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Engineering Physics 19EPH131

Sections:- A1, A6 & A7

Unit-V
Semiconductor Devices

Dr D.Srinivas
Department of Physics
GIS
GITAM

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 Topics to be covered according to the syllabus

• Carrier transport phenomena - Drift and diffusion currents in semiconductors

• Hall effect and its applications

• Magnetoresistance

• p-n junction layer formation and V-I characteristics

• Direct and indirect band gap semiconductors

• Photodiode – Construction & Working

• LED - Construction & Working

• Solar cell - Construction & Working

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 Learning Outcomes

After completion of this unit, the students will be able to

• explain the drift and diffusion currents and formation of junction layer.

• explain Hall effect and its applications.

• illustrate and interpret the V-I characteristics of a p-n junction diode.

• describe applications of p-n junction diodes in photodiodes, LEDs and solar cells.

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 Conduction in Metals : Drift Velocity
• If an electric field is applied to a metal, than due to electrostatic
force, the electrons gets accelerated and their velocity would
increase indefinitely.
• Due to collisions with ions the electrons loses energy and
attains a finite velocity called drift velocity.
Let E = Strength of applied electric field
F = Force experienced by electrons due to applied field
a = acceleration
t = time between the collisions
v = Drift velocity
q = charge of an electron
m = mass of an electron

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• Consider a piece of conductor in which electrons are uniformly
distributed.
• Let N = No. of free electrons distributed in the conductor
L = Length of the conductor
A = Cross-sectional area of the conductor
• Average velocity of electrons = L/T
where T is the time taken by the electrons through a distance
• The number of electrons passing through any area per second = N/T

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 Diffusion current
The process by which, charge carriers (electrons or holes) in a semiconductor moves
from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration is called
diffusion. 
Current produced due to motion of charge carriers from a region of higher concentration
to a region of lower concentration is called diffusion current.
Current flow due to mobile charge diffusion is proportional to the carrier concentration
gradient.

Diffusion current can occur in the semiconductors that are non- uniformly doped because in non- uniformity only
one can find the majority and the minority concentration so that movement can be observed for the carriers from
higher concentration to the lower concentration.
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 Differences between Drift and Diffusion currents

 Drift Current Diffusion Current

1.The movement of charge carriers is because of the 1.The diffusion current can be occurred because of
applied electric field is known as drift current. the diffusion in charge carriers. 
2.It requires electrical energy for the process of drift 2.Some amount of external energy is enough for the
current. process of diffusion current. 
3.This current obeys Ohm’s law  3.This current obeys Fick’s Law
4.The direction of charge carriers in the semiconductor is 4.For charge carriers, the densities of diffusion are
reverse to each other. reverse in symbol to each other.
5.The direction of the drift current, as well as the electric 5.The direction of this current can be decided by the
field, will be the same  concentration of the carrier slope.
6.It depends on the permittivity  6. It is independent of permittivity 
7.The direction of this current mainly depends on the 7.The direction of this current mainly depends on the
polarity of the applied electric field.  charge within the concentrations of carrier
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Concentration Gradient: In any semiconductor, there is the presence of the concentration of electrons
or holes. The difference in this concentration of electrons or holes is referred to as a concentration
gradient. 
 Diffusion current density is proportional to the concentration gradient.
 If the value of the concentration gradient is high then the density will be high. If concentration
gradient value is low then in that case diffusion density will also be low.
 The equations for diffusion current density and concentration gradient of the n-type and p-type
semiconductor

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 Hall Effect
Edwin Hall in 1879 had first observed the phenomenon, and hence we call
this as Hall effect
• If a current (I) carrying semiconductor is placed in a transverse
magnetic field (B), then electric field (force) is induced in the
perpendicular direction of I and B Application:-
• Nature of semiconductor (p-type or n-type)
• Carrier concentration
• Conductivity
• Mobility

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Experimental Determination of Carrier concentration and Mobility

