseous phases in
equilibrium)

Take “273.15” as “273” usually

The Celsius and Kelvin scales increase by the same increments, meaning that to increase the
temperature by 1°C results in the same increase of 1 K. The major difference is that when water
freezes, a Celsius thermometer will read 0°C, and a Kelvin thermometer will read 273.15 K.

Example: 20ºC and 37ºC have a difference of 17ºC and the temperatures in kelvin 20ºC = 293K,
37ºC = 310K also have the same difference of 17K.

Formulas:
ºC = K - 273
K = ºC + 273
*normally ignore the “.15” from “237.15”

“-” “+” and “average” are d.p. (Decimal point)

“÷” and “x” are s.f. (Significant figures)

Common Misconceptions?
0 °C is the lowest possible temperature that pure ice can reach.

False. The melting point changes with pressure. Once ice is formed, the temperature will fall
below 0ºC

What Are the Effects of Heat?

• When objects are heated, they gain thermal energy and generally increase in volume. This
increase in volume is called expansion.
• When objects are cooled, they lose thermal energy and generally decrease in volume. This
decrease in

What happens during expansion and contraction?

• For the same rise intemperature, liquids expand more than solids.
• Gasses expand much more than solids and liquids.
• Expansion of gasses > liquids > solids
• How is the density of a substance affected when it is heated?
• As a substance is heated, its volume increases. Its mass does not change.
Density is mass divided by volume. Hence, the density decreases.
• Similarly,as a substance cools and contracts, its density increases.

Unusual expansion and contraction of water

•As water is cooled to 4°C, it contracts like other liquids
• As it is further cooled to below 4°C, water expands.
• the volume of water increases,density of water
decreases.
•Density of ice and water below 4°C are therefore lower than the density of water above 4°C.

Bi-metalic Strip
Made of two different metals, more expanding or contracting

Thermal energy transfer

Thermal energy transfer: Conduction
Conduction is the transfer of thermal energy between neighboring particles through a medium,
without a net movement of the medium itself.

Conduction can occur in solids, liquids and gas only, though the rate of conduction is different.
Solid’s rate of conduction is the fastest, followed by liquid then gas as the particles of a solid are
packed tighter together than the particles of liquid and gas.

During conduction, the particles in the hotter region of the medium (gain / lose) thermal
energy and vibrate (faster / slower). These particles collide with their neighboring particles,
transferring thermal energy to them. This causes the neighboring particles to vibrate (faster /
slower) too.
The process continues until thermal energy is transferred from particle to particle from the
(hotter / colder) region to the (hotter / colder) region. There is no net change in the positions
of the particles.

Conduction cannot take place in a vacuum.

Conduction is the transfer of heat energy between neighboring particles through a medium,
without a net movement of the medium itself.

What are methods of thermal energy transfer?

Conduction
Conduction is the transfer of thermal energy between neighboring particles through a medium,
without a net movement of the medium itself.

Convection
Convection is the transfer of thermal energy due to the movement of heated particles of fluids.

Radiation
Radiation is the transfer of thermal energy through the emission and transmission of infra-red
waves. Transmits energy in the form of waves that we can’t see. When absorbed, the energy of
the infra-red eradication transforms into thermal energy of the receiving body.
Radiation is the process by which thermal energy is transferred by electromagnetic waves.
The sun’s energy travels to the Earth as electromagnetic waves at the speed of light.
Temperature of an object affects the rate of energy transfer. Depends on color and texture as it
affects the rate of emission. Rough or black(dark) surfaces emit radiation faster as it absorbs the
infra-red radiation much better than a shiny surface. Dull black surface is a better emitter of
infra-red radiation than a smooth, bright shiny surface.
If something is a good radiator, it is also a good absorber of infra-red radiation.
The rate of radiation is also affected by surface area. The larger the surface area, the higher the
rate of energy transfer. Rate of energy transfer by radiation is affected by:
1. Surface temperature
2. Surface color
3. Surface texture
4. Surface area
The greater the temperature difference between the body and its surrounding, the more heat
gained or lost per second.

What are NOT methods of thermal energy transfer?

Boiling
Boiling is the process whereby energy supplied changes the state of a substance from liquid state
to gaseous state without a change in temperature.
Boiling is not a method of thermal energy transfer.

Evaporation
Evaporation is a process whereby there is a change of a substance from liquid state to gaseous
state at the surface of the liquid at any temperature.

Other stuff

Convection
Convection is the transfer of thermal energy due to the movement of heated particles of fluids
(liquids and gasses). Cannot happen in solids since the particles of solids cannot move around, it
can only vibrate

Solid particles only vibrate about their fixed positions. During convection, particles move to
transfer their energy. Liquid particles can flow past each other and gas particles can move freely.

Radiation
The transfer of thermal energy through the emission and transmission of infrared waves does
not require a medium. It is known as radiation.

How does thermal energy travel 150 million km from the sun to the Earth?
Just like light energy can travel from a light source through a vacuum, thermal energy from the
sun or any heat source can be transferred to the surroundings without depending on any
physical a material substance for transmission of energy (e.g. the transmission medium for
sound energy can be solids, liquids and gasses) medium to transport it. This process is called
radiation

Radiation is the transfer of heat, in the form of waves, from one place to another. It does not
require a medium for transmission.

Heat transfer by radiation is possible with solids, liquids and gases.

Objects with high temperatures lose energy quickly by radiation.

