Life Science

Second Secondary Education

Scientific Section
2021/2022

Chapter 1: Biological Identity of organisms,

DNA and Cell Cycle
Chapter 2: Protein Synthesis
Chapter 3: Energy expenditure of organism
Chapter 4: Liver and Regulation of Glycemia

Prepared by T. Hussein Al-Hussein

Edited by T. Aida Mshawrab
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 This book is prepared for you
from the bottom of our hearts to
simplify biology as much as we
can, break down any obstacle you
used to encounter and to help
you succeed easily.

Much Love

2
A- Action verbs:
1- Analyze: variables + results.
2- Interpret: analyze + meaning (meaning is the relation between the variables and results, don’t add a
conclusion). You can use these words in the meaning: reduce, enhance, stimulate.
3- Conclude: derive a new decision from the obtained results.
4- Draw out: draw from a set of given and without reasoning a relation, a role, a law…..
5- Deduce: use logical reasoning by analyzing only the experiment that lead you directly to the answer (
you are NOT allowed to use any acquired knowledge)
6- Determine: justify by analyzing, interpreting, or comparing the given document or using your acquired
knowledge) then indicate.
7- Show/prove/justify: prove something is true and evident using logical reasoning (analysis or
interpretation), then re-write the statement at the end.
8- Describe: translate the figure into a good paragraph using scientific language. (Don’t skip or add
information, don’t conclude or use opinions. Don’t express the text in the form of separated points.
You have to use he given legends)
9- Explain: mention the result then explain using what preceded and acquired knowledge. If there is
numbers or a certain document, you must analyze them, then explain by using the numbers.
10- Compare: similarities + differences. (use more than, less than, equal to, same as, identical, both,
similarly, while, but, on the other hand, whereas)
11- Indicate: give the answer directly without any justification.
12- Specify/identify: Indicate and justify.
13- Hypothesis: a temporary solution for the posed problem. Start with suppose that, maybe, hypothesis
14- Schematize: draw + label
15- Annotate: label
16- Pose a problem: a question concerning the problem. (don’t forget the question mark)
17- Pick out: extract the sentence as it is from the text.
18- List: give sequence of names, steps or brief answers.
19- Construct a table:
- Title: table shows the variation of Y(unit) as a function of X (unit)
- Don’t draw the table with your hands, don’t keep it open, don’t forget the title and the units)
20- Construct a graph or a bar graph:
Graph Histogram
Write the title in the form: This graph shows the Write the title in the form: This graph shows
variation of Y(unit) as a function of X(unit) the Y(unit) of X(unit) (do not add variation)
Add arrows and scale to the x and y axis Add arrow and scale ONLY to the y axis (the
bars should be equally spaced)
- Write the variables and results on the x and y axis and add the units beside them
- Add only the used values (erase any unused values) and don’t forget and used value.
- Don’t forget the scale, arrows, title, units.
- Don’t invert the x and y axis.

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 B- Instruction for better answering

For Verbs requiring reasoning such as analysis, comparison, explanation... or elaborating a newly produced
written text like the description …, the answer should include:

- The numerical values and the corresponding units if they are indicated in the documents and use the
given scale for determining the desired values when they do not appear explicitly or directly.
- Logical connectors (addition, cause, consequence, opposition or concession...) whenever there is a data
confrontation and time connectors whenever there are steps or a chronological order.
- Identify the variable or variables in a given experiment in order to determine the
analysis to be done (simple analysis or parallel analysis) and to determine in an analysis
the appropriate logical sequences that correspond to the different variations.
- Choose the relevant knowledge relevant to the question so as not to waste time using irrelevant
information.
- Use the appropriate scientific vocabulary and write it correctly.
- Select freely the suitable mental process and the connectors that they are relevant to the given
instruction.

C- Connectors for similarities and differences:

D- Terms to use in answers as conclusions, meanings, significances and relations. YOU

ARE NOT ALLOWED TO USE INCREASE OR DECREASE IN SUCH ANSWERS.
Terms similar to increase Terms similar to decrease Terms similar to stop
Amplifies, enhances, Reduce, lower, diminish, Prevent, inhibit, stop,
elevates, raise, activate, minimize, alleviate, slow down block, arrest,
stimulate, produce,
proliferate, speed up…..

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 Chapter 1:
Biological Identity of organisms, DNA and Cell Cycle
Activity 1: Mitosis
Activity 2: The Karyotype
Activity 3: DNA
Activity 4: Identical reproduction and Cell Cycle

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 Activity 1: Mitosis; an Equal division of the chromosomal set.
The body cells, that contain chromosomes in their nuclei, need to multiply and divide for several reasons by a
process called mitosis.
Definition of Mitosis: is a process of cell division in which each somatic cell (non sex cells) divides into 2
identical cells with conserved genetic program.
1- State 2 roles of mitosis.
A cell division is made up of one interphase and one
mitosis. Mitosis is composed of 4 phases: Prophase,
metaphase, anaphase and telophase. Interphase is a
preparatory phase that precedes each mitotic division.
Documents 1 and 2 are schematic representations of
interphase and mitosis of an animal cell.

(Highly condensed
and observed
chromosomes)

2- Indicate the aspect of the genetic material in each

phase.
3- Indicate the main features of each phase.
4- Draw out the difference between the
chromosomes of metaphase and anaphase.
5- Justify this statement: Genetic material is
conserved during mitosis.
Document 3 represents mitosis of a plant
cell.
6- Draw out 2 differences between
animal and plant mitosis.

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Exercise 1: Mitosis and Cancer Therapy
Somatic cells multiply, under normal conditions by mitosis for many reasons such as cell renewal. On the
contrary, under abnormal conditions, normal cells can develop into cancerous cells leading to appearance of
cancer. Cancer cells undergo uncontrolled
mitosis. T=0 T= 24 hours
Number Normal case 10 40
Document 1 shows the number of cells in of cells in Cancer case 10 160
normal and cancerous cases at day 0 (T=0) of Document 1
the experiment and after 24 hours (T= 24
hours).
1- Indicate the number of mitotic divisions done by the cells in normal and cancer cases after 24 hours.
2- 2.1- Analyze the results of document 1.
2.2- What can you conclude?
Nowadays, many methods of cancer treatments are used. One of them is treatment by anti-HseG5. In order
to determine the effect of anti-HseG5 treatment on cancer cells, cancer cells were treated with and without
anti-HseG5. The results are presented in document 2.
3- Construct a histogram that Beginning of End of the
shows the number of cancer the experiment experiment
cells without and with anti- Number of Without anti-HseG5 1000 4000
HseG5 at the beginning and cancer cells With anti-HseG5 1000 0
end of the experiment. Document 2
4- Interpret the results of document 2.

