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CHINESE LITERATURE AND CULTURE IN THE WORLD

Cultural Revolution
Manuscripts
Unofficial Entertainment Fiction
from 1970s China

Lena Henningsen
Chinese Literature and Culture in the World

Series Editor
Ban Wang, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
As China is becoming an important player on the world stage, Chinese
literature is poised to change and reshape the overlapping, shared cultural
landscapes in the world. This series publishes books that reconsider
Chinese literature, culture, criticism, and aesthetics in national and inter-
national contexts. While seeking studies that place China in geopolitical
tensions and historical barriers among nations, we encourage projects that
engage in empathetic and learning dialogue with other national tradi-
tions. Imbued with a desire for mutual relevance and sympathy, this
dialogue aspires to a modest prospect of world culture. We seek theoreti-
cally informed studies of Chinese literature, classical and modern - works
capable of rendering China’s classical heritage and modern accomplish-
ments into a significant part of world culture. We promote works that
cut across the modern and tradition divide and challenge the inequality
and unevenness of the modern world by critiquing modernity. We look
for projects that bring classical aesthetic notions to new interpretations of
modern critical theory and its practice. We welcome works that register
and analyze the vibrant contemporary scenes in the online forum, public
sphere, and media. We encourage comparative studies that account for
mutual parallels, contacts, influences, and inspirations.

More information about this series at

http://www.palgrave.com/gp/series/14891
 Lena Henningsen

Cultural Revolution
Manuscripts
Unofficial Entertainment Fiction from 1970s China
Lena Henningsen
Institute of Chinese Studies
University of Freiburg
Freiburg, Baden-Württemberg, Germany

Chinese Literature and Culture in the World

ISBN 978-3-030-73382-7 ISBN 978-3-030-73383-4 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-73383-4

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer
Nature Switzerland AG 2021
Chapter 5 is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Inter-
national License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). For further details see
license information in the chapter.
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights
of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on
microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and
retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc.
in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such
names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for
general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and informa-
tion in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither
the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with
respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been
made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps
and institutional affiliations.

Cover credit: © Lena Henningsen

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature
Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
 dedicated to Anne, Jakob and Paula
in memory of their grandmother Franziska
 Acknowledgments

This book is about texts in motion, about manuscripts that travel across
space, time and medium as they are handed from person to person. I argue
that the particular contexts and conditions of these journeys impact on the
material shape of distinct texts and, consequently, on their content, form
and style. In similar ways, this book also came into existence through the
inspiring intellectual journey(s) that I undertook during the past years.
On these journeys, I took along my texts and ideas and shared them with
patient friends and colleagues. This impacted significantly on the shape
and contents that the book now ended up with. I am indebted to all my
fellow travelers who made this undertaking tremendously enjoyable.
Over the past years, Jennifer Altehenger, Shuyu Kong, Barbara Mittler,
Stephan Packard and Nicolai Volland have read and commented on earlier
versions of several of my chapters. In addition, the wonderful READ-
CHINA team—Damian Mandzunowski, Eve Yi Lin, Duncan Paterson
and Lara Yuyu Yang—subjected the first full draft of the manuscript to
a thorough and critical reading. Lastly, the anonymous reviewer of this
book provided me useful comments to clarify my points. I thank all of
them for helping me clarify, refine and rethink my ideas.
Freiburg proved to be an ideal base camp for my journey thanks to
the very amicable and cooperative climate at the institute and thanks to
the many academic events and good food we share. I have benefitted
immensely from exchanges with colleagues and students alike. In addition