Lava flowing from a volcano has a very high temperature and it solidifies quickly. This suggests
that it experiences rapid heat loss, which may be related to its high temperature. Furthermore,
radiation is the main mode of heat transfer from the hot lava to the surroundings, rather than
conduction (only for objects that are in direct contact) or convection

Objects with large surface areas lose energy quickly by radiation.

Yes, the elephant's natural habitat is hot. As it is a very large animal, the elephant needs to
maximize the area available for heat to be dissipated. It is thus reasonable to suggest a link
between large surface area with rapid heat loss by radiation.
In fact, elephants' ears have a dense network of blood vessels just under the skin surface and
they often flap their ears so that heat is dissipated to the surroundings. These are among some of
the ways that elephants have adapted to their environment.

Objects with rough surfaces lose energy quickly by radiation.

Yes, the elephant's natural habitat is hot. As it is a very large animal, it needs to maximize the
area available for heat to be dissipated. It is thus reasonable to suggest a link between rough
surfaces with rapid heat loss by radiation.

Objects with small surface areas lose energy slowly by radiation.

Yes. The polar bear's natural habitat is very cold. It needs to keep warm to stay alive. The polar
bear has small ears and a tail. It is reasonable to suggest a relationship between small surface
areas and slow heat loss by radiation.

Objects with black (or dark-coloured) surfaces gain energy quickly by radiation.

Yes. The polar bear's natural habitat is extremely cold. It is possible that the polar bear's black
skin is linked to helping it to soak in the warming rays of the sun. It is reasonable to suggest that
objects that are black in color gain heat quickly by radiation.

Unit 11: Chemical Change

How do you know that something is a chemical reaction?
- New substances are formed
- The changes are usually irreversible/not easily reversed

How do you know that something is just a physical change?

- No new substances are formed
- The changes can usually be reversed -> Constituent substances can be obtained using
separation techniques

The two general types of chemical changes:

1. Two or more substances chemically combined to form one or more new substances
● Example: Carbon burns in oxygen to form carbon dioxide
2. A substance breaks down into two or more new substances
● Example: Calcium carbonate breaks down to form carbon dioxide and calcium oxide
when heated

Characteristics of Chemical change

1. Change in Appearance (state and color)
2. Change in Temperature (thermal energy given out or taken in)
3. Light observed due to change in Temperature
4. Gas evolved (effervescence [formation of gas’s bubbles] observed in solution)
5. Precipitation (solid formed from mixing two aqueous solutions)

How do we represent chemical changes?

1. Macroscopic
2. Submicroscopic
 3. Symbolic

Symbolic domain
- chemical symbol, chemical formula
- Chemical equations
- Particle model

Chemical changes occur when a bond is broken (between particles), thus, a new substance is
formed.

In chemical reactions, no atom will be destroyed nor constructed

“Law of conservation of mass” which states that in a chemical change, matter is neither created
nor destroyed
“Law of conservation of energy” states that in a chemical change, energy is neither created nor
destroyed, they are either transformed or transferred from one form to another

Representation Physical Change Chemical Change

Macroscopic (observed) No new substances are New substances are formed

formed

Sun-microscopic (particle No rearrangement of atoms Rearrangement of atoms

level) (bonds between atoms
broken, new bonds formed)

Symbolic Chemical equation (if Chemical equation shows

present) shows no change in different reactants and
substance products

Example of chemical reaction:

Reaction between hydrogen and oxygen to for water

Compound -> Needs to have a fixed ratio for a reaction to occur

Sub-microscopic view of chemical reaction

- All matter are made up of atoms
- Any chemical change involves only a rearrangement of the atoms
- The reaction between hydrogen and oxygen is also known as combustion
- The reaction involves only hydrogen atoms and oxygen atoms

Decomposition (electrolysis) [enrichment]

- Involves breakdown of a compound into simpler substances
- Involves passing electric current

Combustion
 - Involves the burning of a substance in the presence of oxygen to form new compound(s).
(Combustion is a type of oxidation reaction)
- E.g. lighting a match, burning petrol in a car engine

Precipitation
- Involves the formation of a solid when two solutions are mixed

Neutralisation
- ???

Oxidation reaction (rusting)

- the addition of oxygen to a substance
- E.g. iron + oxygen + water -> hydrated iron(III) oxide (reddish-brown solid)

Types of Chemical Reaction

Type of Reaction Definition of Reaction General representation of

reaction and examples

Thermal Decomposition Thermal decomposition

involves the breakdown of a
compound into simpler
compounds/elements upon
heating

Combustion Combustion involves the

burning of a substance in the
presence of oxygen to form
new compound(s)

Precipitation Precipitation involves the

formation of a solid when two
solutions are mixed

Neutralisaiton The reaction of an acid and

alkali

Oxidation reactions (other Oxidation is the addition of

than combustion) oxygen to a substance

In a reaction, sometimes the electrons can be taken away

So when the electrons are nearer to the protons, they will be attracted more to it as protons are
positively charged while electrons are negatively charged so they will attract.

Bonding: Losing or gaining electrons

Unit 8: Atoms and Molecules [RECAP]

Atom
• Smallest unit of an element, having the properties of the element

Molecule
• Groups of two or more atoms that are chemically combined

Diatomic molecule: Group of exactly two atoms that are chemically combined
Polyatomic molecule: group of more than two or more atoms that are chemically combined

Subatomic particles Electric Charge

Proton +1 (positive)

Neutron 0 (neutral)

Electron -1 (negative)

In the mass of an atom, the number below its element symbol, only protons and neutrons weigh
in it

As for relative charge, only protons and electrons have electric charge

What subatomic particles does an atom contain?

