EXAMINING DIFFERENT SCHOOL STRUCTURES’ EFFECT ON

REDUCING THE ACHIEVEMENT GAP BETWEEN

AFRICAN-AMERICAN AND WHITE STUDENTS

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment

of the requirements for the degree of
Masters of Education

By

ERIC WILLIAM REINI

B.A. Education, Cedarville University, 1995

2004
Cedarville University
 ABSTRACT

Reini, Eric William. M.Ed. Education Department, Cedarville University, 2004.

Examining Different School Structures’ effect on Reducing the Achievement Gap
Between African-American and White Students.

The fact that an achievement gap between White and African- American students

exists is undisputed. The reasons for this gap are many and complex. Evidence does

exist, though, that this gap can be narrowed and potentially eliminated. Evidence also

exists that demonstrates that when the gap in academic achievement becomes equal

African-Americans are more likely to complete college and earn nearly the same income

as Whites. Educators must understand the many reasons for the achievement gap and

find ways to narrow the gap and further ensure the future success of all students. It is the

purpose for this thesis to explore the reasons for the achievement gap and some possible

solutions for narrowing the gap. Specifically, the paper will show one possible solution –

the Academy structure.

iii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
CHAPTER 1: Introduction………………………………………………………….1

Educational Significance…………………………………………………….1

Purpose………………………………………………………………………2

Methodology…………………………………………………………………3

Biblical Integration…………………………………………………………..4

Setting………………………………………………………………………..5

Summary……………………………………………………………………..6

CHAPTER 2: Review of Literature…………………………………………………7

Significance…………………………………………………………………..7

Statistics Regarding the Existence of an Achievement Gap…………………7

Achievement Gap Statistics for Ohio Schools……………………………….8

Analysis of the Statistics……………………………………………………..12

What Students Think about the Achievement Gap…………………………..16

Identifying the Causes for the Gap…………………………………………...17

Some Solutions for the Gap…………………………………………………..19

Comprehensive School Reform……………………………………………….22

Talent Development Model…………………………………………………...24

Career Academy Programs……………………………………………………25

Twilight School……………………………………………………………….29

Outcomes of Career Academies………………………………………………30

Possible Reasons Why Career Academies Promote Higher Achievement……31

CHAPTER 3: The Effectiveness of Career Academies………………………………32

iv
Introduction……………………………………………………………………..32

Columbus Pathways to Success Initiative (CPSI)………………………………32

High Schools That Work (HSTW)………………………………………………33

The Talent Development Model…………………………………………………35

Academic Emergency……………………………………………………………35

Career Academies……………………………………………………………….35

Architecture, Construction, and Engineering Academy…………………………36

Arts and Communications Academy…………………………………………….38

Health Sciences Academy……………………………………………………….39

Technology, Engineering, and Manufacturing Academy………………………..40

Freshman Success Academy…………………………………………………….41

Teacher Buy-In………………………………………………………………….41

Lead Teachers……………………………………………………………………41

Teacher Collaboration……………………………………………………………42

Small Learning Communities……………………………………………………43

Career Connections………………………………………………………………43

Communication with Parents……………………………………………………43

The Importance of Academic Achievement…………………………………….44

Attendance Policy……………………………………………………………….46

Small Class Size………………………………………………………………...46

Acceleration Academy…………………………………………………………46

Summer Bridge…………………………………………………………………48

Ohio Ninth Grade Proficiency Tests……………………………………………48

v
 Rewards and Motivation……………………………………………………….49

Awards Assemblies…………………………………………………………….50

Honor Roll Students……………………………………………………………51

Hand Prints……………………………………………………………………..51

Cleveland Trip………………………………………………………………….52

Team T-shirts…………………………………………………………………..52

Pilgrim Mentoring……………………………………………………………..53

The Research Process………………………………………………………….53

Results within the School………………………………………………………54

Ohio Ninth Grade Proficiency Test Results……………………………………55

Failure Rates……………………………………………………………………56

Statistics Comparing EHS with Ohio by Race…………………………………57

Attendance Rates by Race………………………………………………………57

Proficiency Test Results by Race………………………………………………58

Significance of the Results……………………………………………………..60

CHAPTER 4: Perspectives, Conclusions, and Recommendations……………………61

Perspectives and Conclusions of Teachers…………………………………….61

Perspectives and Conclusions of School Administrators………………………64

Perspectives and Conclusions of Students……………………………………..67

Perspectives and Conclusions of Parents………………………………………69

Perspectives and Conclusions of Researchers…………………………………71

vi
APPENDICES…………………………………………………………………………74

APPENDIX A: Common Syllabus…………………………………………….74

APPENDIX B: Student Credit Check………………………………………….77

APPENDIX C: Team Meetings………………………………………………..79

APPENDIX D: Phone Calls and Parental Involvement……………………….80

APPENDIX E: Data Collection………………………………………………..81

APPENDIX F: Data Collection Form………………………………………….82

APPENDIX G: Ticket Incentive……………………………………………….83

APPENDIX H: Assemblies…………………………………………………….84

APPENDIX I: Follow Me to Honor Roll Certificate…………………………..85