vii
viii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

to the READCHINA team, I would like to thank Puck Engman, Elisa-

beth Forster, Lanfen Guo, Lynn Kalic, Sara Landa, Daniel Leese, Elisa-
beth Schleep, Oliver Schulz, Amanda Shuman, Nicola Spakowski, René
Trappel, Tobias Voss, Bailu Wang and Zhang Man.
From 2013 to 2018, when I was doing most of the research for this
book, I was fortunate to be a member of the German Young Academy.
I benefitted tremendously from discussions with my fellow members—
in particular Anna Ahlers, Miriam Akkermann, Caspar Battegay, Sibylle
Baumbach, Kirill Dmitriev, Katharina Heyden, Gordon Kampe, Henrike
Manuwald, Evelyn Runge and Kai Wiegandt—and from the opportunity
to organize a conference on reception and authorship in popular cultures
at the Bavarian Academy of the Sciences and a summer school on text,
reader and author.
I have presented my research at international conferences and work-
shops including ACCL 2015, AAS 2018, 2019 and 2020, EACS 2018
and the Comparative World Literatures conference in Como (2018).
I would like to thank my co-panelists and the audiences at these and
various other venues for their valuable comments or for sharing their
memories of the Cultural Revolution era, in particular, Sibylle Baumbach,
Martin Butler, Timothy Cheek, Chen Jianhua, Eva von Contzen, Robert
Culp, Kirk Denton, Natascha Gentz, Emily Graf, Xuelei Huang, Shuyu
Kong, Martin von Koppenfels, Daniel Koss, Wendy Larson, Dayton
Lekner, Jie Li, Perry Link, Sheldon Lu, Andrea Riemenschnitter, Fred-
erike Schneider-Vielsäcker, Michael Schoenhals, Oliver Seibt, Shi Ming,
Peidong Sun, Eddy U, Clarissa Vierke, Renren Yang, Wang Yao, Wen-
hsin Yeh, Frances Weightman, Xu Xing, Enhua Zhang, Chenshu Zhou
and Zhou Haiyan.
Research for this book was supported through the generous funding
of a number of institutions, first and foremost the University of Freiburg.
TU Munich Institute of Advanced Studies provided me with a generous
one-year research fellowship, during which time I was able to write the
first draft of the manuscript. From 2015 to 2019, a research grant from
the science ministry of Baden-Württemberg funded the project “Worlds of
Reading during China’s long 1970s.” And as I was finalizing this book,
I began work on the ERC-funded project “The Politics of Reading in
the People’s Republic of China.” The ReadAct database and the results
presented in Chapter 5 received funding from the European Research
Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and
innovation programme (grant agreement No. 757365 / READCHINA).
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ix

Smaller research and travel grants were awarded by the German Young
Academy and by the German Academic Exchange Service.
Both Berlin State Library and the libraries at the Institutes of Chinese
Studies in Freiburg and Heidelberg provided me with a number of hard-
to-access publications. I would like to thank the librarians at Freiburg,
Heidelberg and Berlin—Carmen Paul, Hanno Lecher, Gesche Schröder
and Miriam Seeger—for their wonderful support. The data I am drawing
on in Chapters 5 and 6 came within the scope of the “Worlds of Read-
ing” and the READCHINA projects. The ReadAct database was imple-
mented by Duncan Paterson. Data was contributed by Mira Grünwald,
Huang Wenxin, Damian Mandzunowski, Oliver Schulz, Wu Chia-yi,
Gulfia Fakhretdinova and myself. Dang Xiayin and Yang Junjie transcribed
a number of the shouchaoben analyzed.
During the preparation of this book, I have published first results of
my research. Some of these earlier findings are also included in this book,
albeit updated. Some of the general observations about the literary land-
scape of the Cultural Revolution delineated in the Routledge Handbook of
Modern Chinese Literature (Henningsen 2019) also appear in the intro-
duction to this book. In my contribution to Kodex 2016 (Henningsen
2016), I sketch some of the basic ideas about variation and continuity
in the different versions of The Second Handshake and the Three Plum
Blossom saga, which informs Chapters 2 and 3. My contribution to Modern
Chinese Literature and Culture (Henningsen 2017), which focuses on
the novel Open Love Letters, has been significantly expanded to create
Chapters 4 and 6. Some of the basic findings from the ReadAct database
discussed in Chapter 5, have also appeared in an earlier journal article
in the Asian Journal of African Studies (Henningsen 2020). I thank the
editors for granting their permission to include these materials into my
book.
Last but not least, I want to thank my friends and family who accom-
panied me on the intellectual journey that turned into this book. I could
not have wished for better travel company: Jennifer Altehenger, Eva
von Contzen, Lanfen Guo, Laura Krämer, Daniel Leese, Nic Leonhardt,
Barbara Mittler, Qi Kuaige, Julia Schneider, Tine Stellfeld, Petra Thiel,
Clarissa Vierke, Nico Volland, Evi Zemanek and our wonderful neigh-
bors. I also thank my father and my in-laws for their moral and practical
support, looking after the kids and helping out whenever we needed them.
I thank my brother Nils, my uncle Manfred, my cousin Janne and their
families for their constant presence in my life and for a shared love of
x ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