Protons, neutrons and electrons

All atoms have an equal number of protons and electrons as they are (electrically neutral)

Every element has a unique number of protons. Number of protons shown above the element
symbol

The proton number is also known as the atomic number

The mass number or nucleon number of an atom is the total number of protons + neutrons as
electrons way too little to be be counted in

Some Scenarios
When given the number of protons, you can find the number of electrons as the number of
electrons in an atom is the same as the number of protons. Then you can find the number of
neutrons by using the mass of protons subtracted from the total mass of the atom as electrons’
mass is not included in total mass number
Isotopes
Similar in function but slightly different (I dont rlly know this too)

Drawing of electronic structure

Rule 1: Electrons are filled from the innermost shell first, only moving to the next shell when the
shell is fully filled

Most inner shell - Max 2

Following shells - Max 8

Write element symbol in the middle of innermost shell

Rule #2: Electrons are filled singly in each corner, before being paired up

Draw electrons in this direction: North -> South -> East -> West
After that pair the electrons in the same order

Pure Compounds
Pure compounds are compounds which are made of only one type of particle, and the structure
remains homogeneous throughout
E.g. H2O has a constant 2 hydrogen atoms with one oxygen atom (basically the ratio thingy in
Unit 11)

In modern periodic table, elements are arranged in according to their proton/atomic number

Atoms of elements in the same group in the periodic table have the same number of valence
electrons
Group 1 elements have 1 valence electrons
Group 17 elements have 7 valence electrons

Atoms of elements in the same period in the periodic table have the same number of electron
shells
For example, period 2 elements have 2 electron shells

11.1. How does the knowledge of chemical reactions help us in our daily
lives?

Cooking
Heat causes chemical reactions in food. Raw food would go through an irreversible change in
texture and flavor when cooked. Cooked food also makes it easier for the body to absorb the
nutrients from food, although some nutrients may be destroyed in the process
Respiration
During respiration, glucose molecules react with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water.
The energy released allows the cells in an organism to survive and reproduce. Respiration is
therefore an important process that releases energy.

Oxygen enters the body when an organism breathes, glucose enters the body when an organism
eats.

Decay
Decay or decomposition is the process of breaking down organic matter into simpler substances.
It allows nutrients to be returned to the environment. These nutrients support the growth of
plants, which in turn support other organisms.

However, although it is an important process, it may not always be beneficial to us.

Decay can cause food to spoil and eating spoiled food can harm our health. We may not be able
to prevent decay, but one method of slowing down the decay of foods is vacuum packaging. It
involves removing air from the package and limits the growth of bacteria and other
microorganisms, which can cause food spoilage.

Ocean Acidification
The combustion of fossil fuels and the burning of forests releases carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere. When carbon dioxide in the atmosphere dissolves in seawater, carbonic acid is
formed. As the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases, more carbonic acid is
formed, which causes seawater to become more acidic. This is known as ocean acidification.

Ocean acidification causes serious problems for marine life, affecting both animals and plants.
For example, the shells and exoskeletons of small marine organisms like oysters and corals
contain calcium carbonate. They are broken down when they react with the acidic seawater.
This weakens their shells and exoskeletons and prevents them from forming new ones easily.

Marine organisms like fish and plants may die as they are unable to survive in conditions of a
lower pH (pH scale is used to measure how acidic or alkaline a solution is. Solutions with pH
values less than 7 are acidic. The lower the pH value, the more acidic the solution is). This in
turn affects other organisms that depend on them to live.

Ocean acidification is a result of chemical reactions arising from human activities. For example,
mangroves, marshes and sea grass meadows store large amounts of carbon. When they are
destroyed, they release the carbon as carbon dioxide into the atmosphere and oceans.

What does calcium carbonate react with acid to form?

Metal carbonate reacts with an acid to form salt, carbon dioxide and water. So calcium
carbonate (CaC03) reacts with hydrochloric acid (HCI) to form calcium chloride (CaC12), carbon
dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O).
Rusting
Occurs rapidly in humid climates, where large amounts of water vapor are present in the air.
Rust is flaky and brittle, which causes the rusty surface to flake away over time. This exposes the
layer under the surface to oxygen and water, leading to further rusting. This weakens the
structure of buildings and bridges.

Slowing down rusting

- Painting
- Oiling
- Galvanizing (coating iron with a protective layer of zinc)
- Drying

1. Carbon monoxide is produced from the burning of fossil fuels in insufficient oxygen. It is an
odorless and poisonous gas which reduces the amount of oxygen transported by red blood cells.

2. Oxides of nitrogen and sulfur dioxide dissolve in rainwater to form acid rain, which can
corrode buildings and harm aquatic life.

3. Sulfur dioxide can be formed from the burning of fossil fuels or volcanic eruptions.

4. Oxides of nitrogen can either be formed from the burning of fossil fuels at high temperatures
or from the reaction of nitrogen and oxygen in the atmosphere during lightning strikes.

11.3. — Ionic Bond

Name’s Bond, Ionic Bond
Ionic Bond is the strong electrostatic forceS of attraction between oppositely charged ions.
Generally, they are formed when metal atoms transfer valence electrons to non-metallic atoms

Why do some atoms take part in chemical reactions?

If the valence shell is full, that atom is said to be stable and unreactive, known as noble gasses
Noble gasses are elements in Group 18 of the periodic table. Elements in Group 18 are
monatomic (consisting of one atom.) because they have full valence shells and are said to have a
stable noble gas electric configuration. Therefore, most noble gasses are stable and do not react
with other atoms since the process of chemical reactions is when atoms take in or give out, gain
or lose (or share) electrons from their valence shells until they obtain a completely filled valence
electron shell.