APPENDIX J: Phone Log Sheet……………………………………………….86

APPENDIX K: Freshman Academy Student Success Contract..……………...87

APPENDIX L: Teacher Questionnaire………………………………………...88

APPENDIX M: School Administrator Questionnaire…………………………89

APPENDIX N: Parent Questionnaire…………………………………………..90

APPENDIX O: Student Questionnaire…………………………………………91

REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………92

VITA……………………………………………………………………………………96

vii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Many individuals have helped and encouraged me as I have worked to complete graduate

school and the writing of this thesis. I owe them all a huge “thank you.”

I would like to thank all of my professors at Cedarville University and Colombia

International University who have challenged my thinking and helped me to improve as

an educator.

Dr. Ed Baumann, thank you for opening my eyes and mind to the realities of my students

lives in the inner-city. Also, thank you for allowing me to first pursue this topic in your

Social Diversities class.

Dr. Phil Bassett, thank you for modeling the importance of adapting and creatively

modifying instructional strategies in the classroom.

Dr. Stephen Gruber, thank you for providing guidance and instruction on how to

approach the thesis writing process.

To Dawn Heideman, my team teacher, thank you for being an excellent teacher. You

have inspired me to be better at what I do for the sake of the students with whom we

work. This process was possible due in large part to the sacrifice and planning you do in

running our successful freshman academy.

viii
To my administrators, Ed Johnson and Karen Zalac, thanks for using your expertise to

implement and run a successful academy program at East High School. Thank you for

supporting me as a teacher and us as an academy. You are a vital part in our success.

To my daughters, Petra and Katriella, thank you so much. Even though you are too

young to truly understand this undertaking, you have sacrificed much time and attention

because daddy was at class or studying. I love you both like crazy!

To my mom, Janet Reini, thank you for your support, encouragement, and training over

the years. I owe much of who I am today to you.

To my dad, George Reini, thank you for helping me to learn to think. Thank you for

training me from an early age the importance of education.

To my in-laws, Robert and Cynthia Thompson, I am so thankful that I am a part of your

family. You have provided so much encouragement for which I am extremely grateful.

You both are great role-models for us.

To my Lord, Jesus Christ, thank you for loving me despite who I am and what I do. Your

faithfulness is complete and I trust you fully. Thank you for providing strength and

encouragement to complete this project.

ix
 DEDICATION

I am dedicating this thesis to my best friend and wife, Diana. She knows me inside and

out and yet she loves me with a devotion that is simply incredible to me. She has

supported me completely throughout graduate school. Without her help and undying

support I would have never completed this program. Diana, thank you for your love. I

love you.

x
Chapter 1: Introduction

Educational Significance

There exists a well known and well documented academic achievement gap

between white students and minority students. The gap is evident in test scores,

graduation rates, and appears across the curriculum. It was narrowing through the

decades of the 70’s and 80’s, but, in the 1990’s, the gap has widened somewhat. “By the

end of high school, in fact, African American and Latino students have skills in both

reading and mathematics that are the same as those of white students in the 8th grade.”

(Haycock, 2001) According to the Ohio Department of Education, the data showing 6th

graders who met the minimum state performance standards in reading and mathematics

proficiency testing for 2000-01 revealed the glaring disparity amongst racial groups. In

the mathematics section, 68.4 percent of white students met the standard compared to

25.8 percent of African American students. In reading, 65.3 percent of white students

met the standard compared to 25.0 percent of African American students. (Gehring,

2002) SAT scores revealed the continued inequality into the high school age as the

average scores for white students on the verbal and math portions were 506 and 514

respectively in 2001, whereas African American students scored an average of 433 and

426 respectively. (Roach, 2001) The academic achievement gap between white students

and minorities, particularly African Americans, is well documented.

1
 This data calls the researcher to question why this achievement gap exists and

persists. There appears to be several factors that play a role in establishing the gap.

Some of the factors are student related like poverty, family and community support, and

negative peer pressure (Alson, 2003). There are also many factors that involve the

school’s responsibility for the gap which include high standards, a challenging

curriculum, extra help for students, teacher quality, and instructional quality. The focus

of this paper will be the school’s role in eliminating or at least narrowing the gap.