the Baltic Sea. The best part of this journey, however, was sharing it with
my husband Daniel and our kids—and taking various academic and non-
academic detours together. Watching the children grow up and become
independent, sharing their joys of reading and writing and sharing their
laughter are the greatest pleasures and a constant source of energy. I dedi-
cate this book to Anne, Jakob and Paula in memory of their grandmother
Franziska who sadly passed away as the journey of this book began and
who nonetheless has accompanied me each and every day.
 Note on References to Primary
Sources

The majority of shouchaoben fiction discussed in this book was written by

anonymous authors and exists in multiple copies. To enable both correct
referencing and readability, the texts are referenced using an acronym
that refers to the English translation of their title, in some cases a year
and, when there are multiple versions with the same title, also a number.
TSH [1974]_2 thus refers to the second manuscript version of The Second
Handshake in the sample that was likely written down in 1974. Some
shouchaoben manuscripts are written on unnumbered pages. In this case,
the references provide the respective chapter and then the page number
within this chapter. TSH 1974_1: 4/6 therefore refers to page six of
Chapter 4 in the first copy of The Second Handshake dated 1974. The
use of these acronyms in the list of references thus leads to complete
bibliographical data, either referring to the original Cultural Revolution
manuscript, or to a later printed version. The manuscript versions of
the shouchaoben are listed separately from the rest of the bibliography;
published versions appear both in this list and in the regular bibliography.
The adaptations of The Second Handshake discussed in the last chapter
are referenced with both the author and adaptor’s surname. Zhang/Luo
1979 thus refers to the lianhuanhua adaptation of the novel by Luo
Jiefeng. These are listed in the regular bibliography.

xi
 Praise for Cultural Revolution
Manuscripts

“In her Cultural Revolution Manuscripts: Unofficial Entertainment

Fiction from 1970s China Henningsen maps out and takes the reader on
an exciting journey through a terra incognita in the literary universe of
the twentieth century: hand-copied Chinese entertainment fiction circu-
lating underground during Mao Zedong’s Cultural Revolution. A path-
breaking study, her book not only enriches our understanding of one of
Chinese culture’s known unknowns (as we might choose to refer to it
in twenty-first-century Newspeak), but also on a less serious note makes
for a wonderful read in and by itself, containing as it does snippets from
stories of murder and espionage, love and sex.”
—Michael Schoenhals, Professor Emeritus, Centre for Languages and
Literature, Lund University, Sweden

“Meticulously researched and carefully argued, Cultural Revolution

Manuscripts: Unofficial Entertainment Fiction from 1970s China makes
a major contribution to the investigation of the cultural history of
China’s Cultural Revolution. By conceptualizing ‘texts in motion,’ Lena
Henningsen not only captures the important phenomenon of producing
and consuming shouchaoben (hand-copied books), but also sheds illumi-
nating light on our understanding of world literature and its significance
to humanity.”
—Shuyu Kong, Professor of Humanities, Simon Fraser University,
Canada

xiii
xiv PRAISE FOR CULTURAL REVOLUTION MANUSCRIPTS

“Hand-copied books—shouchaoben—circulated far and wide during

China’s Cultural Revolution. Including original literary texts, translations
of forbidden foreign works intended to be read only by high-level cadres
and entertainment fiction that did not meet socialist guidelines for good
literature, the shouchaoben transcended official restrictions to bring new
topics and sensibilities to readers. Lena Henningsen’s enlightening study
shows how readers and writers bucked the system by literally taking things
into their own hands.”
—Wendy Larson, Professor of Modern Chinese Literature and Film,
University of Oregon, USA