Anti-HseG5 was found to arrest cell division during a certain phase of

mitosis (document 3) by disintegrating the spindle fibers and preventing
the breakdown of centromeres and separation of sister chromatids.
5- Label organelles a, b and c presented in document 3.
6- Identify the phase of mitosis presented in document 3.
7- Explain, referring to all what preceded, how anti-HseG5 can treat
cancer.

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 Activity 2: The Karyotype
All individuals of the same species have, in the nucleus of their cells, the same number of chromosomes which
carries the genetic material. Humans have 46 chromosomes in each nucleated cell.
Definition of a karyotype: Is an arranged set of homologous chromosomes that allows us to determine the sex
of the fetus, the number of chromosomes of each species and to detect the chromosomal abnormalities.
A- Karyotyping:
Karyotyping is based on a special
technique which determines the count
of the chromosomes of a species and
allows their arrangement in
homologous pairs depending on
different criteria. Document 1 shows
the detailed procedure of karyotyping
technique.
1- Describe the karyotyping
technique shown in document 1.
2- Indicate the cause behind
arresting mitosis at metaphase
instead of any other phase.
3- List the criteria of arranging
chromosomes in a karyotype.

To better understand the protocol of karyotyping, various observations

were obtained:
Document 2 shows the microscopic structure of 2 blood cells.
4- Indicate which of the 2 cells, WBC or RBC, should be used in
karyotyping. Justify your answer.
Document 3 shows the mode of action of colchicine during mitosis.
5- Label structures a, b, c and d in document 3.
6- Explain how colchicine arrest cell division at metaphase.

Document 4 reveals the effect of hypotonic solution on the

Contents Results
used cells.
WBC + colchicine No cell lysis
WBC + colchicine + Cell lysis
7- Explain the cause behind using hypotonic solution
hypotonic solution (NaCl)
during karyotyping. Document 4
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 B- Studying normal and abnormal karyotypes.

The following
documents
represent
karyotypes of 7
individuals. A, B,
C, D, E, F and G.

1- Name the first 22 pairs of chromosomes and

the last pair in the human karyotype.
2- Specify the sex of each individual represented
in the above karyotypes.
3- Indicate the chromosomal formula of each
karyotype.
4- Name the abnormality shown in some
individuals.
5- Compare karyotype B to that of karyotype C.
6- Indicate in which of the karyotypes the genetic
material is conserved and in which ones it’s not
conserved. Justify your answer.

C- Each species has its own karyotype.

The adjacent
documents
reveals the
number of
chromosomes
in some
species.

1- What can you draw out from these documents?

2- Formulate a hypothesis to explain how different species carry
the same number of chromosomes.
3- Justify the following statements:
3.1- The number of chromosomes is unrelated to complexity of
species.
3.2- Traits of each species is independent on the number of
chromosomes, but on the genetic material carried by these chromosomes.
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 Activity 3: DNA; the Chemical Components of Chromosomes.

Chromosomes are composed of genetic material, but what are

the components of genetic material?

A- Components of genetic material:

In order to determine the components of genetic material, cell
were cultured with Schiff’s reagent that stains DNA in red. Few
hours later, all the chromosomes inside the nuclei of these
cells became red.

1- What can you draw out from these results?

B- Structure of DNA (DeoxyRibonucleic Aicd)

In 1953, Watson and Crick used X-ray

crystallography to reveal the structure of DNA.
Their results showed that:
 DNA has a helical structure and made up of
2 strands (double stranded)
 DNA consists of repeated units of nucleotides (a phosphoric acid P, Deoxyribose sugar D and one of
the nitrogenous bases). P and D are located in the strands, nitrogenous bases connect the 2 strands
together through hydrogen bonds).
 There are 4 nitrogenous bases: A (Adenine), T (Thymine), C (Cytosine) and G (Guanine).
 The 2 DNA strands are complementary such that A bas pair with T and vice versa, C base pair with G
and vice versa.

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Exercise 3:
Consider the following DNA sequence: TGACTGC
1- Indicate complementary DNA sequence of the other DNA strand. Justify.
In sea urchin, 32.5 % of the bases are said to be C.
2- Indicate the % of the other bases. Justify.
At the 60th hour of its life, the human embryo possess 16 cells.
3- Indicate the number of mitotic divisions occurred.
Cells Nuclear DNA quantity/cell
4- Calculate the duration of one cell cycle.
volume (au) (au)
The following measurements were done on different cells to WBC 100 6.5
study the effect of nuclear volume on DNA quantity. Skin cell 250 6.5
Nerve cell 3000 6.5
5- Interpret the obtained results.

Exercise 4: The nitrogenous bases in DNA.

DNA is a molecule that carries most of the genetic instructions used in the development, functioning and
reproduction of all known living organisms and many viruses. Document 1 below shows the percentages of
nitrogenous bases in DNA extracted from two types of different cells of the same cow:

Nitrogenous bases Adenine Guanine Cytosine Thymine

% of nitrogenous bases in Liver 28.5 21.5 21.5 28.5
the DNA of a cell Pancreas 28.5 21.5 21.5 28.5
Document 1
1- Justify the equal %of (A-T) and (C-G) in the liver cell.
2- 2.1- Compare the percentages of each base in the liver cell to that in the pancreatic cell of the cow.
2.2- What can you conclude?

Document 2 below shows the composition of nitrogenous bases in the DNA in a liver cell of a human.

Nitrogenous bases Adenine Guanine Cytosine Thymine

% of nitrogenous bases in the DNA of liver cell 32.5 18.5 18.5 32.5
Document 2

3- 3.1- Compare the percentages of bases (adenine, thymine) and (cytosine, guanine) in the cell of the
liver of the cow to that of the human.
3.2- What can you conclude?
4- Specify the percentage of nitrogen bases A, T, C and G in a nerve cell and a red blood cell in humans.

Document 3 below shows the percentages of nitrogenous bases in DNA extracted from a virus called S174.

Nitrogenous bases Adenine Guanine Cytosine Thymine

% of nitrogenous bases in the DNA of a virus 29 22 17 32
Document 3
5- Propose a hypothesis to explain the results of document 3.

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 C- Organization of DNA inside chromatin and chromosomes.

Previously speaking, genetic material could be in the form of chromatin or chromosome. What are the
changes that take place in the DNA structure to obtain chromatin or chromosomes?

1- Pick out the components of chromatin.

2- Draw out the definition of DNA condensation and de-condensation.
3- Explain the relation between DNA condensation, de-condensation and mitosis.