Purpose

The purpose of the research is to examine the achievement gap between White

students and African American students and to evaluate a specific school structure’s

effectiveness in narrowing the gap. The researcher will answer the question; does the

Academy (school within a school) structure significantly reduce the achievement gap

between African American and White students? The research will explain the

educational challenges facing the African American student and describe some school

related solutions for raising the achievement of these students.

The challenges presented in narrowing the achievement gap and raising equity for

all students must be confronted by schools. There is much work to be done and several

key issues need to be addressed to improve the quality of education at all schools.

Teacher and instructional quality must be a priority especially in high minority school

settings where the achievement gap is prevalent. Schools with the most needs tend to not

retain effective teachers and administrators. This affects the quality of instruction

2
presented and facilitates an increasing achievement gap between white and minority

students.

Comprehensive school reform is necessary in many cases so that schools get

organized in their approaches to counteracting the gap. Th reform makes possible

changes needed in what is taught, how it is taught, and how it is assessed on a school-

wide instead of class by class level (Codding, 2000). Comprehensive school reform

affects all aspects at all levels of a school including leadership, management,

organization, climate, use of money, and use of human resources. There are many

models for comprehensive school reform, but this research will focus on the Academy

(school within a school) structure and its’ effectiveness in narrowing the achievement

gap.

Methodology

In order to answer the question of the efficiency of various school structures,

specifically the Academy model, in improving the achievement gap, the paper will begin

with an in depth look at the various literature written on the topic of the achievement gap.

It attempts to read and assimilate the views and information out there regarding this topic.

It will also attempt to identify possible causes and solutions for the achievement gap.

The author accessed most of the previously conducted research through the ERIC

database, Academic Search Premier, current journals, and the World Wide Web.

3
 The method of research will involve a correlative examination of two ninth grade

classes at an urban high school whose demographic makeup consists of approximately 99

percent African American students. The classes will be evaluated in terms of state

proficiency testing, academic achievement, and attendance. The first class evaluated will

be the freshman class during the 1999-2000 school year who were a traditional freshman

class. This will be the control group. The second class evaluated will be the freshman

class during the 2002-03 school year because they had the full advantages afforded them

in an organized, fully functioning Academy called the Freshman Success Academy. This

will be the treatment group. Both of these classes will be evaluated to see if there is

improvement in achievement with the Academy, and also if the Academy was successful

in narrowing the achievement gap between African American and White students.

Biblical Integration

God created every human in a unique and wonderful way. His plan was very

specific as to the natural characteristics, personalities, aptitudes, and abilities according to

Psalm 139:13-16. In Galatians 3:28 it says, “There is neither Jew nor Greek (racial

differentiation), slave nor free (socioeconomic differentiation), male nor female (gender

differentiation), for you are all one in Christ Jesus.” Equity in school is Biblical. This

does not necessarily mean that all students should achieve at the same level as every

individual is created uniquely. It does suggest that all students should have the same

opportunity to achieve. The opportunity should include equity in teacher quality,

curriculum quality, quality of instruction, and resources that are available. The

4
opportunity should be the same for all students regardless of race, gender, or

socioeconomic class.

The education professional must be characterized by excellence because the

stakes are so high. The profession works everyday with the future lives of children. The

work done should be completed in such a way that lives are touched everyday and God is

glorified through the efforts and the motivations exemplified in the profession.

Colossians 3:23 says, “Whatever you do, work at it with all your heart, as working for the

Lord, not for men.” The teaching profession must have people who are willing to work

with all of their hearts in helping all students achieve their fullest potential. This is what

is honoring to God.

Setting

East High School in Columbus, Ohio is an urban high school whose population

consists of almost all African American students. The school has implemented the

Academy structure in the form of Career Academies. This was accomplished through

grant money and an initiative called High Schools that Work.

The general model consists of students entering the freshman year in a general

college preparatory academy, and then at the end of their freshman year they choose a

career academy that lines up with their career goals. The model is data-driven and

involves breaking a large school population up into smaller units comparable to schools

within a school. Teachers collaborate throughout the year by utilizing a common

planning period. The goal is to cultivate relationships amongst and with the students that

5
create a safe and warm environment for the students. The purpose is to increase student

achievement.

Summary

The presentation of research will examine the achievement gap existing between

White and African American students. The reader will come to understand the breadth of

the problem as well as many of the factors playing a role in the achievement gap. The

reader will be presented with many of the issues needing to be addressed by schools in

the effort to reach all students and raise achievement. The current Academy school

structure will be evaluated as to whether or not it is a viable vehicle of comprehensive

school reform in raising the achievement of African American students to a level more

closely paralleling that of White students.

6
 Chapter 2: Literature Review

Significance

For decades researchers have discussed and debated the lower levels of

educational achievement of African-American compared with White students. This

achievement gap exists in all school ages. Even when students arrive at kindergarten, the

African-American students are considerably behind their White peers in measurable

cognitive skills (Nettles, 2003, p.215).

