CHAPTER 5

HALL CO-EFFICIENT OF A SEMICONDUCTOR

SAMPLE

5.1. The Hall Effect

The Hall effect was first observed by an American scientist, E. H. Hall, in 1879. If a current
passes through a conducting material along the X direction and there is a magnetic field in the
Y direction then a voltage difference VH appears along the Z axis. If a charge ‘e’ moves with
velocity vd through a magnetic field B then a force acts on the charge, where
F = evd×B

5.2. Basic components of Hall Effect

Hall Effect Sensors consist basically of a thin piece of rectangular p-type semiconductor
material such as gallium arsenide (GaAs), indium antimonide (InSb) or indium arsenide (InAs)
passing a continuous current through itself.

5.3. Principle of Hall Effect

4.4.

The principle of Hall Effect states that when a current-carrying conductor or a semiconductor
is introduced to a perpendicular magnetic field, a voltage can be measured at the right angle to
the current path. This effect of obtaining a measurable voltage is known as the Hall Effect.
If a current carrying conductor placed in a perpendicular magnetic field, a potential
difference will generate in the conductor which is perpendicular to both magnetic field and
current. This phenomenon is called Hall Effect. In solid state physics, Hall effect is an
important tool to characterize the materials especially semiconductors. It directly
determines both the sign and density of charge carriers in a given sample.

5.4. Experiment 1: Hall co-efficient of a semiconductor sample

Aim:
1. To determine the Hall voltage developed across the sample material.
2. To calculate the Hall coefficient and the carrier concentration of the sample material.

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Apparatus Required:
Two solenoids, Constant current supply, Four probe, Digital gauss meter, Hall effect apparatus
(which consist of Constant Current Generator (CCG), digital milli voltmeter and Hall probe).

Formula:

RH = 1/ne

Symbol Explanation Unit

RH Hall coefficient -
e electric charge Coulomb
n number density of electrons -
B applied magnetic field Tesla
I current Ampere
VH Hall voltage Volt
t thickness Meter

Diagram

Fig. 3.1 Schematic representation of Hall Effect in a conductor

Procedure
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 • Connect ‘Constant current source’ to the solenoids.
• Four probe is connected to the Gauss meter and placed at the middle of the two
solenoids.
• Switch ON the Gauss meter and Constant current source.
• Vary the current through the solenoid from 1A to 5A with the interval of 0.5A, and note
the corresponding Gauss meter readings.
• Switch OFF the Gauss meter and constant current source and turn the knob of constant
current source towards minimum current.
• Fix the Hall probe on a wooden stand. Connect green wires to Constant Current
Generator and connect red wires to milli voltmeter in the Hall Effect apparatus
• Replace the Four probe with Hall probe and place the sample material at the middle of
the two solenoids.
• Switch ON the constant current source and CCG.
• Carefully increase the current I from CCG and measure the corresponding Hall
voltage VH. Repeat this step for different magnetic field B.
• Thickness t of the sample is measured using screw gauge.
• Hence calculate the Hall coefficient by using the RH formula
• Then calculate the carrier concentration by using the n formula

Tabulation

Table: 1

Trial No: Current through solenoid Magnetic field generated

1
2
3
4

Table: 2
Trial Magnetic Field Thickness (t) Hall current, Hall Voltage
No: (Tesla T) m mA mV RH
1
2
3
4
5

Result
Hall coefficient of the material = .........................
Carrier concentration of the material =. ........................ m3

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 5.5. Applications

• Hall effect finds many applications.

• It is used to determine if the given material is a semiconductor or insulator.
• It is used to measure the magnetic field and is known as a magnetometer
• They find applications in position sensing as they are immune to water, mud,
dust, and dirt.
• They are used in integrated circuits as Hall effect sensors.