What’s an ion?
An ion is a charged particle that is formed when an atom loses or gains electrons

A cation (pronounced as “cat ion”) is??? PAWsitive!!

Cations is the name of a positive atom when an atom loses an electron because as learnt in Unit
8, the nucleus of an atom is formed by positively charged protons and neutral neutrons while the
electrons are negatively charged. They balance out their electronic charges to maintain a
balanced atom.
Anion is the name of a negative atom when an atom gains a electron

Giving the Chemical name

To name the ions of Group 17 elements, we change the ending of the ion’s name from -ine to -ide
Dot And Cross Diagrams
(Lazy to write hehe w.s 11.3. Btw)

11.4. — Ionic compounds

Nomenclature - focuses on naming convention for ionic compounds
Ionic Compounds - formed when a metal reacts with a nonmetal, where the metallic atoms lose
an electron or electrons, becoming cations

Nomenclature for Ionic compounds

1. Name the cation first followed by the anion
For simple cations, the name of the cation is the same as the element
For simple anions, change the ending of the non-metal to “ide”
E.g. NaCl: sodium chloride
2. For metals that can form ions with more than one possible charge, roman numerals are
included in the name to indicate the ionic charge of the metal
E.g. Fe*O**: iron(II) oxide
*Fe: Only one atom but must give out 2 so it’s charge is 2+ and has the roman numerals of “II”
-> 2
**O: One atom but needs to receive 2 electrons so it’s charge is 2-

Chemical Formula - Provides a concise representation of the elemental composition and ratio of
ions within the compound

Chemical Formula for Ionic Compound

1. The formula of the cation is written first followed by that of the anion
2. The total positive and negative charges must be balanced. The charge of a simple ion is
based on the number of electrons that the atom of the element will gain or lose to achieve
the electronic configuration of a noble gas
3. If a polyatomic* ion occurs more than once in the formula, it must be enclosed in
brackets
*Polyatomic: a few ions coming together to form a molecule

Explanation of Fe2O3:
So the small number there, the 2 and 3 represents the number of atoms there are for each
element so like there are 2 iron atoms and 3 oxygen atoms then you flip it over which makes it
like, iron gives out 3 electrons and oxygen takes in two and since there are two iron atoms the
two atoms would give out 6 electrons and 3 oxygen atoms would take in that 6 electrons
required right

Iron does not have the same electronic configuration structure as a normal element.
11.5. Chemical Bonding — Covalent bond
Two unstable atoms bonding to become stable. E.g. oxygen has 6 valence electrons and it needs
another 2 electrons to become stable (full valence shell) it therefore shares its electrons with
another oxygen atom so that both of their valence shells are filled, becoming stable

Drawing Covalent Bonds using dot and cross diagrams:

11.6. Chemical Formulae — Covalent Compounds
Nomenclature and Chemical Formulae for Covalent Compounds
- the first element is listed using the element’s name
- the second element usually ends with “-ide”
- prefixes are used to indicate the number of atoms of each element present in the
molecule
- ”mono” is not used to name the first element
e.g. Name of NO2 is nitrogen dioxide

Prefixes used in naming covalent compounds

Prefix Number of Atoms Example Name

mono- 1 NO Nitrogen monoxide

di- 2 CO2 Carbon dioxide

tri- 3 SO3 Sulfur trioxide

tetra- 4 SiCI4 Silicon tetrachloride

The above rules does not apply for certain covalent substances like water (H2O), ammonias
(NH3) and methane (CH4), as those are named by their common names (for water and
ammonia), and named using a different nomenclature system (for methane)

SLS 11.2. Collection and Drying of Gases

The method for collecting a gas depends on:
● its density compared to air
● its solubility in water

Calculation of relative molecular mass (Mr) [Optional]

Relative molecular mass, Mr can be calculated by adding up the relative atomic masses of all the
atoms present in the molecule/ The relative atomic mass can be obtained from the periodic table
For example carbon has Ar do 12, nitrogen has Ar of 14 and oxygen has Ar of 16
Mr of carbon dioxide CO2 = 12+(16x2)=44
Mr do hydrogen H2 = 1x2=2

Approx. Mr of Air
Air consists of approximately 20% oxygen, O2 and 80% nitrogen, N2

Approximate Mr of Air - (20/100)(16x2)+(80/100)(14x2) =28.8

Gasses with higher Mr than air will be denser than air while gasses with lower Mr than air will
be less dense than air.
The different methods
Downward Delivery - This method is used to collect gasses that are denser than air e.g.
carbon dioxide and chlorine.

As the gas sinks, it displaces the air inside the collection vessel. Air is pushed upwards, hence
this method is also known as upward displacement method.

Upward Delivery - This method is used to collect gasses that are less dense than air e.g.
hydrogen and ammonia

As the gas rises, it displaces the air inside the collection vessel. Air is pushed downwards, hence
this method is also known as downward displacement.

Collection over Water - This method is used to collect gasses that are insoluble or slightly
soluble in water e.g. hydrogen and oxygen

The gas is bubbled through water then collected in a gas jar. The water inside the gas jar is
pushed out, hence this method is also known as displacement of water.

SUMMARY
The upward delivery and downward delivery methods can be used to collect gasses that are
soluble in water.
The collection of gas over water is for gasses insoluble or slightly soluble in water.