“Mao Zedong, borrowing from Stalin, called for writers to be ‘engineers

of the soul.’ Their job was to assure that the ideology of the state infuse
the minds of the populace. But at the height of Mao’s power, young
people in China answered with their own texts, which they copied by
hand and passed around. Lena Henningsen astutely calls these ‘texts in
motion’—from pen to pen, hand to hand, genre to genre, eventually
spreading to several media and all of China.”
—Perry Link, Distinguished Professor of Comparative Literature and
Chinese, UC Riverside, USA
 Contents

1 Introduction 1
2 The Writing and Rewriting of an Exemplary
Shouchaoben: Zhang Yang’s The Second Handshake
During the Cultural Revolution 37
3 Texts on Travel: Stability Across Variation
and Secondary Authorship in Espionage Shouchaoben
Fiction 67
4 Shouchaoben as Literary Avant-Garde: Open Love Letters
and Waves 101
5 Ways of Reading: Cultural Revolution Reading Acts 139
6 World Literature and Intertextuality: Reading Acts
in Shouchaoben Fiction 179
7 From Underground into the Mainstream: Shouchaoben
Fiction on the Commercial Book Market 213
8 Conclusion: Shouchaoben Fiction as Texts in Motion 247

Bibliography 255
Index 275

xv
 List of Figures

Fig. 1.1 Overview of shouchaoben sample for this book 24

Ill. 1.1 Postscript of Three Times to Nanjing 16

Ill. 1.2 Cover page of Three Times to Nanjing 18
Ill. 1.3 Sample of original shouchaoben 26

Fig. 2.1 Overview of shouchaoben copies relevant to the present

analysis 52
Fig. 3.1 Differences in the plots of YFJTJ /TJJ and TTN 81
Fig. 5.1 Genres mentioned most frequently in autobiographical
sources 145
Fig. 5.2 Texts mentioned most frequently in autobiographical
sources 146
Fig. 5.3 Authors mentioned most frequently in autobiographical
sources 148
Fig. 5.4 Temporal distribution of internal publication of works
by and about Lu Xun 153
Fig. 5.5 References to texts by Lu Xun in autobiographical sources
about the Cultural Revolution 154
Fig. 5.6 Titles of internal publications of works by/about Lu Xun
during the Cultural Revolution 173
Fig. 6.1 Intertextual references in entertainment shouchaoben fiction 183
Fig. 6.2 Intertextual references in Zhang Yang’s The Second
Handshake 187
Fig. 6.3 Overview of authors and texts mentioned, alluded
to or quoted in Waves 195

xvii
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
the costume and insignia of their profession, as is shown by certain
monuments of the reign of Charles V.