• Consider a semiconductor (P-Type or N-types) in which current I and Magnetic field B is

applied, a force is act on the charge carriers. This force pushing the charge carriers towards the
back of the semiconductor.
• When the mobile carriers (i.e. electrons or holes) are pushed towards the back, the front
becomes depleted and the semiconductor loss it neutrality.
• Now there is an excess of mobile charge carriers at the back and an excess of opposite charge
due to impurity atom at the front.
• If the semiconductor is N-type, The electron will be in excess at the back surface and the
surface becomes negatively charged with respect to front. This gives rise to a potential
difference called Hall voltage between front and back.
• If the semiconductor is P-type, The hole will be in excess at the back surface and the surface
becomes positively charged with respect to front. The polarity of Hall voltage is in reverse
direction.
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Applications of Hall Effect
1.To Determine Polarity: It is used for determining the type of semiconductor that is
either N-type or P-type.

2.To Determine Carrier Concentration: It is used to determine the electrons and holes
concentration.

3.Determining Conductivity: Hall Effect is used to determine the conductivity of

material and thus, its mobility can be calculated.

4.Measuring Displacement and Current: It is used for the measurement of

displacement and current in mechanical sensors.

5.Power Measurement: Power measurement in an electromagnetic wave can be done

with the help of Hall effect.

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 Magnetoresistance
 The change of electrical resistance produced in a current-
carrying conductor or semiconductor on application of a magnetic field H is
called Magnetoresistance. This effect was first discovered by William
Thomson (more commonly known as Lord Kelvin) in 1856.
• Magnetoresistance is proportional to the strength of the magnetic
field, with a larger field producing a higher resistance. 
 This property is used in computers to read magnetic data.  A potential difference is applied to a wire that
is placed close to the magnetic material on disk or tape.  As the magnetic fields representing data on the
material pass by the wire, the resistance of the wire changes with the magnetic field of the data.  This
change in resistance changes the current through the wire.  Monitoring this current provides a reading of
the magnetic field on the tape or disk.

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• Ferromagnetic materials (including ferrimagnetic materials) with
spontaneous magnetization show a characteristic MR effect, which depends
on the spontaneous magnetization, and this MR effect is called an anomalous
magnetoresistance effect.
• The anomalous magnetoresistance effect is classified into the following two
kinds: anisotropic magnetoresistance (AMR) effect and a forced effect.
• In a magnetic field region where magnetic moments are not saturated, the
AMR effect appears depending on the relative orientation between
magnetization and electric current.
• The forced effect appears under the application of high magnetic field after
saturating the magnetization, and a slight increase in the spontaneous
magnetization leads to the corresponding decrease in electric resistance.
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 Typical MR curves in a ferromagnetic material. The magnetic field is applied
parallel or perpendicular to the direction of electric current

• With sweeping the magnetic field from positive to negative and then back to positive again, a hysteresis
curve of the resistance shows a maximum or minimum value around the coercivity.
• The MR curve shown in Figure is for the case with 𝜌l >𝜌t. However, materials with 𝜌l < 𝜌t also exist. In
any case, Δ𝜌∕𝜌 for AMR is usually a small value from 0.1 to a few percent at room temperature 19
 P-N Junction diode
• When a piece of semiconductor is taken and two different adjacent regions of it are doped with p type
and n type impurities then a junction layer is formed which separates the both regions. This is known
as p-n junction diode and it is the basic component in all solid state devices. It can be used for
rectifying, amplifying, switching applications.

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Depletion Region
When a p-n junction is formed, some of the free electrons in the n-region
diffuse across the junction and combine with holes to form negative ions. In
so doing they leave behind positive ions at the donor impurity sites.

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Forward Biasing and Reverse Biasing

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V-I Characteristics of Semiconductor P-N diode

Knee voltage: This is the minimum required voltage to start the conduction of current through the diode. This is also
known as cut-in voltage. This is the forward voltage at which the diode current starts increasing rapidly.
Breakdown voltage: This is the minimum amount of voltage of an insulator that makes it electrically conductor.
 In Reverse bias connection of p-n junction diode. no, any current flows through the diode, but when we increase
the reverse voltage level continuously Then diode get internal damage (breakdown) and start conduction at a fixed
level. 
 Breakdown voltage is the Minimum Amount of reverse bias voltage at which diode starts conduction in reverse
bias connection. 
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 Direct and Indirect Band Gap Semiconductors
• The band gap represents the minimum energy difference between the top of the
valence band and the bottom of the conduction band.
• The top of the valence band and the bottom of the conduction band are not generally
at the same value of the electron momentum.
• In a direct band gap semiconductor, the top of the valence band and the bottom of
the conduction band occur at the same value of momentum, as in the schematic
below.
Minimum-energy state in the conduction band (CB -minima) and the maximum-
energy state in the valence band (VB-maxima) are each characterized by a certain
crystal momentum and k- vector (propagation constant or wave vector) in the
Brillouin zone.