The adjacent document is a schematic

figure that shows the number of DNA
molecules during the cell cycle.

4- Pick out the number of DNA

molecules in chromatin,
chromosome of 2 chromatids
and one chromatid.

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 Activity 4: Identical Reproduction and Cell Cycle
DNA, is the carrier of the genetic material and its quantity change in the different forms of this material. The
quantity of DNA during the life of the cell reflects the existence of a cell cycle.

A- The cell cycle and the variation of the DNA amount

Document 1 shows the variation of the DNA quantity during interphase and mitosis as a function of time.

Questions:

1- Pick out from document 1 the phases of:

1.1- One cell cycle
1.2- Interphase
2- Label graphically the phases of mitosis.
3- Analyze the variations in the amount of DNA during the first cell cycle.
4- Indicate the form of genetic material in G1, G2 and the phases of mitosis.
5- Schematize the genetic material during G1, G2, metaphase and telophase.
6- Draw out the main event taking place during S phase.
7- Show whether the transformation of chromatin to chromosome takes place during interphase or
mitosis.
8- Specify between which two phases, the transformation of chromosome to chromatin takes place.

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 B- DNA replication:

DNA replication is the duplication of the amount of DNA in which the one DNA molecule (chromatin)
duplicates into 2 DNA molecules (chromosome of 2 chromatids). It takes place in the nucleus of the cell.

Document 2 shows the steps of DNA replication process:

 DNA unwinds at a certain region

and forms a replication bubble
(document 3).
 DNA polymerase (enzyme) binds to
DNA strands and starts adding free
nucleotides from the nucleus to
form the new strands. Each old
DNA strand acts as a template for
the formation of the new DNA
strands.
 Two daughter DNA molecules are
formed from one mother DNA
molecule. The daughter DNA
molecules are identical to each other and to the mother DNA molecule (document 4).

Questions:

1- Justify, referring to document 1 and 2, this statement: The mode of DNA replication is semi-
conservative.
2- Schematize the genetic material during S-phase.

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 C- Proving the semi-conservative mode of DNA replication.

Scientists proposed three hypotheses concerning the mode

of DNA replication. Document 1 shows the three modes in
cases A, B and C.

 Case A: The Semi-Conservative mode: each

daughter DNA molecule consists of an old strand
and new one.
 Case B: The Conservative mode: each DNA daughter
molecule consists of either old or new strands.
 Case C: The Dispersive mode: each DNA daughter
molecule consists of consecutive fragments of old
and new DNA.

To prove the exact mode of DNA replication, J.H. Taylor (1958) studied the mode of replication in DNA and
chromosomes in root tip cells. The experimental conditions and results are presented in documents 6 and 7.

Conditions Results
st
1 step: Roots The 2 chromatids
cells were cultured of all the
in a medium chromosomes
containing became
radioactive T radioactive
nd
2 step: Those Only 1 chromatid
root cells were in each
washed and chromosome
placed in a became
medium radioactive
containing
non-radioactive T
Document 7

1- Verify, through a schematic drawing and using all what preceded, that the mode of DNA replication is
semi-conservative.
2- Determine the proportion of labelled and non-labelled DNA molecules if we carry Taylor’s experiment
for a third time in a normal medium.

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Concept Map:

16
Exercise 5: DNA Replication
DNA replication is the process of producing two identical copies from one original DNA molecule. In the
framework of studying certain properties of DNA and the necessary conditions for replication, DNA was
extracted from two species (human and chicken). Then the quantity of DNA was measured in the 2 cells. The
results are presented in document 1.

↓Addition of DNA polymerase

Time (hours) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 6 7 8 8 9

DNA quantity Experiment 1: DNA 3 3 3 3 3 4 5 5 6 6 3 3

(a.u.) from a human cell
Experiment 2: DNA 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2 2
Document 1 from a chicken cell

1- Construct a graph that represents the variation of DNA quantity in human and chicken cell before and
after addition of DNA polymerase as a function of time.
2- Label, graphically, the phases of the cell cycle in experiment 1.
3- Determine, from experiment 1, the role of DNA polymerase.
4- Specify, from experiments 1 and 2, the number of cells obtained at time = 9 hours if the number of
cells at 0 au was 2.
5- Justify, based on document 1, this statement: “The quantity of DNA affects the duration of DNA
replication”

Microscopic observation of the genetic

material at different time of cell cycle
of experiment 1 shows different
aspects that are presented in
document 2.
6- Label structures a, b, c, d and e
in document 2.
7- Indicate the phase of the cell
cycle at which each of the 4
aspects of document 2 appears
in.

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Chapter 2: Protein Synthesis
Activity 1: Proteins

Activity 2: The Gene

Activity 3: The mRNA

Activity 4: Transcription and Translation

Activity 5: Fate of synthesized proteins

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 Activity 1: Proteins; an Association of Amino Acids
Proteins, such as enzymes, hormones, receptors and others, constitute up to 18% of the total weight of cells in
mammals and up to 15% of that of bacteria. Proteins have different functions, composition and structure.
What are the components of a protein and what are the factors that affect its function?

A- The components of a protein.

Document 1 shows the formation of protein and document 2 represents the components and structure of a
certain protein.

1- Draw out, from

document 1, the
components of a
protein.

The different types of amino acids.

There exist 20 types of amino acids that are either

obtained from our food or synthesized by the body.
Document 3 represents the names of the 20 existing
amino acids and their 3-letters abbreviation.

Document 4 shows the number of amino Protein name Insulin Gastrin Ribonuclease
Number of 51 34 124
acids and the function of some proteins.
amino acids
2- 2.1- Compare the results of Function Reduces Facilitate Degradation of
document 4. blood sugar digestion RNA molecules
Document 4
2.2- What can you conclude?

A different protein X was found to have the same number of amino acids as insulin but of different function.

3- What problem is posed from the obtained results?

4- Formulate a hypothesis to explain the cause behind the different functions of insulin and protein X.

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To validate your hypothesis, the number and type of each amino acid is studied in 3 proteins. The results are
presented in document 5.

5- Justify this statement: Every

type of amino acids is not
necessarily present in all
proteins.
6- Indicate if your hypothesis is
validated or not. Justify your
answer.

B- Factors affecting the function of a protein.

Experiments were done on pro-inulin, insulin and

ribonuclease proteins to determine the factors
affecting the function of the protein.

Experiment 1: Insulin, a protein that regulates the

level of glucose in blood by reducing it, is produced
by the cells of the pancreas. Insulin is synthesized
from the inactive pro-insulin, which must be
submitted to modifications in order to become the
active insulin. Document 6 shows the sequence of
amino acids in insulin and pro-insulin.