There is an endless list of possible reasons for this racial divide in achievement

levels ranging from the following: linguistic incongruities between home and school

culture; differing levels of parental involvement; lack of cultural and social capital; lower

general socio-economic status; divergent study habits and motivational levels; the fear of

“acting white”; lower teacher expectations, and the quantity and quality of material they

are exposed to (Nettles, 2003, p. 216).

Statistics regarding the existence of an achievement gap.

Between 1970 and 1988, the achievement gap between African-American and

White students declined continuously until it was cut by fifty percent. Then, throughout

the 1990’s, the achievement gap began to widen again. To explain this widening of the

gap, it is necessary to closely examine what is going on (Haycock, 2001, p.6).

7
 There are several achievement patterns which are worthy of noting. In 1999, 1 in

100 African-American 17-year-olds can read and gather information from a specialized

text (such as a science article in a magazine) compared to 1 in 12 White students. 1 in

100 African-American students can comfortably solve multi-step problems compared to

about 1 in 10 White students. The ratio of African-American students to White students

who are able to compute fractions, solve percents, and calculate averages was 30 percent

to 70 percent. In the 18-24 age group, 90 percent of Whites have either completed high

school or earned a GED while the percentage of African-Americans drops to 81.

Approximately 76 percent of White high school graduates go directly to college, while 71

percent of African-Americans will go. African-Americans are only half as likely to earn

a bachelors degree by the age of 29 as Whites. These statistics do indicate an

achievement gap trend between races (Haycock, 2001, p.7).

Achievement Gap Statistics for Ohio Schools

In Ohio, the statistics are just as alarming. For example, in 7th grade, only 11

percent of African-American students passed all five parts of the states new proficiency

test, compared with 43 percent of White students. In 2001, only 59 percent of African-

American students graduated from high school, compared with 85 percent of White

students. Data released comparing sixth graders were as follows: students passing the

math proficiency test – 68.4 percent of White students and 25.8 percent of African-

8
American students; and students passing the reading proficiency test – 65.3 percent of

White students and 25.0 percent of African-American students (Gehring, 2002, pp.20-

21).

Also in Ohio, 79 percent of White 9th graders performed at or above the passing

rate for the Ohio 9th Grade Math Proficiency Test, compared to only 38 percent of the

African-American 9th graders. This means that 62 percent of African-American 9th

graders in Ohio are not passing, compared to only 21 percent of White 9th graders.

According to the 2000 National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), Ohio’s

African-American-White achievement gap falls 11th among all of the states. This puts

Ohio in the top quartile among states on the NAEP math assessment (The Education

Trust, 2003).

The achievement gap is also apparent in the number of students successfully

taking Advanced Placement (AP) courses and the end of the year exams. In 2000-2001,

of the students taking AP exams in Ohio, 4 percent of the test-takers were African-

American and 89 percent of them were White on the Calculus AB exam. Of the students

taking the exam, 31 percent of the African-American students earned scores of 3, 4, or 5

(passing scores), compared to 69 percent of White students. On the AP English

Language and Composition exam, 5 percent of the test-takers were African-American

and 90 percent were White, and, of those who took this exam, the number of passers was

similar - 31 percent African-American and 68 percent White. Finally, in the AP Biology

course, 4 percent of the course-takers were African-American and 85 percent were White.

9
The number of students passing the exam was as follows: 15 percent of the African-

American students and 57 percent of the White students passed (The Education Trust,

2003).

Data gathered from the SAT college achievement test also indicated a gap

between African-American and White high school seniors. On the math portion of the

test, the average score in 2001 for White students taking the test was 531 compared to an

average score of 426 for African-American students. The gap is obvious in the average

verbal scores as well; White students earned a 529 while African-Americans earned a 433

average score. College Board President Gaston Caperton responded to this data saying,

“The score gaps for different racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic groups that we see on the

SAT also appear on virtually every measure of achievement, including other standardized

tests and classroom grades, and they show up as early as fourth grade. These differences

are a powerful illustration of a persistent social problem in our country: inequitable

access to high-quality education (Roach, 2001, p. 12).”

According to two international surveys, the Trends in International Mathematics

and Science Study (TIMSS) and the Program for International Student Assessment

(PISA), the gap between low achievers and average students persist internationally. The

gap does not seem to be dependent upon the wealth and prosperity of the country.

Wealthier countries such as Portugal, Italy, and the United States have a much higher

achievement gap than many poorer countries such as South Korea. The study notes that

10
student achievement seems to be closely linked to the students’ family backgrounds

(Borja, 2002, p. 10).