If the k-vectors and  are the same, for conduction

band minima (CB-minima) and valence Band
maxima (VB- maxima) it is called a “Direct band
gap semiconductor”
Examples of direct band gap semiconductors are
GaAs, InAs, InSb, GaN, InN, ZnO, CdSe,ZnS.
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• In an indirect band gap semiconductor, the maximum energy of the valence
band occurs at a different value of momentum to the minimum in the
conduction band energy.
• If the k-vectors (Propagation constant or wave vector)  are the different for
conduction band minima (CB-minima) and valence Band maxima (VB-
maxima) it is called a “Indirect band gap semiconductor”

Examples of indirect band gap semiconductors are Si , Ge ,C (diamond), GaP  

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Differences between Direct and Indirect Band Gap Semiconductors

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 Photodiode
• A photodiode is a p-n junction or pin semiconductor device that consumes
light energy to generate electric current. It is also sometimes referred as
photo-detector, photo-sensor, or light detector.
• Photodiodes are specially designed to operate in reverse bias condition.
Reverse bias means that the p-side of the photodiode is connected to the
negative terminal of the battery and n-side is connected to the positive
terminal of the battery.
• Photodiode is very sensitive to light so when light or photons falls on the
photodiode it easily converts light into electric current.

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Working principle of a photodiode
 When a photon of ample energy strikes the diode, it makes a couple of an electron-
hole. This mechanism is also called as the inner photoelectric effect.
 If the absorption arises in the depletion region junction, then the carriers are
removed from the junction by the inbuilt electric field of the depletion region.
 Therefore, holes in the region move toward the anode, and electrons move toward
the cathode, and a photocurrent will be generated.
 The entire current through the diode is the sum of the absence of light and the
photocurrent.
 So the absent current must be reduced to maximize the sensitivity of the device.

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Modes of Operation
The operating modes of the photodiode include three modes, namely Photovoltaic mode,
Photoconductive mode and avalanche diode mode
Photovoltaic Mode: This mode is also known as zero bias mode, in which a voltage is
produced by the lightened photodiode. It gives a very small dynamic range & non-linear
necessity of the voltage formed.
Photoconductive Mode: The photodiode used in this photoconductive mode is more
usually reverse biased. The reverse voltage application will increase the depletion layer’s
width, which in turn decreases the response time & the junction capacitance. This mode is
too fast and displays electronic noise
Avalanche Diode Mode: Avalanche diodes operate in a high reverse bias condition, which
permits multiplication of an avalanche breakdown to each photo-produced electron-hole
pair. This outcome in an internal gain in the photodiode, which slowly increases the device
response.
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V-I Characteristics of Photodiode

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Advantages of Photodiode
• It shows a quick response when exposed to light.
• Photodiode offers high operational speed.
• It provides a linear response.
• It is a low-cost device.
Disadvantages of Photodiode
• It is a temperature-dependent device. And shows poor temperature stability.
• When low illumination is provided, then amplification is necessary.
Applications of Photodiode
1. Photodiodes majorly find its use in counters and switching circuits.
2. Photodiodes are extensively used in an optical communication system.
3. Logic circuits and encoders also make use of photodiode.
4. It is widely used in burglar alarm systems. In such alarm systems, until
exposure to radiation is not interrupted, the current flows. As the light energy
fails to fall on the device, it sounds the alarm.

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 p-i-n photodiodes
A p-i-n photodiode consists of an intrinsic region sandwiched between heavily doped p +
and n+ regions. The depletion layer is almost completely defined by the intrinsic region.
In practice, the intrinsic region does not have to be truly intrinsic but only has to be
highly resistive (lightly doped p or n region).