1- Draw out from document 6:

1.1- The modification occurred between
pro-insulin and insulin.
1.2- The first factor that affected the
function of proteins.

Experiment 2: Ribonuclease is an enzyme that

has a 3D folded structure and responsible for
the degradation of RNA molecules. Some
agents such as urea and mercaptoethanol can
cause the unfolding of the enzyme (Document
7). Note that active and inactive ribonuclease
have the same number of total amino acids
and the same sequence of amino acids.

2- Justify this statement: The structure of protein affects its function.

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 C- Identification of the amino acids composing a protein.

Double Chromatography technique is used to identify the types of amino acids composing a certain protein
but not the sequence of the amino acids in this protein.

Document 8 shows the steps of the double chromatography technique:

 Step 1: A specific protein is deposited at the bottom.

 Step 2: A first solvent A is added to allow the separation and migration of the amino acids of this
protein in a specific direction (X to Y).
 Step 3: The chromatography paper is rotated by 90° and a second solvent B (having different density than
that of solvent A) is added to obtain better separation of amino acids.

In chromatography, amino acids of a protein separates and migrates in a specific direction according to their
weight and solubility in the solvent. The less the weight and the more the solubility of the amino acid in a
solvent, the higher the migration of the amino acid on the paper. On the contrary, the more the weight of the
amino acid and the less the solubility in a solvent, the less the migration of the amino acid.

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Exercise 1: Chromatography technique

In this exercise, two chromatography experiments were performed, one on tyrosinase protein and one on
casein protein.
First chromatography: Albinism is a hereditary disease due to the absence of melanin, a pigment responsible
for the color of skin, hair and eyes. Albino individuals cannot synthesize melanin due to the absence of the
enzyme called Tyrosinase that allows the transformation of the amino acid tyrosine into melanin.
Double chromatography technique was applied on a portion of Tyrosinase from normal individual and
Tyrosinase from individual suffering from albinism. This technique allows the determination of the amino acids
composing proteins. The results are presented in document 1.

1- Indicate, referring to document 1, the amino acids composing tyrosinase of normal and albino
individuals.
2- 2.1- Compare the amino acids of active and inactive tyrosinase.
2.2- What can you conclude?
3- Specify whether we can determine the amino acid sequences of these proteins.
4- Explain how the change in the amino acid sequence of tyrosinase leads to albinism.

Second chromatography: Chromatography of a part of Caseins protein (milk protein) and FSH protein (female
sexual protein) of a goat shows that they have the same amino acid composition. The results are presented in
document 2.

Reference

5- Find the amino acids forming these parts of the proteins.

6- Formulate two hypotheses to explain the results.

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 Activity 2: The Gene, Structure and Information Unit.

DNA contains all the genetic information

necessary for the building and functioning if
the organism. This information is coded by a
nucleotide sequence. But what is the relation
between DNA and proteins?

A- Relation between genes and

proteins.
Document 1 shows 2 genes of a human DNA
and their specific traits.
1- Draw out, from document 1, the
definition of a gene.

For example, a human cell carry the insulin gene in its DNA and this
gene is expressed by production of insulin proteins. On the
contrary, bacteria (document 2) are not able to produce insulin
protein.
2- Indicate the cause behind the inability of bacteria to
produce insulin protein.

To verify that genes are able to express themselves by producing proteins, an experiment called Transgenesis
is performed.
Transgenesis is based on transfer of a gene
from one organism into another one of
different species. The organism that
receives the foreign gene is called
transgenic organism.

Document 3 represents the steps of

transgenesis for a human insulin gene.

3- Write a short text describing the

different steps of this technique.
4- Pick out from document 3, the
donor and the recipient of insulin
gene.
5- Explain why the bacteria obtained in
step 6 is considered as transgenic.

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Exercise 2: A possible Therapy
Albinism is a hereditary disease due to the absence of
melanin, a pigment responsible for the color of skin, hair
and eyes. Albino individuals cannot synthesize melanin
due to the absence of the enzyme called Tyrosinase that
allows the transformation of the amino acid tyrosine into
melanin.

In order to correct the genetic defect responsible for

albinism in humans, the human gene G, which codes for
the enzyme Tyrosinase that is involved in the synthesis of
melanin is injected into fertilized eggs of an albino female
mouse crossed with an albino male mouse. The
experimental setup and the obtained results are presented in the adjacent document.

1- Name the applied technique.

2- Indicate, by referring to the document, the donor and the receiver of the gene G.
3- Specify which of the new born mice 1, 2 or 3 is qualified as "transgenic".
4- Formulate a hypothesis to explain the cause behind the absence of inactive tyrosinase enzyme protein.

B- Notion of a Gene.
Insulin is a protein that is responsible for reducing the level of
glucose in blood when it exceeds the normal level. In normal
individuals, when the level of glucose in blood increases,
pancreas secretes insulin into blood and then insulin stimulates
the absorption of glucose from blood into the liver and muscle
leading to reduction of blood glucose into normal level.
Diabetes is characterized by hyperglycemia (high levels of blood
glucose) due to the presence of abnormal insulin protein.
Document 4 shows a fragment of the nucleotide and amino acid
sequences of insulin. Note that each 3 DNA nucleotides are
called a triplet.
1- 1.1- Compare the DNA sequences of the normal insulin
gene to that of abnormal one.
1.2- Compare the amino acid sequences of the normal
insulin protein to that of abnormal one.
1.3- What can you conclude?
2- Explain how the change in the nucleotide sequence of
insulin leads to diabetes.