Fig. 362.—Mausoleum of Philip II., King of Spain, near the high altar
in the Escurial. This group of gigantic statues in bronze gilt is by
Leoni. The king, kneeling in front of a prie-dieu, is arrayed in a
mantle, upon which are represented the coats-of-arms of his
different states. Beside him are his three wives—Elizabeth of
France to the left, next to her Anne of Austria, and, to the right,
Mary of Portugal. Behind him is his son, Don Carlos.
—“Iconografia Española,” by Carderera.
 The flat tombs consisted of a slab six feet six inches long, either
of some hard stone or of marble, let into the ground or the
pavement above the coffin (Fig. 363). Upon the slab was originally
carved the cross, no matter what might be the condition of the
person interred, with a crozier for a prelate and a sword for a knight.
These objects were reproduced with considerable skill by carving
them out of the stone and plastering the hollow with red or black
cement, which had the effect of making their outline more distinct.
In the twelfth century, the flat tombs were decorated with a
bordering around the stone, similarly engraved, and intended to
form a fillet within which came the epitaph, with the name of the
deceased and the date of his death. Later still, as in the case of
raised tombs, the figure of the deceased came to be represented on
them. This was so in the time of Louis VII., the statues being made
to represent the image of the deceased in the dress of his particular
station in life, with his hands crossed upon his breast; and,
subsequently, lions and dogs were added as accessories—the whole
being carved into the stone. The figure of the deceased was often
surrounded with architectural devices. At first the figure was placed
under a colonnade; subsequently a very complicated edifice was
erected, with the statue of the deceased erect in the foreground
(Fig. 364). The hands and feet were often cemented on in white or
black marble. Flat tombs made either of brass, silver, or bronze were
also used, the last-named metal being much in vogue in the
thirteenth century; for example, we find it in the tomb of
Ingerburga, wife of Philip Augustus, at St. Jean-en-Ile, near Corbeil;
in that of Blanche, wife of Louis VIII., at Maubuisson; in that of
Marguerite, wife of St. Louis, and in that of Blanche, their daughter,
at St. Denis. Prince Louis, son of St. Louis, is also buried in that
church, his tomb being in copper enamelled.
 Fig. 363.—Flat Tomb of Sibylle (wife of
Guy de Lusignan, King of
Jerusalem), who died in 1187. In
the church at Namèche, near
Namur. The inscription, half effaced,
may be translated as follows:
—“Here lies the rightful heiress of
Samson (a village near Namur),
who was descended in a direct line
from the King of Jerusalem. Let us
pray God for her soul’s consolation.”
Many tombs were far more sumptuous. Those of Louis VIII. and
Louis IX. were in silver-gilt, decorated with carved figures. Alphonse
de Brienne, Comte d’Eu, had a tomb of copper-gilt enriched with
enamel. It was probably at about the same period that the chapter
of the Abbey of St. Germain des Prés (Paris) covered with mosaics
and filigree-work the ancient tomb of Fredegonde; for it is difficult to
believe, in spite of Mabillon and Montfaucon, that this tomb dates
back to her death at the end of the sixth century.

Fig. 364.—Flat Tomb of Alexandre de Berneval,

architect of the Church of St. Ouen, at Rouen,
and of his pupil.—In the Church of St. Ouen.
(Fifteenth Century.
 In the fifteenth century the English, masters at that time of a
considerable part of France, laid hands upon these plates of copper,
silver, and gold to convert them into coin; others which escaped
spoliation were melted down during the Revolution, so that we must
look to England and Belgium for flat metal tombs still in a state of
preservation.
Such are the chief characteristics of funeral monuments in the
Middle Ages and down to the period of the Renaissance. These
monuments, many of which are still extant, throw great light upon
the costumes of their time. We must now proceed to speak of the
cemeteries, or places of public burial, in which tombs above ground
were legally permitted as soon as the Church had established its
authority. Burials within the churches were, in fact, a special
privilege for the rich, who were able to purchase it in perpetuity. The
presence of these graves in buildings intended for public worship
was, moreover, in accordance with the very essence of Christianity,
by reason of the practice already alluded to, of placing the body of
some saint beneath the altar.
The primitive Latin Church, in the second and in the early part of
the third century, performed the ceremonies of worship in the
cemeteries of the Christians, that is to say, in the crypts and the
Catacombs. The Christians, in imitation of the pagan custom of
converting old quarries into places of common burial, called
hypogea, sought refuge, during persecution, in some disused
quarries near the gates of Rome, and there they celebrated their
rites in secret and buried their dead. These are the Catacombs,
which constitute a regular subterraneous town, and the galleries of
which, composing an immense labyrinth, have been opened in the
neighbourhood of and in close proximity to the ancient roads which
radiated from Rome towards the surrounding districts. The
appropriation of these Catacombs for Christian burial-places
unquestionably dates from the first century of Christianity. The best
known and the most famous are those which extend beneath the
basilica of St. Sebastian, and form part of what was called the
Cemetery of St. Calixtus, beneath the Appian Way. Since the
sixteenth century, when these Catacombs were first explored and
thoroughly studied, this generic name has been given to all
excavations which have led to the discovery of Christian graves.
Each catacomb was called after the martyr whom the faithful had
interred there during the persecutions, and whose relics have been
found beneath altars, which were chiefly erected and decorated
during the eighth century.