Data indicates the achievement gap is accompanied by a teacher gap. Quality

Counts 2003 is a report, compiled by Richard Ingersoll of the University of Pennsylvania,

analyzing public school students’ access to qualified teachers. The data reveals 32

percent of high school students in high-poverty schools take a class with a teacher that

did not even minor in the subject that he or she teaches, compared to only 22 percent in

low poverty schools. This percentage increases to more than 50 percent in the middle

school grades in high poverty schools, compared to 44 percent in low poverty schools.

70 percent of students in low poverty secondary schools have teachers who have both

majored in and become licensed in the subjects they teach, compared to about 50 percent

of high poverty schools. Finally, students in high poverty schools are more likely to be

taught by less-experienced teachers. Less than 9 percent of teachers in low poverty

schools have fewer than 3 years of teaching experience, whereas more than 13 percent of

teachers in high poverty schools have little teaching experience (Heimel, 2003, p.18).

The issue of “white flight” to non-public schools and its’ affect on public schools

is a possible concern which may be affecting achievement in certain school settings.

After several statistical analyses, there does seem to be a correlation between the

percentage of white students enrolled in non-public schools and the concentration of

minorities in the public schools. Secondly, white enrollment does make a difference in

11
the public schools. “The black-white gap is greater in districts with many whites in non-

public schools (Bankston, Caldas, 2000, pp. 539-550).”

Analysis of the Statistics.

Historically, African-American youth have been thought to have done better if

they adopted a Eurocentric cultural value system. In order for them to achieve, they had

to “act white.” The findings of this study were these students showed high self-esteem

and achievement goals in conjunction with Afro-centricity. The findings revealed that

when achievement test scores were the measure of performance, the low scores were

associated with the Eurocentric racial attitudes. On the contrary, high self-esteem and

achievement goals were associated with an Afro-centric view of self (Spencer, 2001, pp.

21-30).

A study was completed that measured the gap between ethnic groups by

assessing data on the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) and SAT

results. It offered an in depth look at the available data on the Black-White and Hispanic-

White gap in the areas of reading and mathematics. It sought to answer the question as to

why the gap seemed to decrease in the 1970’s and early 1980’s but then appeared to

widen again in the 1990’s. The study addresses many factors perceived as reasons for

these phenomena such as: changes in socioeconomic and family conditions, changes in

youth culture and student behaviors, and changes in schooling conditions and practices.

The study concludes that much ground overall has been covered in narrowing the racial

and ethnic gap over the last three decades. It appears that many of the gains made during

12
the first two decades occurred at the basic skills level and then the gap grew again when

the emphasis shifted toward the advanced skills level during the 1980’s. The study states

that the factors that have been attributed to the gap do not easily explain the current

widening of the gap and that further research is necessary across multiple fields of study

(Lee, 2002, pp. 3-12).

Another study attempted to identify if after school activities affected achievement

of 8th and 10th grade students and students of different ethnicity. They looked at the two

opposing views on the subject – zero-sum concept (extra activities just take time away

from students that they should use to study) and the view that these activities provide an

experience that contributes to the overall development of the student. The study used the

National Education Longitudinal Study (NELS 1988) and it included 8th and 10th grade

students whose data on the test were complete. The study evaluated the students’ scores

in several content areas and categorized the students’ pursuits on the basis of in or out of

school, academic or nonacademic, and organized or nonorganized. The study concluded

that academic pursuits seemed to be consistently related to achievement, while

nonacademic pursuits were not significantly related to achievement. These results

indicated that the affect was different among differing ethnicities, but it did not go into

any depth with this observation (Schreiber, 2002, pp. 10-100).

Another study compares the educational expectations of parents and the influence

these expectations have on students of different races. The authors differentiate between

the whites and the African-American/Hispanic in that the expectations are generally

13
higher. The exception to this is the African-American father due to the lack of a father

figure in most cases. The conclusion was as follows: “As we have shown, the aspirations

of close relatives and parents, but not those of teachers and peers, have differential effects

on students’ educational expectations, pointing to the importance of examining the

unique family and social contexts in which students of different races live in America

(Cheng, 2002, pp. 306-327).”

In another study, evidence is described which shows achievement gaps in

mathematics between Black and White students. The study also examined how the socio-

economic status (SES) of the students affects the gap. It found SES had little affect in the

disparity of achievement levels. The gap had narrowed for nearly two decades during the

1970’s and the 1980’s, but started widening again during the 1990’s. The researcher

evaluated the differences in instructional practices in primarily white and black

classrooms. The research identified some key differences in instructional belief and

practices between teachers of White and Black students. Teachers of White students

focused more on reasoning skills and problem solving, whereas teachers of black students

focused on single solution and drill-based instructional strategies. There were also

discrepancies found in student course taking and beliefs between these two groups. The

study concluded there are disparities between Black and White students’ achievement,

and this is regardless of their SES status (Lubienski, 2002, pp.269-287).