DRYING GASSES
A sample of gas can be dried by passing it through a drying agent

The common drying agents are:

- concentrated sulfuric acid
- fused calcium chloride
- calcium oxide

The set-up below shows how a gas is dried by bubbling it through concentrated sulfuric acid.
The set-up below shows how a gas is dried by passing it hough fused calcium chloride
The set-up below shows how a gas is dried by passing it though calcium oxide
Drying agent Use

concentrated sulfuric acid Neutral and acidic gasses, like hydrogen or

hydrogen chloride can be dried

calcium oxide Neutral and alkaline gasses, like oxygen or

ammonia can be dried

fused calcium chloride Most gasses can be dried except ammonia.

Ammonia will react with calcium chloride
Unit 12: Ecosystems

Terms used in ecology

Habitat - a place where organisms live
Community - Made up of the different plant and animal populations living together and
interacting in a habitat
Population: Organisms of the same species/kind that live in a particular habitat
Ecosystem - The interactions between a community and its physical environment
Ecology - the study of ecosystems
Ecologist - A person who studies ecology

How do the interactions between abiotic and biotic factors affect the survival of
organisms?
- the abiotic factors in the environment determine the type of biotic factors that can live in
that environment
- biotic factors that cannot adapt to the abiotic factors, will not survive in that
environment

Why do species adapt?

- the abiotic factors in the environment determine the type of biotic factors that can live in
that environment
- biotic factors that cannot adapt to the abiotic factors, will not survive in that
environment
- adaptations or adaptive traits are the physical or behavioral characteristics developed
over time to help organisms survive better in their own environment
- adaptation can be structural or behavioral

Structural adaptations
Structural adaptation are physical features of an organism that help it to survive

examples:
a poisonous frog has bright colors to warn predators to not eat it

how does Mrs teo make her lessons so boring

Behavioral adaptations
Behavioral adaptations are the ways an organism behaves that allows it to survive

Examples:
Some birds migrate over large distances to avoid cold weather. They return when the weather is
warmer

How can the adaptive traits of organisms help them survive better?
 - protect themselves/escape from predators
- enable them to find food
- enable them to attract mates
- allow them to live in the environmental conditions found in their habitats

Why do species go extinct if they are able to adapt?

- adaptive traits are developed over many generations and require a long period of time to
occur
- when environment changes too quickly, some species do not have enough time to
respond to these changes (e.g. global warming, pollution)

Interrelationships in an ecosystem
- predator-prey
- mutualism
- parasitism
- commensalism (enrichment)

What is the ultimate source of energy for a food chain?

The Sun
Producers, such as plants, absorb light energy from the Sun. During photosynthesis, producers
convert light energy to chemical energy for their use.

Consumers obtain energy by feeding on producers of other consumers

Tree -> Caterpillar -> Bird

Which organism is at the first trophic level?
The Tree
In this food chain, the tree is at the first trophic level.
Caterpillars, which feed on the eaves of trees, are at the second trophic level
Birds, which feed on caterpillars, are at the third trophic level

Which is the secondary consumer?

The Bird
The caterpillar is the primary consumer, and the bird is the secondary consumer

What represents the flow of energy in an ecosystem?

light energy -> chemical energy -> thermal energy
The sun provides light energy to producers which converts and stores it as
chemical energy. When eaten by consumers some is lost as thermal energy.

As energy is transferred from one trophic level to the next, a large amount of energy (about
90%) is lost to the surroundings

Energy flow in the ecosystem is non-cyclic. Energy that is lost is not recycled back to the
organisms that released it
Egested waste materials such as feces, and excreted waste products like urine are not consumed
by the predators. This energy is not transferred up the food chain.

There are always the most producer, the second most primary consumers and the least
secondary consumers

Number and Biomass of Organisms

Biomass units: g/m^2 (grams per meter square)

Picture a grassland: Although the biomass of a single grass is small, the biomass of all the grass
in the grassland is the largest.
Although the biomass of a single lion is large, the biomass of all the lions in the grassland is the
smallest.

As the tree is large, a large number of caterpillars can feed on a small number of trees.
A small number of birds feed on a large number of caterpillars.
The pyramid of numbers for this food chain does not have a typical pyramid shape (broad base;
narrow tip). It has a narrow base due to the smaller number of trees than caterpillars.
To support the population of caterpillars, the total biomass of trees should be larger than the
total biomass of the caterpillar.

To support the population of birds, the total biomass of caterpillars should be larger than the
total biomass of birds.
Pyramids of biomass are usually upright

What does a pyramid of numbers compare?

The number of organisms at each trophic level

What is biomass?
The total dry mass of the organisms in an ecosystem

A habitat is a place where organisms live and interact

A group of organisms of the same kind is called a population
The different populations living together in the same habitat make a community
The interaction between a community and it’s physical environment forms a community
The interaction between a community and its physical environment forms a ecosystem

Bioaccumulation - The gradual build-up or accumulation of toxic chemical substances in the

body of a living organism over a period of time
Bioamplification/Biomagnification - The increase in concentration of the toxic chemical
substances at each higher trophic level

Why would there be an accumulation of toxic chemicals (e.g. insecticides) at higher

concentrations in the bodies of organisms at higher trophic levels?
- The toxic chemicals cannot be broken down easily in their body
toxic chemicals absorbed and cannot be broken down or processed by the body easily
- Organisms at higher trophic levels feed on many individuals at the lower trophic levels

Eutrophication - excessive amounts of nutrients in the water which leads to algae bloom,
reduced photosynthesis in submerged plants, death and decay of aquatic plants which increases
the Bacteria populations causing oxygen depletion, death of aquatic plants and animals resulting
with a unbalanced ecosystem