Fig. 365.—Crypt of the Chapel of St. Agnes, in the Catacombs at Rome, set apart
for the interment of Christians.—From M. Perret’s work, “Les Catacombes de
Rome.”
The Catacombs are composed of very narrow galleries, from
ninety-seven centimetres to one metre thirty centimetres in breadth
(thirty-eight to fifty-one inches), cut irregularly through the stone.
These galleries, most of them very short, crossing each other in such
a way as to form an inextricable maze of streets and crossways, had
an arched roof supported by masonry here and there. At intervals
there were chambers, or cubicula (Fig. 365), hollowed out by the
Christians to serve as chapels or oratories; these were either
quadrangular or circular, of small dimensions, and often decorated
with fresco paintings of different epochs dating from the first to the
fourth century. But little fresh air could penetrate into these galleries
by the openings which had been made here and there, and also
through old shafts situated at intervals of about three hundred yards
from each other, which had been used in working the quarries. In
the lead-lined partitions, the graves, most of which are still intact,
were ranged in rows one above the other. Each grave was a hollow
of about the size of a human body hewn lengthwise in the side of
the gallery and closed with a large brick, or with a stone or marble
slab, set in cement. Five or six bodies—sometimes as many as
twelve—were so placed one above the other. The paintings (Fig.
366), the sculptures, and the mosaics of the Catacombs, are the first
products of Christian art as it shook off the traditions of paganism,
and the subjects represented are generally taken from the Holy
Scriptures; such as the Leaving the Ark, Abraham’s Sacrifice, Jonah,
the Good Shepherd, the Raising of Lazarus. Many very touching
funeral epitaphs have also been discovered on them.
Fig. 366.—Funeral Fresco discovered in the Cemetery of St. Pretextat, in the
Catacombs at Rome. The two doves, emblems of marriage, indicate the tomb
of the husband and wife.—From M. Perrét’s work, “Les Catacombes de Rome.”
Nor is it merely from the day when the triumphs of Christianity led
to the building of the basilicas in Rome that personages of rank have
been buried inside the churches. The bodies of bishops and leaders
of the Catholic community, those of patricians and of barbarian
princes who succoured the Church in her early days, were the first to
be received within the sanctuary in as close proximity as possible to
the relics of the saint to whom the building was dedicated.
Very soon these burial-places began to be classified according to
the individual merit of the dead, and the importance of their rank or
fortune. Laymen and priests had a right to be buried in the aisles of
the church, or in the part corresponding to the apse, and it is no
exaggeration to say that the interior was often so full of graves that
they extended outside the building. Such was the case after the
seventh century. A small space, either round or square, was left in
front of the façade of the churches, to be reserved as a privileged
place of burial, and was called the aitre or parvis (paradisus); hence
the origin of the rural cemetery which extends along the sides of a
country church, or forms a green in front of it.
Fig. 367.—The Cross of the
Bureau Family, formerly in
the Cemetery of the
Innocents, Paris.—Lenoir’s
“Statistique Monumentale de
Paris.”
Fig. 368.—The Knight of Death, by Albert Dürer.—This celebrated
engraving, so characteristic of the fantastic genius of the
Middle Ages, represents a fully-armed knight going to the
wars with a presentiment of coming evil, and accompanied by
Sin and Death, personified as his running footman and
esquire.—After the Fac-simile of the original Engraving, dated
1513, by one of the Wiericx (1564).
 Burial in the churches was at first interfered with, if not
prevented, even under the Christian emperors, by the Roman law,
which prescribed that the cemeteries should be extramural. Thus,
according to tradition, many of the early French saints were first of
all buried outside the towns, and their remains were subsequently