Another study took a quantitative approach to show evidence that, for black and

white students, environment (American vs. foreign born) plays a decisive role in

14
determining their success in precalculus. They showed the preparation in “Later Skills”

(the math skills most necessary for success in advanced math courses) was further

achieved by those who were foreign born. The study involved a sample from a public

university in New York with 2,005 students who were broken down by gender, ethnicity,

age, and birthplace. The instrument used was a CEEB Elementary Algebra Skills Test.

The study took place at a four year college. They then compared the scores achieved on

the test to the grade performance in precalculus. The conclusion was that foreign-born

students were better prepared than American Whites, Blacks, and Hispanics in the “Later

Skills.” Therefore, the results point to the environment playing a decisive role in the

development of “Later Skills” and, thus, subsequent success in precalculus (Baranchik,

2002, pp. 253-267).

Even long after the 1954 U.S. Supreme Court decision in Brown v. Board of

Education, segregated schools continue due to a combination of continued residential

segregation and the tradition of neighborhood school assignment. Over 67 percent of

African-American students attend majority minority schools and 33 percent attend

schools with more than 90 percent minority enrollment. On the other hand, over 90

percent of White students attend school in White majority districts. This has led to

serious negative ramifications for most African-American students. Majority minority

school districts have a more difficult time attracting and retaining qualified teachers.

Oftentimes students are not offered access to advanced coursework and information

about college entrance requirements (Nettles, 2003, pp. 218-219).

15
What students say/think about the Achievement Gap.

The way students think and feel is important to consider. In order to close the

achievement gap in math and science, we must first give students the confidence and the

opportunities to succeed. Courses should be offered to prepare students for standardized

tests, and the importance of these tests should be emphasized to minority and low income

students. Parent’s help and involvement should be solicited as part of their child’s

education. Schools should provide “Summer Bridge” learning opportunities and mentor

programs to link student’s educational experiences to the world of work. Students should

be provided with every possible resource and opportunity to help them achieve academic

success (Hrabowski, 2003, pp. 44-48)

Good teaching is extremely important and has been shown to impact the

achievement of students. A study evaluated teachers through the eyes of students in an

urban school setting. The students interviewed spoke of good teachers who held high

expectations for them and held them to that high standard. The students stressed the

importance of good teaching that results in learning. The students also spoke favorably

of the block schedule claiming they learned better because the schedule forced teachers to

become better at teaching. “Students simply wanted good teachers because such

teachers made them learn - often in spite of themselves (Corbett, 2002, pp. 18-22).”

16
 Oftentimes, minority students are not aware of the perception their school and

race achieves far below the standard. When the data was revealed to students in a

Philadelphia inner-city school, the students gave the following primary responses as

reasons for the lower scores: 31 percent indicated the students held themselves

responsible, 24 percent referred to teacher behavior, 18 percent indicated their parents’

role, 13 percent discussed the schools themselves, and 11 percent referred to the students’

environment or community. They also included poverty and peer pressure in their

responses. The students described teachers as unsupportive – “they just hand out the

work and expect us to do it without doing much teaching.” The students wanted their

parents to take a more active role in being involved in their education. The students

wanted schools to hold them to higher expectations and provide curriculum that was

challenging. Many of the students felt trapped in their home environment, and they felt

that if they tried to improve their performance then they would be perceived as “acting

white.” Communities and schools must come together, decide what they value for young

people, and support that with all of their effort (Taylor, 2003, pp.72-75).

Identifying the Causes for the Gap.

Society and adults tend to claim the reasons for the achievement gap between

races can be traced back to things outside of the school’s control, such as, lack of familial

support, low socio-economic status, and lack of adequate basic needs (food, clothing,

etc.). Students tend to communicate some different sources for the gap, such as, poorly

prepared teachers, low expectations, and boring, non-challenging curriculum as bigger

17
reasons for the achievement gap. The data seems to support what the students are saying.

It shows that education takes the students who begin with less and systematically give

them less in the schools. This does not diminish the role outside influences play in the

education of students, but, rather, it says that what schools do matters greatly in the lives

and education of these “disadvantaged” students (Haycock, 2001, p. 7-8).

Research consistently reports a strong relationship between social class and

performance on standardized tests such as the SAT. Many researchers have concluded

one avenue through which socio-economic status affects achievement in high school is

the academic courses the students take. Historically, high schools commonly placed

students and organized their curricula by tracking, where students are placed in a set of

courses based on their perceived educational ability. Although many high schools have

replaced formal tracking with student choice as the means by which students are placed

in courses, the relationship between students’ choice and their personal backgrounds

resembles that found within traditional tracking curricula (Nettles, 2003, p.217).