Why should sewage be treated? it contains:

- nitrates and phosphates -> leading to eutrophication in water bodies
- Poisonous heavy metals e.g. mercury, lead, chromium
- harmful bacteria that can cause diseases

Components of a sewage treatment plant:

- Screens - sewage is based through screens to remove large and coarse materials from
sewage
 - Primary settlement tank - Screened sewage is brought to the primary settlement tank.
Liquid flows slowly through the tank to allow heavier solid materials to settle at the
bottom
- Aeration tank - The liquid part of the sewage is brought to the aeration tank. Here,
aerobic microorganisms break down organic pollutants in sewage

- Final settlement tank - after treating with aerobic microorganisms, wastewater is

brought to the final settlement tank. Microorganisms and other heavier solid materials
from the aeration tank settle at the bottom of this tank, forming sludge
What happens to the sludge at the bottom of both primary and final settlement tanks?
 - Anaerobic digester - sludge is brought to the anaerobic digester. The anaerobic digester
is a closed tank with no oxygen supplied

Photosynthesis:
Carbon dioxide + water -> oxygen + glucose

Respiration:
Oxygen + glucose -> carbon dioxide + water

The carbon cycle - the carbon cycle describes how carbon is continually exchanged between
living organisms and the environment. The carbon cycle is made up of processes that either
release carbon into atmosphere, or remove carbon from the atmosphere, in the form of carbon
dioxide

Plants take in carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and synthesize carbohydrates. This process is
photosynthesis.
When fossil fuels, which are made up of carbon compounds, are burnt, carbon dioxide is
released into the atmosphere. This process is combustion.

processes that releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere:

Respiration
Decomposition
Combustion

Processes that removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere:

photosynthesis
fossilization

Both photosynthesis and fossilization happens in forests and oceans. These processes allow
forests and oceans to store carbon, in the form of carbon compounds, for a long period of time.
Therefore, forests and oceans are known as carbon sinks

Physical factors of the oceans How it affects the population of marine

organisms that live in the coral reefs

Increase in acidity Increase acidity harms a animals that build

shells such a s clams, causing the population
of clams to decrease

Decrease in oxygen level Lower oxygen levels suffocate marine

animals, causing population of marine
animals to decrease

Increase in Temperature Increase in temperature causes corals to be

lost, reducing the habitats of marine animals,
causing population of marine animals to
decrease

Decomposer - breaks down dead organisms, feces and waste products into chemicals
Scavenger - breaks down dead organisms into smaller pieces which they feed on

Unit 13: Electrical Systems

Protons -> Positive charge
Electrons -> Negative charge
Electrons repel each other, when one moves, it repels another away from itself
Charges forms an electric current
Amount of energy within the current is called the voltage(v)
Current: rate of flow of electrons (Amperes), measured with an ammeter
Electrons will go in the direction to the positive end of a battery
We consider current flowing from positive to negative even though electrons flows the other way

How to tell if a diagram is showing electrons or charges?

Electrons would move from negative to positive and charges from positive to negative
When there’s work done there is energy transferred, that’s how a light bulb lights up in a circuit.
Filament of the bulb resists the flow of electrons so the electrons have to do work to go through
the circuit, therefore, work is done and light energy is produced.

Electrons in wires do not move as they require energy from the battery to float and move.

Potential Difference
How much energy is there after there has been work done compared to how much energy it had
before work is done? Since work done means that energy is lost in the process.

What is Resistance?
- The electrical components in a circuit acts as an obstacle against the flow of electrons.
The components are said to have resistance
- The higher the resistance in a component, the higher the potential difference needed to
move electric charge through the component
Definition: The resistance of a component is the ratio of the potential difference across it to the
current flowing through it

- SI unit of resistance is the ohm(Ω)

- The greater the ratio of V to I, the greater the resistance
- The greater the resistance in a circuit, the lower the current
Solution: R = 2.0V/0.50A
ans: 4.0 (2s.f.)
Solution: 20=V/0.25A
ans: V = 5.0V

Formulas:
V(voltage)=R(resistance, ohm(Ω)I(current, A[amperes])
R=V/I
I=V/R

Resistors in series
- the total resistance is the sum of the individual resistance of each resistor
- With a higher resistance the current decreases. Hence, the bulb is dimmer
- current flowing through each resistor in a series is the same
- The potential difference in each resistor in series circuit is half of the dry cell. Hence, the
sum of the potential difference in each resistor is equal to the e.m.f. of the dry cell

Resistors in parallel
- the total resistance is less than the resistance of the individual resistors
- With a lower resistance, the total current in the circuit increases. Hence, the bulb is
brighter
- The formula to calculate effective resistance (R) in parallel circuits: 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3…
Total resistance would be the sum of the above resistances multiplied by its reciprocal
- the sum of the current in each resistor is equal to the current from the dry cell
 - The potential difference through each resistor in a parallel circuit is the same

Electromotive Force and Potential Difference

Electromotive force [e.m.f] - the work done by the source in driving a unit charge around a
complete circuit. The SI unit of e.m.f is the volt(v)

When a unit charge passes through a light bulb or other electrical components, the electrical
energy is converted to other forms of energy.