5.6. Viva Questions

8. What is the principle of Hall effect?

The principle of Hall Effect states that when a current-carrying conductor or a
semiconductor is introduced to a perpendicular magnetic field, a voltage can be measured
at the right angle to the current path. This effect of obtaining a measurable voltage is known
as the Hall Effect.
9. What is Hall effect explain briefly?
Hall effect, development of a transverse electric field in a solid material when it carries an
electric current and is placed in a magnetic field that is perpendicular to the current. ... The
sign of this Hall voltage determines whether positive or negative charges are carrying the
current.
10. What is the application of Hall effect?
Hall probes are often used as magnetometers, i.e. to measure magnetic fields, or inspect
materials (such as tubing or pipelines) using the principles of magnetic flux leakage. Hall
effect devices produce a very low signal level and thus require amplification.
11. Can Hall coefficient zero?
Hall coefficient depends on the hole and electron concentration, and also on the mobility
of carriers. In an insulator, the gap between the conduction band and the valence band is
very high. ... So, the hall coefficient will be zero almost for the insulator.
12. Define mobility.
It is the ratio of average drift velocity of charge carriers to applied electric field.
13. Why is Hall potential developed?
When a current carrying conductor is placed in a transverse magnetic field the
magnetic field exerts a deflecting force(Lorentz Force) in the direction perpendicular
to both magnetic field and drift velocity this causes charges to shift from one surface
to another thus creating a potential difference.
14. How does mobility depend on electrical conductivity?
It is directly proportional to conductivity.
15. What happens to the hall coefficient when number of charge carriers is decreased?
Hall coefficient increases with decrease in number of charge carriers per unit volume.
16. Can magnets damage the brain?
Prolonged exposure to low-level magnetic fields, similar to those emitted by such common
household devices as blow dryers, electric blankets and razors, can damage brain cell DNA
17. Which method can be used to determine the N and p-type of semiconductor?
The convenient method for determine the type of semiconductor is using Hall
measurement. N-type semiconductor has negative electron charge carriers, whereas, p-type
semiconductors have positive holes as charge carriers. Hot probe is one of the ways that
you can determine if your sample is ntype or ptype semiconductor.

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 CHAPTER 7

DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT - LASER

7.1. Stimulated Emission

The concept of stimulated emission was first proposed by Albert Einstein in 1917 and it
took 40 years to accept Einstein’s prediction. Process of forced emission of photons caused
by the incident photons is called as stimulated emission and it is the principle of laser.
The term LASER(Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation) was coined by
Gordon Gould. The first laser is ruby laser and it was invented by Theodre Maiman in
1960. The laser was the first device capable of amplifying light waves themselves.

7.2. Basic components of Laser

Population Inversion
The establishment of a situation in which the number of atoms in higher energy state is
more than the number of atoms in lower energy state is known as population
inversion. i.e. N2 > N1. This can be artificially achieved using pumping methods.
Pumping
It is an artificial process used to achieve population inversion in the active material.

Active medium
The medium in which population inversion is achieved for laser action is called active
medium.
Optical Resonator
An optical resonator consists of a pair of reflecting surfaces in which one is fully reflecting,
and the other is partially reflecting. The active medium is placed in between these two
reflecting surfaces. The photons generated are bounced back and forth between these
two reflecting surfaces. This will induce more and more stimulated transition leading to
laser action.

7.3. Characteristics of Laser

4.6.

The following characteristic distinguishes a laser beam form an ordinary light.

Directionality

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 An ordinary light source emits the light in all directions. But a laser source emits light in
only one direction. The divergence of laser beam is very small. So, the laser light is highly
directional.
High Intensity
Laser sources emit light as a narrow beam and its energy is concentrated in a small
region (spot). This concentration of energy gives high intensity to the laser.
Highly monochromatic
Ordinary light spreads over a wavelength range of the order of 100 nm. But laser beam
has very little spreading of the order of 1 nm. Thus, laser beam is highly monochromatic.

Highly coherent
The light emitted form a laser source consist of wave trains which have same phase and
direction. So, laser light has a high degree of coherence.

7.4. Diffraction

When a collimated beam of light passes through an aperture, or if it encounters an

obstacle, it spreads out and the resulting pattern contains bright and dark regions. This
effect is called diffraction, and it is characteristic of all wave phenomena. It can be
understood by considering the interference between different parts of the wavefront,
which was altered in passing through the aperture. The angle of diffraction is of order λ /
d with λ the wavelength and d the dimension of the aperture. Thus, for visible light,
apertures in the range 10-100 μm produce easily resolved diffraction patterns.

7.5. Experiment 1: Determination of wavelength of laser using grating.

Aim:
To determine the wavelength of the given laser source using grating.
Apparatus Required:
Laser source, Grating, Screen.

Formula:
Wavelength of the LASER
Xm
= Å
Nm X m2 + D 2

Symbol Explanation Unit

n Order of diffraction –
N Number of lines per metre in the grating lines/meter
Xm Distance of the mth order from Zeroth order (metre)
D Distance between the laser grating and the (metre)
screen

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 Diagram

(a)

3 2 1 0 1 2 3

(b)

Fig.7.1 (a) Laser Grating (b) Diffraction Pattern

Procedure
• Set the laser source and mount the grating in the grating stand (see Fig. 7.1 (a)).