Teacher quality is an important issue affecting the achievement gap. As

important as qualified teachers are, the amount of out-of-field teachers remains

unacceptably high. In 1999-2000 school year, high poverty ad high minority schools had

between 29 and 34 percent of core academic courses taught by out-of-field teachers.

Poor and minority students are more than twice as likely to serve as a training ground for

inexperienced or uncertified teachers as the average child (Jerald, 2002, pp. 1-9).

18
Some Solutions for the Gap.

The focus of education should be placed on the individual learner and on an

understanding of the learning process. It should involve sensitivity to the diverse

backgrounds of students and a certain level of connectedness between caring teachers and

students. The focus should involve the breakdown of fragmented schools and evolve into

collaborative efforts between teachers who are no longer isolated from one another.

(McCombs, 2000, pp. 29-36).

One school (Francis Bacon) narrowed the achievement gap by first focusing on

behavior management and then researched strategies for raising academic achievement.

The school concluded it is important to have high expectations for the students and to

have a good vehicle for instruction to help the students meet those expectations.

Collaboration between teachers is another important component in improving the

achievement gap. “An isolated teacher can’t be successful. Teacher collaboration and

teacher training are critical.” Another essential element is after school programs that help

students to finish their homework. “When students get the right encouragement from a

caring person, research shows, they can defy the odds (Quindlen, 2002, pp. 5-8).”

Another important aspect in closing the achievement gap is comprehensive school

reform. This includes an overall reorganization laying out high expectations and a

specific plan of how the school will achieve those expectations. A high school in

California went through this process with great success. “The college board had just

19
come out with a report that showed a very high correlation between passing algebra and

geometry in high school and later academic success.” So this school decided to make

this a primary target in their reform process. Math became the backbone for the

academic schedule for the students (Codding, 2000, pp. 79-92).

The issue of minority student’s attitudes toward math and science achievement is

important in reducing the achievement gap and promoting academic success amongst

minority students. There is “a striking gap between students’ expectations regarding

future careers and their understanding of the impact of current course decisions on these

plans.” Minority students are less likely to attend schools offering advanced placement

courses. These students are more likely to encounter negative peer pressure in their

decisions to enroll in math and science courses. To succeed in advanced math courses,

persistence is necessary, whereas, the basic math courses required for everyone can be

passed by students who simply do the work. These courses are not enough to teach the

persistence that is necessary for these students to become successful working in a math or

science field. “A recent study ... showed that student attitudes toward mathematics are

extremely important and play a large part in determining students’ motivation toward

instruction and achievement.” Therefore, success in math courses and particularly

advanced math courses is critical to the academic success of the student (Gilroy, 2002,

pp. 39-44).

Title 1, of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965, has had an

effect on the achievement gap particularly in high poverty contexts. During the 1970’s

and 1980’s the gap decreased by about two grade levels. It is assumed that this

20
improvement was in direct relation to the funding made available to counteract poverty,

and, thus, continued funding is vital to continued improvement in the gap between white

and black students. The importance of early childhood education and summer learning

opportunities for children in poverty situations needs to continue to be an emphasis of

this funding. Comprehensive school reform which focuses on reorganizing and

revitalizing the entire school and reducing the student-teacher ratio is another important

aspect of this funding (Borman, 2003, pp. 49-53).

The Minority Student Achievement Network is a consortium of 15 school districts

with high achievement levels but significant gaps in achievement between white students

and their African-American or Latino peers. They have banded together to examine and

evaluate data in an effort to emphasize the achievement of students of color. “The

Network agrees wholeheartedly that the causes of the achievement gap are neither

differences in innate ability nor the result of biased test questions (Kober, 2001),” and

the gap is both complex and systemic. The group is concerned with the fact that the

Black and Latino students with college educated parents scored lower on a 12th grade

reading test than their white peers whose parents only had a high school diploma. They

assert that socioeconomic factors account for only part of the achievement gap. The

network members agree there are many factors that influence in varying degrees the gap

including (but not limited to) racism, poverty, poor educational leadership, low teacher’

expectations, negative peer pressure, etc. (Alson, 2003, pp. 76-78).

21
Comprehensive School Reform

The dominant strategy for school reform has historically consisted of systemic

changes to things like standards, assessments, accountability, governance (vouchers and

charters), and funding plans. These systemic reforms are policies government at the

federal, state, or local levels can prescribe to large numbers of schools. These reforms

have little direct influence on the methods and materials used within the classroom to

ensure success. Comprehensive school reform shares the goal of systemic school reform

– improved student achievement on a broad scale. The difference is comprehensive

school reform begins by considering the school as the unit of reform. Ultimately,

comprehensive school reform intends to affect every aspect of school functioning. The

different models vary considerably, but they all aim to affect curriculum, instruction,

assessment, school organization, necessary support for students having difficulties,

parental involvement, and sustained professional development for the staff. Because this

reform begins at the school level, staff buy-in is critical to establish prior to implementing

the reform (Slavin, 2001, pp 22-23).