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Advantages of p-i-n photodiodes:
 Increasing the width of the depletion layer (where the generated
carriers can be transported by drift) increases the area available for
capturing light.
 Increasing the width of the depletion layer reduces the junction
capacitance and thereby the RC time constant. Yet, the transit time
increases with the width of the depletion layer.
 Reducing the ratio between the diffusion length and the drift
length of the device results in a greater proportion of the generated
current being carried by the faster drift process.

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 Light Emitting Diode (LED)
A light Emitting Diode (LED) is an optical semiconductor device that emits light
when voltage is applied.

In other words, LED is an optical semiconductor device that converts electrical energy
into light energy. When Light Emitting Diode (LED) is forward biased, free electrons in
the conduction band recombines with the holes in the valence band and releases energy in
the form of light.

Principle: The process of emitting light in response to the strong electric field or flow of
electric current is called electroluminescence.
Construction:
Symbol:

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 Working Principle of LED

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 I-V Characteristics of LED

Advantages of LED Over Conventional Lighting:

1. Long Life
2. Energy Efficiency
3. Eco-Friendly
4. Durability
5. No UV Emissions
6. Low Voltage-Friendly
7. Design Flexibility
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Types of Light Emitting Diodes
 Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) – infra-red
 Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (GaAsP) – red to infra-red, orange
 Aluminium Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (AlGaAsP) – high-brightness
red, orange-red, orange, and yellow
 Gallium Phosphide (GaP) – red, yellow and green
 Aluminium Gallium Phosphide (AlGaP) – green
 Gallium Nitride (GaN) – green, emerald green
 Gallium Indium Nitride (GaInN) – near ultraviolet, bluish-green and
blue
 Silicon Carbide (SiC) – blue as a substrate
 Zinc Selenide (ZnSe) – blue
 Aluminium Gallium Nitride (AlGaN) – ultraviolet

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 Solar Cell
 Solar cell is the basic unit of solar energy generation system where electrical energy
is extracted directly from light energy without any intermediate process
 The working principle of solar cells is based on the photovoltaic effect, i.e. the
generation of a potential difference at the junction of two different materials in
response to electromagnetic radiation. The photovoltaic effect is closely related to the
photoelectric effect, where electrons are emitted from a material that has absorbed
light with a frequency above a material-dependent threshold frequency

 An array or Solar PV Cells are

electrically connected together to form a
PV Module and an Array of such
Modules are again electrically
connected together to form a Solar
Panel
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 Working of solar cell
A solar cell is basically a semiconductor p-n junction device.
• It is formed by joining p-type (high concentration of hole or deficiency of electron)
and n-type (high concentration of electron) semiconductor material. at the junction
excess electrons from n-type try to diffuse to p-side and vice-versa.
• Movement of electrons to the p-side exposes positive ion cores in n-side, while
movement of holes to the n-side exposes negative ion cores in the p-side. This results
in an electric field at the junction and forming the depletion region.
• When sunlight falls on the solar cell, photons with energy greater than band gap of
the semiconductor are absorbed by the cell and generate electron-hole (e-h) pair.
• These e-h pairs migrate respectively to n- and p- side of the p-n
junction due to electrostatic force of the field across the junction. In
this way a potential difference is established between two sides of the
cell.
• Typically a solar or photovoltaic cell has negative front contact and
positive back contact.
• A semiconductor p-n junction is in the middle of these two contacts
like a battery. If these two sides are connected by an external circuit,
current will start flowing from positive to negative terminal of the solar
cell. 39
Solar Cell: I-V Characteristics
The maximum voltage that the solar cell can develop is Voc ;

The maximum current of the solar cell is Isc.

If the solar cell could simultaneously deliver the maximum voltage
and the maximum current, the maximum power would be
MPP = Voc x Isc
Fill Factor:
The ratio between product of current and voltage at maximum
power point to the product of short circuit current and open circuit
voltage of the solar cell.
FF = (Vmp x Imp)/ (Voc x Isc)
Efficiency of Solar Cell:
It is defined as the ratio of maximum electrical power output to the radiation power input to the cell and it is
expressed in percentage.
ƞ = Pmax / Pin
 
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Thank you

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