placed within some consecrated building or a church, erected over
their original grave. The ancient cemetery in some cases developed
into an inhabited suburb, as at Tours, where the Quartier de St.
Martin occupies the ground where that saint originally reposed. In
other districts, the Christian cemeteries occupied the same site down
to the thirteenth century, as at Arles, Autun, Bordeaux, the
cemeteries of the Aliscan (Elisii campi), St. Seurin, and Champ-des-
Tombes. Other cemeteries, rendered necessary by the increase in
the size of the towns, were made at about this period. Thus, after
the accession of the Capet dynasty, the capital increased so much in
size that it was necessary to limit the space accorded to burying-
places, and twenty-two parishes on the right bank of the Seine had
no cemeteries of their own. A track of waste land at Champeaux,
running along the Rue St. Denis, was converted into what was called
the Cemetery of the Innocents (Fig. 367), and it consisted of a large
enclosure with three gateways; the first at the corner of the Rue aux
Fers; the second at the corner of the Rue de la Ferronnerie; and the
third in the Place-aux-Chats. Philip Augustus surrounded it with a
wall in 1186, to prevent it being overrun by animals and the
inhabitants of the neighbourhood. To this wall was afterwards added
a covered gallery, called the charnel-house, in which were buried
those whose fortune allowed them to purchase the privilege of being
interred apart from the masses. This charnel-house, which was
damp and dismal, was paved with tombstones, and its walls were
covered with epitaphs and funeral monuments. In the thirteenth
century it became a fashionable resort in which tradesmen placed
their wares for sale, and the abode of death was converted into a
place of rendezvous and promenade for the idle.
This long gallery was built at different epochs, out of the
largesses given by several inhabitants of Paris. Marshal de Boucicault
built part of it in the beginning of the fifteenth century, and the
famous Nicholas Flamel, who is said to have had a bookstall in the
charnel-house, built at his own cost the whole side which ran parallel
with the Rue de la Lingerie, and in which he and his wife Pernelle
were buried. This charnel-house was surmounted by large galetas
(lofts) in which the bones of the dead were preserved. The famous
“Danse Macabre” (Figs. 369–392), that philosophical allegory in
which death was leading in the dance “persons of all conditions,”
was painted about the year 1430 upon the walls of the charnel-
house, on the Rue St. Honoré side.
Figs. 369 to 392.—The Dance of Death, a Fac-simile of
Wood Engravings executed after the Holbein
Drawings in the “Simulachres de la Mort;” small
4to, Treschel Brothers, Lyons, 1538.—“As fish are
taken speedily with the hook (aine), so does death
take men; for death spares no man, king nor
emperor, rich nor poor, noble nor villain, wise nor
fool, physician nor surgeon, young nor old, strong
nor weak, man nor woman. Nothing is more
certain; all have to take part in death’s dance.”—
Explanation taken from the “Forteresses de la Foy,”
Manuscript of the Fifteenth Century, in the Library
at Valenciennes.

The Dance of Death, after Holbein’s Drawings

(continued).
The Dance of Death, after Holbein’s Drawings
(continued).
The Dance of Death, after Holbein’s Drawings
(continued).
The Dance of Death, after Holbein’s Drawings
(continued).
The Dance of Death, after Holbein’s Drawings
(continued).
The Dance of Death, after Holbein’s Drawings
(continued).
The Dance of Death, after Holbein’s Drawings
(continued).
The Dance of Death, after Holbein’s Drawings
(continued).
The Dance of Death, after Holbein’s Drawings
(continued).
The Dance of Death, after Holbein’s Drawings
(continued).
The Dance of Death, after Holbein’s Drawings
(continued).
The Dance of Death, after Holbein’s Drawings
(continued).
The Dance of Death, after Holbein’s Drawings
(continued).
The Dance of Death, after Holbein’s Drawings
(continued).
The Dance of Death, after Holbein’s Drawings
(continued).
The Dance of Death, after Holbein’s Drawings
(continued).
The Dance of Death, after Holbein’s Drawings
(continued).