24
Exercise 3: Causes and Treatments of Cystic Fibrosis
The CFTR gene codes for the CFTR protein. This
protein is located in the membrane of cells that
produce mucus, sweat, saliva, tears, and digestive
enzymes
Normally, CFTR protein allows the passage of Cl- ions
from the inside of the cell into the outside of the cell
to prevent the accumulation of bad mucus. Under
abnormal conditions, bad mucus accumulates in the
outside of the cell leading to the appearance of a
disease called cystic fibrosis (document 1).
1- Draw out, referring to document 1 the cause
of accumulation of mucus at the outside of
the cell in the abnormal case.
Document 2 presents a part of Part of the DNA sequence Part of the amino acid
the nucleotide and amino acid of CFTR sequence of CFTR protein
sequences of the normal and Number … 506 507 508 509… … 506 507 508 509…
abnormal CFTR. Normal CFTR …ATA TTC GGT CCA… … ile phe gly pro
Abnormal …ATA TAC GGT CCA… … ile tyr gly pro
2- 2.1- Compare the DNA CFTR
sequences of the Document 2
normal CFTR to the
abnormal one and the amino acid sequences of the normal CFTR protein to the abnormal one.
2.2- What can you conclude?
3- Show, referring to all what preceded, how the change in the DNA sequence of CFTR leads to the
appearance of cystic fibrosis disease.
In order to correct the genetic problem responsible for the appearance of cystic fibrosis in humans, a normal
CFTR gene is extracted from the DNA of a normal human cell. By transgenesis, this gene is transferred into two
abnormal cells (abnormal cell 1 and abnormal cell 2) that have high level of accumulated mucus at their outer
membrane. The amount of accumulated mucus is measured in the abnormal cells 1 and 2 before and after
transgenesis. The results are presented in Before After
document 3. transgenesis transgenesis
4- Pick out from the text, the donor of the Amount of mucus on the 50 50
normal CFTR gene. abnormal cell 1 (au)
Amount of mucus on the 50 10
5- Construct a histogram that shows the
abnormal cell 2 (au)
variation of the amount of mucus on the
Document 3
outer membrane of abnormal cells 1 and 2
before and after applying transgenesis.
6- Determine, referring to document 3 and what preceded, which abnormal cell (1 or 2) is considered
transgenic
25
 Activity 3: The mRNA; the 2nd Nucleic Acid
Genes in DNA are expressed into proteins, but DNA is permanently located in the nucleus however proteins
are exclusively produced in the cytoplasm of the cell.
1- What problem is posed from this observation?

In order to identify the nucleic acids found in a cell, cells were cultured
with methyl green that stains DNA in green and with pyronine that colors
mRNA in red. Document 1 is a schematic microscopic observation for the
cells after treatment with methyl green and pyronine.

2- Identify the type and the location of the nucleic acids found in a
cell.

Document 2 is a representation for an mRNA molecule

(messenger RiboNucleic Acid)

3- Compare DNA to mRNA molecule concerning the

number of strands, nitrogenous bases, location
and sugar type.

For further studies concerning the location of the two

types of nucleic acids, the following experiments were
performed:

In experiment 1, cells were cultured with Experiment Results

radioactive T while in experiment 2, cells were Experiment 1: Cells Radioactivity appeared at the
cultured with radioactive U. The results are were cultured with beginning of the experiment and
presented in document 3. radioactive T only also after few hours only in the
nucleus.
4- Indicate the aim of using radioactive T and Experiment 2: Cells Radioactivity appeared in
radioactive U. were cultured with nucleus at the beginning of the
5- Interpret the results of document 3. radioactive U only experiment and but in the
cytoplasm after few hours.
Document 3

26
 Activity 4: Transcription and Translation; Steps of Protein Synthesis.

Protein synthesis from a certain gene is a multistep. It starts with transcription followed by translation.

1- Define, referring to documents 1 and 2, the two steps of protein synthesis.

A- Transcription; the First Step of Protein Synthesis.

Document 3 is a schematic representation of transcription.

The steps of transcription are as follow:

 An enzyme called RNA polymerase binds to the transcribed DNA strand and synthesize one mRNA
strand in the nucleus using the bases A, C, G and U.
 The second strand where RNA polymerase do not bind to is called the non-transcribed strand.
 During the synthesis of mRNA from a DNA strand; C pairs with G, G pairs with C, T pairs with A but A
pairs with U.
 At the end of transcription, mRNA now moves from the nucleus into the cytoplasm to synthesize
proteins.
 The newly synthesized m-RNA is complementary to the transcribed DNA strand but identical to the
non-transcribed DNA strand except for T in DNA is replaced by U in m-RNA (document 4).
 Each 3 bases in an mRNA molecule called a codon.
27
Exercise 4:
Consider the following DNA strands of different genes.
1- Determine for each DNA fragment and using the genetic code table, the amino acid sequence
corresponding to the protein of each gene.
Transcribed DNA fragment of a gene Non-Transcribed DNA fragment of a different gene
ACG TAC CTA CGC TTA AAG CTG TTC AAT TTT AAA TCG CCT

B- Translation; the second step of protein synthesis.

Translation that occurs in the cytoplasm of the

cell, takes place under the action of three tools:
mRNA, ribosome and tRNA. Document 5 shows
a general representation of translation and its
tools inside a cell.

B-1- Tools of translation:

1- mRNA (discussed earlier).

2- Ribosome: is a structure located in the

cytoplasm of the cell and it’s the site of
protein synthesis. It is made up of 2
subunits; a large one and a small one. The
large subunit includes 3 sites: The acceptor
(A site), the peptidyl (P site) and the exit (E
site).
28
 3- Transfer RNA (tRNA): it has 2 binding sites: Anti-codon and amino acid
binding sites. A tRNA molecule binds through its anti-codon to mRNA
codons and recognizes a specific amino acid.
The anti-codon should be complementary to mRNA codons in order to
read it and recognize its corresponding amino acid.

Question: Indicate the amino acid that is recognized by the tRNA molecule
presented in document 7.

B-2- Stages of translation:

Translation is divided into three stages: Initiation, Elongation and Termination.
1) Initiation:
 Firstly, the small subunit of the
ribosome binds to m-RNA strand on
the initiating (start) codon AUG.
 Secondly, the first t-RNA carrying the
amino acid Met (methionine) binds
to the initiating codon AUG.
 Thirdly, binding of the large subunit
of ribosome to the small subunit and
tRNA.
2) Elongation:
 A new tRNA carrying the second
amino acid arrives into the A site
(acceptor site) and binds to the
second mRNA codon next to the first
tRNA.
 A peptide bond is formed between
the 2 amino acids in site P (peptidyl
site).
 The ribosome is translocated, thus
liberating site A and allowing the
placement of a third tRNA.
 The ribosome keeps moving along
the mRNA strand and adds tRNA and
amino acids so that the amino acid chain grows longer and longer as more amino acids are added on.

3) Termination: translation terminates when ribosome reaches a stop codon on mRNA. As a

consequence, the 2 ribosomal subunits, tRNA and the first methionine dissociates and the polypeptide
is released in the cytoplasm.
29
 Activity 5: Fate of Synthesized Proteins
Proteins are classified as functional and structural. Functional proteins are those that perform a certain
function such as enzymes, hormones, antibodies. On the other hand, structural protein are those that are
responsible for maintaining the structure of the cell such as keratin and collagen.

According to their fates, some proteins remain inside the

cell or in the plasma membrane of the cell to perform
their functions (document 1) but others are exported
outside the cell by exocytosis to perform their function
(document 2).

1- Pick out the pathway of each of the proteins in documents 1 and 2.

2- Draw out the main difference in the pathway of the proteins that remain inside the cell and the ones
that are exported outside the cell.