Potential Difference - the work done to drive a unit charge across an electrical component.
The SI unit of potential difference is the volt (v)

The term potential difference is used for the voltage between aunty two points in a circuit
The term electromotive force is used for the voltage between the two terminals of a battery or
cell
Unit 14: Human Transport System
Diffusion -> Diffusion is the net movement of particles from a region where they are of higher
concentration to a region where they are of lower concentration

The rate of diffusion is affected by:

- Concentration gradient
- Diffusion distance (further away, slower diffusion)
- Surface area-to-volume ratio (Higher, faster rate of diffusion)
Concentration Gradient: Difference in concentration between two regions
If the concentration gradient is higher, there will be a higher/faster rate of diffusion

Smaller organisms have larger surface area to volume ratio

Larger organisms have smaller surface area to volume ratio

So larger animals like most mammals have some adaptations to increase the rate of diffusion.
Like large surface area and short diffusion distance.

Small intestines are wrinkly and stuff to increase surface area

Challenges multicellular organisms have:

1. Small surface area to volume ratio
solution: increase surface area to volume ratio by having a internal system of channels and
chambers
2. Difficulty maintaining a steep concentration gradient
solution: hence, the need of a pump to actively circulate the body fluid

• Cells need a continuous supply of oxygen and nutrients. They also produce waste products that
need to be removed.
• Complex organisms have millions of cells. Most of these cells are faraway from the external
environment and cannot get materials directly from it.
• A transport system is therefore needed to transport substances to and from the cells.

In a unicellular organism like a amoeba, the movement of materials into and from cells occurs
by simple diffusion, as no part of the cell is far from the external environment.

In a multicellular organism like man, a transport system is needed to carry materials from one
part of the body to another, as cells are located deep in the body, far from the external
environment

Mammals have developed a transport system consisting of blood vessels, blood and a heart

Type of Blood Vessels Function

Arteries - carry blood rich in oxygen from the

heart to the rest of the body
- carry blood rich in digested food,
which is absorbed from the small
intestine

vein - carry blood that is poor in oxygen and

rich in carbon dioxide and waste
substances towards the heart

Capillaries - carry oxygen and digested food in the

blood to the cells in the body
- transport carbon dioxide and waste
substances away from the cells
- this exchange allows every cell to
function effectively

Three main components of the human circulatory system are the blood vessels, heart and blood.
Why?
The heart, blood and blood vessels form the human transport system as they have different
functions. But they work together to perform a specific function to transport oxygen, food and
minerals around the body.

Substances carried in blood are carbon dioxide, oxygen, nutrients and waste materials.

Heart is the most hard working muscle in the body 🫀💪

Red blood cells transport oxygen to different parts of the body
Athletes often train on mountains and elevated areas, why?
- At high altitudes, the athletes will produce more red blood cells
- they can transport more oxygen to the muscles when more oxygen is needed by the
exercising person

Carbon dioxide is produced by tissue cells. There is a higher concentration of carbon dioxide in
the cells than blood in blood capillaries.
The concentration of carbon dioxide in the tissue cells is higher and would diffuse into the blood
to be carried away.

Vein carries deoxygenated blood. This statement is not always true because…
The top half of the circulation, blood from blood to the heart is deoxygenated but the blood from
the heart to the lungs is the artery as it carries blood rich in oxygen.
Arteries and veins are not the blood that determines what it is, it's the direction of blood.
Vein carries blood to the heart
Artery carries blood away from the heart

Blood circulates in three parts

(a) Pulmonary circulation
From the heart to the lungs and back to the heart
(b) Systemic circulation
From the heart to the rest of the body and back to the heart
(c) Coronary Circulation
From the heart to the tissues of the heart and back to heart

Normally, the double circulation refers to (a) and (b)

Blood passes through the heart twice as it moves from the pulmonary circulation (between the
heart and lungs) and into the systemic, circulation (between the heart and the rest of the body)

This is a double circulation

Major blood vessels in the Circulatory system
The left and right atrium receives blood while the left and right ventricle pumps the blood out.
The heart has two sides separated by muscles (medium septum) so that oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood do not mix. Between the atrium and ventricle there’s a valve.
Atria -> plural of atrium

When atrium contracts, blood will go to the ventricles, when the ventricles contract, the blood is
pumped up to the lungs or to the rest of the body. This motion repeats until you die.

Anatomy of the heart

- roughly conical shape
- Lies between lungs and behind chest bone
- Consists of 2 sides with 2 chambers on each side. Total 4 chambers.

The job of the circulatory system is to move materials around the body.

SLS PPT5 Collection and Drying of Gases

Artery:
Artery - Any blood vessel that takes blood away from the heart
Pressure -> every time the ventricles contract and the heart pumps more blood in the system,
the pressure of the blood on the wall of the vessels goes up. Arteries are therefore well equipped
to deal with this pressure by having a layer of smooth muscle tissue. This allows some control of
blood pressure. When it contracts, the inside diameter of the artery gets smaller which will
result in the blood pressure going up and when it relaxes, the inside diameter of the blood vessel
will get bigger which means the blood pressure goes down. This means that the arteries to some
extent are able to change blood pressure and make it higher or lower for the body.

Connective tissues - elastic tissues

Elastic -> can stretch and snap back. This is important because when blood is pumped into the
blood vessels, the artery expands and once the blood is through, these tissues snap back into
place. What this does it that it maintains adequate blood pressure to move the blood along. Even
though the artery on the left and the vein on the right has the same outside diameter, the inside
diameter of the vein is way thicker than the artery. Arteries generally become smaller and
smaller as they branch further away from the heart, but they are still arteries as they still carry
blood away from the heart, and they have the same issues arteries have like blood pressure. After
a while, the arteries got too small and now has another name, Arteriole. They are defined as the
tiniest of all arteries and they all always bring blood to the next kind of blood vessels called the
capillary.