• Keep a fixed distance (D) between the laser grating and the screen.

• Switch on the laser source to allow the beam to fall on the laser grating.

• Observe the diffracted beams on the screen. (see Fig. 7.1 (b)).

• Measure and record the location of the first order spots on either side of the central
spot in a table.

• In the figure 4.1 the intensity of the irradiance is found to decrease, from zeroth order
to higher orders, i.e the first order is brighter than the second order and so on.

• Measure and record the positions X1, X2, X3 ........ of the spots belonging to the first
order, second order, third order etc., on either side of the central maximum.

• Repeat the experiment for various values of D and the positions of the spots.

• Then by using the given formula the wavelength of the laser source can be calculated
and the mean is taken.
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Tabulation I: To find the wavelength of the laser source.

Number of rulings in the grating (N) =……………………… lines/metre

Distance
between
grating
Xm Mean
S. No. and Order (m) 
X2m D2 X 2 m + D2
screen
(D)

LHS RHS Xm

×10- o
Unit ×10-2m No. ×10-2m ×10-2m ×10-2m ×10-4m2 4m2
×10-2m A

1. First

2. Second
3. First

4. Second
5. First

6. Second

Result
Wavelength of the laser from source = ———— m.

7.6. Experiment 2: Determination of particle size using laser.

Aim
To determine the size of micro particles using laser.

Apparatus Required

1. Micro size particles (lycopodium powder) 2. Diode laser 3. Glass plate 4.

Screen
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Formula
The size of the particle
2 +𝐷2
𝜆𝑚√𝑌𝑚 1
d= metre.
𝑌𝑚

Symbol Explanation Unit

m Order of diffraction –
 Wavelength of the laser source (Å)
N Number of lines per metre in the grating lines/meter
Ym Distance of the mth order from Zeroth order (metre)
D1 Distance between the particle and the screen (metre)

Diagram

(a)

(b)
Fig.7.2 (a) Particle size determination using Laser (b) 1,2,3,4…. Order of
Spectrum

Procedure:

To find the size of the given particle

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• Set the laser source and mount the lycopodium powder slide on the stand.

• Move the screen back and forth until a clear image of the spectrum is seen.

• Note down the distance between the screen and the particle slide (D1).

• Observe the different orders of diffraction spectrum of laser light by the particle. (see
Fig.7.2).

• Measure and record the positions Y1, Y2, Y3.... of the circles belonging to the first order,
second order, third order etc. on either side of the central maxima.

• Repeat the experiment for various values of D1.

Tabulation II: To find the size of the given particle.

o
Wavelength of the given laser source =........................................ A

Distance
between
lycopodium Order Ym Mean
S. No. slide and 𝟐
𝐘𝐦 𝐃𝟐𝟏 𝟐 + 𝐃𝟐
√𝐘𝐦 d
(m) 𝟏
screen (D1)
LHS RHS Ym
×10- ×10- ×10-
Unit ×10-2m No. 2m
×10-2m ×10-2m 4m2 4m2
×10-2m m

1. First

2. Second
3. First

4. Second
5. First

6. Second

Result
The average size of the particle = ————𝜇m

7.7. Applications
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 • Laser diffraction analysis is used to observe distribution of sediments such as clay
and mud, with an emphasis on silt and the sizes of bigger samples of clay,
determining in situ measurements of particles in estuaries.

• Particles in estuaries are important as they allow for natural or pollutant chemical
species to move around with ease. The size, density, and stability of particles in
estuaries are important for their transportation.

• It is also used to compare particle size distributions to support this claim as well
as find cycles of change in estuaries that occur because of different particles.

7.8. Viva Questions

18. What is semiconductor diode laser?

Semiconductor diode laser is a specially fabricated pn junction diode. It emits laser light when it
is forward biased.
19. What is LASER?
The term LASER stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. It is a device
which produces a powerful, monochromatic collimated beam of light in which the waves are
coherent.
20. What are the characteristics of laser radiation?
Laser radiations have high intensity, high coherence, high monochromatic and high directionality
with less divergence.
21. How are the commercial gratings are made?
A commercial grating is made by pouring properly diluted cellulose acetate on the actual grating
and drying it to a thin strong film. The film is detached from the original grating and is mounted
between two glass plates. A commercial grating is called replica grating. In our experiment we
use plane type replica grating.

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