In order to know the roles of the RER and Golgi complex in protein
formation, the following observations are realized:
Observation 1: The unfolded form of protein was shown to be released
from the ribosome while the 3D folded form was shown to be released from the RER.
Observation 2: in cells where Golgi complex is destroyed, all proteins remain inactive. In addition, proteins in
document 2 remained in the cell.
3- Deduce, from observations 1 and 2, the role of RER and Golgi complex.
4- Indicate the role of the ribosome. Organelles Protein A Protein B
Ribosomes + +
Two groups of cells were cultured in radioactive amino acid
RER + +
leucine in order to determine the fate of the proteins Golgi complex + +
synthesized by each group of cells. The results are presented Secretory vesicle - +
in document 3. Plasma membrane + +
5- Indicate the aim of using radioactive amino acids. Blood - +
+ radioactivity - no radioactivity
6- Determine the fates of proteins A and B.
Document 3
30
Exercise 5: Protein Synthesis

At the end of pregnancy we observe in the woman a development of the mammary glands that are
accompanied with cellular divisions and numerous synthesis of proteins, such as casein that is exported
outside the cell.
Experiments were done to identify the origin of the mechanism that leads to the synthesis of casein protein.

Experiment: Cells of mammary glands are divided into two groups. The first group (culture 1) is cultured in the
presence of radioactive uracil and the second group is cultured in the presence of a radioactive amino acid
leucine (culture- 2). We extract cells from culture-1 and cells from culture-2 at regular time intervals and then
we measure the radioactivity in these molecules. Document 1 represents the obtained results.

1- Construct a table that shows the variation of radioactive U in culture 1 and radioactive amino acid in
culture 2 as a function of time.
2- Indicate the cause behind using each of radioactive U and amino acids.
3- Indicate the pathway of casein protein as it leaves the ribosome.
4- Analyze the obtained results.
5- Justify the appearance of radioactivity in culture 1 before culture 2.

31
Exercise 6: Structure of proteins

ABCD1 transporter is involved in the breaking down of fatty acids in the brain. By translation process, this protein is
produced and then transported inside the cell to reach its location in the plasma membrane.
Document 1 represents a step of translation showing the primary structure of a protein. Document 2 shows the pathway
of a certain protein.

1- Pick out from the text the

role of the ABCD1
transporter.
2- Label documents 1 and 2
(from A to H).
3- Name the step of
translation presented in
document 1. Justify your
answer.
4- Specify if ABCD1
transporter protein
follows the pathway of the protein shown in document 2 or not.

In order to know the role of ribosomes in translation, 2 mediums of cells (medium A and medium B) were cultured in
radioactive amino acid phenylalanine and in the presence of all the necessary conditions for translation, but medium B is
deprived of ribosomes. The intensity of radioactivity is measured in mediums A and B (the below table).

5- Construct a graph that shows the variation of Time (minutes) 0 30 60 90

the intensity of radioactive amino acids in the Intensity of Medium A 0 10 30 50
presence and absence of ribosomes as a radioactivity (au) Medium B 0 1 1.5 2
function of time.
6- 6.1- Analyze the obtained results
6.2- What can you conclude?

Document 3 shows a different structure of this protein called the quaternary structure of a
protein.

In order to know the differences between the primary structure of protein (document 1)
and the quaternary structure, experiments were done on normal cells and cells with
removed RER and also we measured the amount of fatty acids in the presence of each
structure, the results are presented in documents 4 and 5.

Conditions Results Conditions At T= 0 After 5 hours

Normal cells Protein of primary Amount of fatty acids in the 50 50
structure developed into a presence of ABCD1 proteins of
quaternary structure primary structure (au)
Removal of RER Protein of primary Amount of fatty acids in the 50 10
from the cells structure presence of ABCD 1 proteins of
Document 4 quaternary structure (au)
7- What can you draw out from document 4? Document 5
8- Show, referring to document 5, that the structure of the protein affects its function.

32
Exercise 7: Genetics and Breast Cancer

Breast cancer is a cancer that forms in the mammary glands of the female. It results in abnormal cells that have the
ability to proliferate and spread to other parts of the body forming a tumor (cancerous growth). Normally, a tumor
suppresser gene, known as BRCA1 codes for a protein that prevents the formation of tumor and subsequently breast
cancer. BRCA1 gene exits in two forms: Normal and abnormal one.

Document 1 shows the % of breast cancerous cells in two

different groups of cells (A and B). One of the groups carry
in their cells the normal BRCA1 and the other carry the
abnormal BRCA1.

1- Indicate, referring to document 1 and the text, which group of cells (A or B) carry the abnormal BRCA1. Justify.
2- Name the process responsible for the increase in the number of cancerous cells.

Document 2 shows a fragment of the nucleotide sequence of the transcribed strand of the normal and abnormal BRCA1
gene.

3- Determine, referring to document 2 and the genetic code

table, the amino acid sequence corresponding to normal
and abnormal BRCA1.
In order to determine how abnormal BRCA1 gene leads to breast
cancer, the following experiment was performed:

Experiment: Cells carrying normal and abnormal BRCA1 genes were cultured in the presence of radioactive U to detect
the presence of mRNA and radioactive amino acid alanine to detect the level of synthesized protein that suppress breast
cancer. The amount of radioactive U and radioactive alanine were measured after several hours. The results are
summarized in document 3.
Culture Amount of Amount of radioactive
4- Construct a histogram that radioactive U (au) alanine (%)
shows the amount of Culture 1: Cells carrying 15 70
radioactive U and alanine in normal BRCA1 gene
cells carrying normal and Culture 2: Cells carrying 3 10
abnormal BRCA1 gene. abnormal BRCA1 gene
5- Explain, in culture 1, the steps Document 3
of protein synthesis responsible for breast cancer suppression.
6- Determine, referring to document 3, how abnormal BRCA1 gene leads to appearance of breast cancer.

In order to study the factors that stimulate the development of

breast cancer, scientists measured the % of women affected by
cancer according to age in two different situations. The results are
presented in document 4.

7- 7.1- Analyze the results of document 4

7.2- Conclude the factors that stimulate the occurrence of
breast cancer.

33
 Activity 6: DNA mutations
DNA mutation is an accidental modification (change) in the nucleotide sequence of a certain gene. This
hereditary change results in various forms of the same gene, called alleles, leading to polymorphism of
species. DNA mutations could have silent, harmful or beneficial consequences.
The below documents show the three types of DNA mutations.

1- Define, referring to the above documents, the three types of DNA mutations.