The coronary arteries are blood vessels that transport blood rich in nutrients and oxygen to the
heart cells (cardiac cells)

Capillary:
The arterioles deliver blood to the capillaries. Since arterioles are still arteries, they have the
same characteristics just that arteries are much larger than arterioles. The capillaries are the
smallest of all blood vessels but the most numerous, there’s literally millions and millions of
them. In diagrams, the capillaries are shown kind of clumped together, this is called the capillary
bed. This is where the transport, dropping off, picking up of things that are carried in the blood
actually happens. This is where things that go to cells are dropped off like glucose. This is also
where things produced by cells are picked up, like carbon dioxide.

Arterial Blood carries:

1. Oxygen
2. Glucose
Oxygen is carried by the red blood cells.
• Digested food molecules like glucose and
amino acids, carbon dioxide and metabolic waste products are transported in the plasma of the
blood.

Venous blood contains:

• CO2
• metabolic waste products(e.g.urea)

Characteristics - capillaries are one cell layer thick which means materials are likely to move
across. They are also very leaky on purpose. Blood goes through the capillaries, some fluids from
it leaks out from the capillaries into the surrounding tissues. As it does that, it takes the things
you are taking to the cells with it and that’s how the exchange is actually done.

Vein:
Returns blood to the heart. Venues are the smallest of all veins. They are the ones that drain the
blood from the capillary beds. Blood pressure here drops a lot since it’s very far from the heart,
having gone through many capillaries and stuff. They have a very large internal diameter which
in turn reduces pressure.Veins do not have as many smooth muscles as arteries and they are also
not really elastic. So blood has a hard time moving up the veins. With the help of its positioning
that is usually between two muscles and when the muscles contract, they become shorter and
thicker which pushes the walls of the veins which will in turn force the blood up into the vein.
However, this would mean that blood is able to flow both up and down but we only want it to
move up so that it can return to the heart. This is why they have a valve. This valve is one way
up. This means that the blood cannot flow back down.

Diffusion is the process responsible for the movement of substances across the walls of the
capillaries.

Exchange of materials at capillary bed

● Tissue fluid is a colorless fluid found in the tiny spaces between cells.
● Digested food molecules, such as glucose and amino acids, and oxygen move from blood
in blood capillaries into tissue fluid into cells by diffusion.
● Waste products, such as carbon dioxide and urea released by cells move into the tissue
fluid by diffusion through the capillary walls into blood carried to excretory organs for
removal.
● Capillary network made of capillaries increases surface area for more efficient exchange
of substances between blood and cells.

A recipient’s white blood cells (lymphocytes) may treat the transplanted organ as a foreign
substance causing the production of antibodies to destroy it. To reduce the risk of tissue rejection in
an organ transplant, it is important to ensure that the tissue of the donor is a good match for the
recipient.

Unit 15: Digestive System

Starch (Substrate) -> Maltose (end-product)

Living things require food as it:

- Provide them with energy to do work
- Maintain a healthy body
 - Growth of new cells and tissues
- Repair damaged tissues

Why must food be digested?

Nutrients like glucose and amino acids, are small, soluble molecules. They can pass through the
selectively permeable cell surface membrane to enter cells.
Nutrients like starch, proteins and fats, are large, insoluble molecules. They cannot pass through the
selectively permeable cell surface membrane to enter cells.

Enzymes are cells which are proteins as well.

Enzymes in Digestion

Name of Enzyme Where does it work/act? What does it digest?

Carbohydrate amylase Saliva Starch into small sugars

Pepsin stomach & small intestine Breaks down proteins

Small intestine

Lipase Small intestine

Small Intestine

Maltose -> Maltase

Protein -> Protease
Lipid -> Lipase
Unit 16: Puberty & Sexual Reproduction in Human
What is the main reason for the changes we observe during puberty?
- Sex hormones secreted by ovaries and testes in the female and male reproductive system
respectively

Do sperm and urine both leave the body through the same place?
Yes.

Can both sperm and urine leave the body at the same time?
Thankfully, no.

What does the prostate gland produce?

Not semen, it produces a fluid that contains nutrients and enzymes for the sperm. This fluid
mixes with sperm in the urethra to form a mixture called semen.
The scrota (singular: scrotum) holds the testes outside the body, keeping them at a temperature
lower than body temperature. This allows the development of healthy sperm.

During sexual intercourse, semen, which contains sperms, is released from the male’s penis and
deposited in the female’s vagina.

The cervix is a ring of muscles that widens during childbirth, allowing for the passage of the
fetus from the uterus to the vagina during delivery.

The uterus has thick muscular walls that support the growth of the fetus during pregnancy.

Fertilisation does not occur in the vagina, it occurs in the oviduct.

Fertilisation and Early Development of the Zygote

A zygote is formed when the nucleus of a sperm and egg fuses. A fertilised ovum is known as a
zygote. As this fertilised zygote moves towards the uterus, it rapidly divides to form a ball of cells
known as an embryo. Eventually, the embryo will reach the uterus and attach itself to the
uterine lining known as the process of implantation. During pregnancy, the embryo continues to
divide, developing into a fetus. The development of the embryo and fetus happens with the help
of other structures, such as the placenta, the amniotic sac and the umbilical cord. Eventually a
baby is born.

Fertilisation: Fertilisation is the fusion of the nucleus of a male gamete and the nucleus of a
female gamete to form a zygote.

Menstrual Cycle