Consequences of DNA mutations:

1- Harmful mutation: results in negative

consequences on the health of the organism. DNA mutations
Mutation in DNA, leads to mutation in mRNA which
(except silent ones)
changes the aa sequence of the produced protein
and changes its function negatively leading to
diseases.
might lead to a changes mRNA
2- Beneficial mutation: a mutation in the DNA that disease sequence
accidently produces a positive effect (color of the
eye, hair…). Mutation in DNA, leads to mutation in
mRNA which changes the aa sequence of the
produced protein and changes its function positively
into a new trait or protect from diseases.
3- Silent mutation: Mutation in DNA, leads to changes protein changes amino acid
mutation in mRNA which doesn’t changes the function sequence
aa sequence of the produced protein that
perform its function normally. Such mutations
has no negative effects.

34
Exercise 1: Sickle Cell Anemia and Mutations.

Sickle cell anemia is a severe hereditary disease characterized by abnormal sickle shaped appearance of red
blood cells that are responsible for carrying oxygen.

In normal cases, red blood cells contain a normal hemoglobin protein called HbA that carry oxygen into the
organs. These red blood cells are replaced every 120 days.

Due to certain mutations in the gene coding for

hemoglobin, the normal HbA transforms into abnormal
HbS. The abnormal HbS is able to transport oxygen into
organs, but it precipitates inside the red blood cells
altering their shape from circular into sickled leading to
their destruction in around 10 days. This will decrease
the number of available red blood cells and normal
hemoglobin and the body will not receive enough
oxygen leading to sickle cell anemia.

Document 1 shows portions from the DNA Allele 4 5 6 7 8 9

transcribed strands coding for normal Normal allele (HbA) TGA GGT CTC CTC TTC
Mutant 1 (HbS) TGA GGT CAC CTC TTC
hemoglobin proteins and mutant ones from
Mutant 2 TGA GGT CTC ATC TTC
triplet 4 into triplet 9.
Mutant 3 TGA GGT CTC CTT TTC
Mutant 4 TGA CTC CTC TTC
Mutant 5 TGA GGT CTC CTA CTT C
Document 1
1- Pick out from the text:
1.1- The role of RBCs
1.2- The duration of survival of normal blood cells and abnormal ones.
2- Compare the normal allele of each of mutants 1, 4 and 5.
3- Indicate the type of the occurred mutation in each mutant in document 1.
4- Determine, using document 1 and the genetic code table, the amino acid sequences of hemoglobin of
all the alleles presented in document 1.
5- Draw out the difference between the proteins synthesized from mutants 1 and 2.
6- Justify this statement: Mutant 3 is considered a silent mutation.
7- Explain how the modification in the nucleotide sequence of HbA leads to sickle cell anemia.

35
Chapter 3: Energy Expenditure of Organism

Activity 1: Evaluation of energy expenditure

Activity 2: Variations of energy expenditure
Activity 3: Basal metabolism
Activity 4: Qualitative Needs

36
 Activity 1: Evaluation of energy expenditure
Food provides all the basic constituents of the cells. By digestion, complex food (proteins, lipids, carbohydrates) is
broken down into simple nutrients and absorbed into blood to reach the cells to provide them with the necessary
energy needed for their activity.

In your daily life, you need energy to do your various activities. This spent energy is called energy expenditure. The
consumption of organic food such as carbohydrate, proteins and lipids produces this energy.

A- Energetic value of food:

When organic complex food is broken down into simple nutrients, only these simple nutrients are absorbed from the
digestive system, at the level of the small intestine, into the blood. Simple nutrients absorbed from the digestive system
and oxygen absorbed from the respiratory system transports in the blood to reach the cell where they undergo a
process called oxidation in order to produce energy. This energy can be measured by burning nutrients in the
Calorimetric Bomb.

1- How can you explain the difference in the energetic values of proteins obtained from either the
calorimetric bomb or the organism?

B- The energetic coefficient of oxygen

In the body, oxygen is used to oxidize different nutrients. An average of 1 liter of oxygen is used to oxidize a
mixed and varied meal to produce 20 kj/L. This is called the thermal coefficient.
The respiratory rhythm/intensity Energy expenditure (EE) is calculated as follow:
(volume of oxygen consumed)
increases in case of high activity to EE = V O₂ (L/Kg.h) x thermal coefficient (Kj/l) x weight (kg) =………Kj/h
ensure the energy needed for this
activity.
2- Calculate the expenditure in energy of an individual who is resting, weighs 50 kg and their respiratory
intensity is 0.25 L/Kg.h.
3- Evaluate the energy expenditure of a mouse which receives a balanced diet and consumes 6.3 liters of
oxygen.
37
 Activity 2: Variations of energy expenditure
The various activities of organism require a variable consumption of energy. What are the factors that affect
energy expenditure?
Documents 1, 2 and 3 show the
Activities I.R.
effect of various physical activities (L/Kg.hr)
on respiratory intensity. At rest 0.25
Slow 0.4
Quick 0.9
walking
Jogging 1.5
Running 2.5
Sprint 3
Document 3

1- Interpret the results of document 1.

2- Referring to document 2:
2.1- Calculate the energy expenditure at 1 and 5 minutes.
2.2- Explain the obtained results.
3- Referring to document 3:
3.1- Calculate the energy expenditure of a 70 kg individual of he walks quickly for 1 hours.
3.2- Justify, referring to document 3, this statement: The more intense the exercise is, the higher
the energy expenditure.
Document 4 shows the variations of the intensity of External I.R.
respiration in two different animals with respect to the temperature (°C) (L/Kg.hr)
external temperature. Rat 18 °C 2.46
(150 g) 2 °C 3.33
4- Determine the factor(s) that affect energy Mouse 18 °C 6.4
expenditure. (15 g) 2 °C 10.1
Document 4

Document 5 shows the variations of the intensity of respiration in a

70kg man following a meal.
5- Specify the effect of ingesting a meal on energy
expenditure.

38
 Activity 3: Basal Metabolism
Energy metabolism includes all the functions of the organism. Although it is variable, it is never nil. Some
expenditures cannot be reduced. This minimum energy is called basal metabolism.
 Definition of basal metabolism: Is the minimum expenditure of energy that covers the basic functions
of an organism; Cardiac, respiratory, nervous, excretive…

 Measurement conditions of basal metabolism: it is evaluated by the consumption of oxygen gas of an

individual who is:
- Fasting since 12 hours
- Resting
- Placed in a neutral thermal temperature (18 to 20 °C)

1- Justify the measuring conditions of the basal metabolism.

 Basal metabolism covers 60% of the daily energy expenditure

of an adult weighing 70 kg and having moderate physical
activities.

2- Evaluate the basal metabolism of an individual who has a

moderate physical activity and an overall energy expenditure
of 11000 kj/day.

 Variations of basal metabolism:

Document 1 shows the variation of basal metabolism in males and females according to their age.

Age (years) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Basal Male 220 180 162 155 155 155 145 140 135
metabolism Female 220 175 150 145 145 145 135 132 130
(kj/m2.h)
Document 1
3- Construct a graph that shows the variation in the basal metabolism in males and females as a function
of their age.
4- Determine the factor(s) that lead o variations in the basal metabolism.

39
 Activity 4: Qualitative Needs
In addition to the quantitative needs, a diet must cover the qualitative needs and bring essential substances
that cannot be synthesized by the body and must be provided by food. Any deficiency in one of these needs is
a form of malnutrition. What are the requirements we need in every food category?

A- Need for proteins:

Proteins are made up of a chain of amino acids and are needed to build up the cells, therefore building up the
whole body. The daily needs in proteins of an individual vary with age sex and physiological state. Amino acids
are not stored in the organism. Some can be synthesized by the organism from similar molecules, others must
be supplied simultaneously by food. Otherwise, the synthesis of proteins which are made up of these amino
acids cannot occur.

Experiment: Two identical batches of young rats receive

quantitatively sufficient diets but of different composition.
• Batch n° 1 receives a mixture of different proteins.
• Batch n° 2 receives Zeine, a corn's protein (Z) supplemented by
tryptophane (T) and lysine (L), as shown in the adjacent graph.
These 3 amino acids are essential (not produced by the body).

1- Interpret the obtained results.

2- Explain the influence of varied diet on growth.

B- Need for lipids:

Simple lipids are fatty compounds from animal or plant origin. They result from a combination of one
or more fatty acids and an alcohol, glycerol or sterol. If the carbon chain of the fatty acid does not
contain double bonds, it is called saturated. If it contains one or more double bonds, it is called
unsaturated.
Certain essential fatty acids, such as arachidonic acid and linoleic acid are essential for the edification
of the cell membrane or for the synthesis of numerous hormones. Experiments show that rats
receiving a diet totally deficient in lipids, presented severe symptoms: skin lesions, sterility and
improper growth in young offspring...

C- Need for Carbohydrates:

As a principal source of energy, carbohydrates are found in two forms: "slow sugars" or complex
carbohydrates and "fast sugars" or simple carbohydrates. Complex carbohydrates, are not readily
available in the organism and are stored as glycogen in the muscles and in the liver. Usually simple
carbohydrates release energy immediately; but if they are not used up rapidly, they are stored as fats
in the subcutaneous adipose tissue.

40
Vitamins and mineral salts are indispensable to life, and are needed in very small quantities. The organism is
incapable of synthesizing them and should extract them from the digested food.

D- Need for vitamins

Those non-energetic organic molecules are indispensable for Groups Names
the proper functioning of the organism. They are very labile and Hydrosoluble Vitamins C
are destroyed by cooking, exposure to light and storage. (soluble in water) and B
Liposoluble Vitamins A, D,
Depending on their solubility, one classifies vitamins as lipo-
(soluble in fats) E and K.
soluble or hydro-soluble.

E- Need in minerals:

- Forms about 65% of the human

Examples of mineral deficiency
body.
- Deficiency in calcium leads to
- Present in all the structures of
Osteoporosis.
the body. - Deficiency in fluoride leads to Tooth
- Intervenes in the dissolution of Decay
several nutrients. - Deficiency in iodine leads to
- A person can fast for several Thyroidism.
days, but cannot go more than
3 days without water.

41
 Chapter 4: Liver and Regulation of Glycemia

A- The normal range of glycemia.

Glycemia is the concentration of glucose in blood. It ranges
in a constant value in non-diabetic individuals. Any value
outside the normal limits can bring severe illnesses.
Document 1 shows the variations of glycemia taken after
meals and fasting period in a non-diabetic individual.

1- Draw out the normal range of glycemia in a non-

diabetic individual.

Glucose, taken from food, is absorbed from the small

intestine into the blood to reach the cells and then it is
used to produce the energy needed by the body.
Document 2 shows the structure of glucose and another
molecule called glycogen.
2- Draw out:
2.1- the difference between glucose and glycogen.
2.2- the definitions of glycogenesis and glycogenolysis.

42
 B- Liver and glycemia

The liver’s main job is to filter blood coming from the digestive
tract and secretes bile to facilitate digestion.
In order to know the relation between liver and glycemia, the
following observations and experiments were obtained.
Observation: The ablation of the liver to a dog is followed by a
rapid fall in glycemia. This lead to deep coma and death after
several hours.
1- What can you draw out from this observation?

Document 3 shows the relation between the liver and blood

vessels.
2- Pick out:
2.1- the name of the vessel that brings blood from the
intestine to the liver.
2.2- the name of the vessel that takes blood out from the
liver.

The amount of glucose was measured in the portal

vein and subhepatic vein after a meal in a non-
diabetic individual. The results are presented in
document 4.
3- 3.1- Compare the level of glycemia between the two veins after a meal.
3.2- What can you conclude?

In order to know under what form glucose is stored in the liver,

liver pieces were extracted after a meal and used in the
experiment represented in document 5. Note that iodine water
gives a reddish-brown color in the presence of glycogen.
4- Describe the procedure presented in document 5.
5- Prove, referring to all what preceded, the existence of
glycogenesis.

43
 C- Fasting and glycemia.

Fasting are periods of food deprivation. In order to know the consequences of fasting on glycemia, the
following measures were considered.

Portal Subhepatic
The level of glucose was measured in the portal vein and
vein vein
subhepatic vein but during fasting periods. The results
Level of glycemia during 0.2 1
are shown in document 6.
fasting periods (g/l)
1- 1.1- Compare the level of glycemia between the
Document 6
two veins after.
1.2- What can you conclude?

At the same time, the amount of glycogen in the liver was Duration of fasting 1 2 3 4 5
measured during 5 days of fasting (document 7). period (days)
Glycogen amount 40 20 10 5 3
2- Construct a graph that shows the variation of the in g/kg of liver
glycogen amount as a function of fasting duration. Document 7
3- Show referring to documents 6 and 7, that during
fasting periods, the liver undergoes glycogenolysis.
4- Justify, referring to all what preceded, this statement: Liver always maintains glycemia at its normal
level.

Document 8: In case of long fasting, and if

glycogen stock is totally consumed, the liver has
the ability to produce glucose from:
 Fatty acids and glycerol obtained from the
hydrolysis of fats (lipids).
 Amino acids resulting from the degradation
of muscular proteins.

44