If a large high school with a high poverty student population has major problems

of absenteeism, low test scores, and high drop-out rates, the only solution is a powerful

comprehensive school reform which can turn the school around and keep it strong. A

comprehensive package of changes establishing new structures and conditions which

promote positive human relationships and effective learning opportunities is needed in

large, high poverty high schools (Jordan, 2000, pp.159-160).

22
 The first requirement of reform is to create a school environment which is

conducive to learning and to improve student attendance. The school authority must be

clearly and visibly in charge of discipline, and they must convey the message that this is a

“real school” in which high academic achievement is expected from all students. The

reforms must promote conditions where respectful and caring relationships can be

developed between teachers and students. Discipline problems should fade so that

administrators can rule without resentment. A high priority must be placed on student

attendance so that there is the opportunity to increase learning (Jordan, 2000, p. 161).

High schools that are large and departmentalized are often cited as a contributing

factor to a climate where discipline is weak and students feel estranged from the school.

The teacher to student ratio is so large students who misbehave can become anonymous

and escape the regular, effective control of the school (Lee, 1995, pp. 243-245).

Curriculum and instruction must be addressed in comprehensive school reform.

The curriculum in large, high-poverty schools is too often unchallenging and

uninteresting. Usually, low-level and watered-down courses are offered to everyone

except the advanced, college-bound students (Jordan, 2000, p.162). These course

offerings continue even though there is a consensus that most students will benefit from a

core curriculum with high standards which contains demanding material (Lucas, 1999).

Classroom instruction continues to consist of teacher-led lectures and individual

worksheets which emphasize drill and practice of isolated facts and formulas. Absent

23
from instruction are student learning activities which incorporate cooperative learning

and project-based instruction that encourage a deeper understanding of the content and

practical applications (Darling-Hammond, 1997).

If staff are expected and encouraged to use new curriculum and try new

instructional methodology, they need to receive high-level professional training and

direct assistance with their classes. Currently, most secondary teachers teach and learn

alone. Professional development and training is a necessary component to successful

comprehensive school reform (Jordan, 2000, pp. 162-163).

Talent Development Model

One model of comprehensive school reform, called the Talent Development

Model, was designed to address the problem of large, urban, nonselective high schools.

It was researched and developed at Johns Hopkins University and implemented in

Patterson High School in Baltimore. This school was chosen for the reforms because it

represented one of the poorest educational environments in the state of Maryland (Jordan,

2000, p. 164).

The Talent Development Model contains two organizational reform components.

The first is the Academy structure which reduces student apathy and anonymity by

creating smaller, more personalized learning communities. The upper grades choose a

career focus for their curriculum. The second component is the Twilight School which

24
provides recovery opportunities for students with serious discipline problems (Jordan,

2000, p. 165).

Career Academy Programs

High school career academies were originally designed to address the needs of at

risk students. One of the suggested reasons that at risk students do not achieve in school

is they feel school is irrelevant to the real world. Career academies bridge the world of

academia and the real world of work. A career academy is a type of comprehensive

school reform that has several defining characteristics. The academy is a “school-within-

a-school” in the high school grades run by a small team of teachers from various

disciplines. The academy recruits students who volunteer for the program and

demonstrate their commitment through an application process. The career academy

focuses on a theme in a field in which demand is growing and good employment

opportunities exist in the local labor market. The curriculum combines technical and

academic courses each semester. The academy includes general employment skills while

keeping the option of attending college open to all of its students. The academy provides

opportunities for students to be employed part-time during the school year and full-time

during vacation times in the field of their academy. The career academy involves

representatives from the field of employment to help plan and guide the program. These

representatives are involved as speakers, field trip hosts, job supervisors, and mentors for

individual students. The academy contributes to the students’ sense of membership in a

25
caring school community through smaller class sizes than a typical high school, a system

of motivation and rewards, and regular contact with their parents. The career academy

has the capability of utilizing funds from a variety of community, government, and

business sources. A successful career academy is designed with these characteristics as a

guide (Stern, 1992).

Each academy is self-contained. They are each led by an administrative team

consisting of an academy principal (usually an assistant principal) and an academy

instructional leader (usually the department chair of the subject most closely associated

with the academy). There is one guidance counselor per academy. To further solidify

their unique identities, academies may select banners and mottoes to decorate hallways

and staircases (Jordan, 2000, p. 166).

As with any reform movement, several obstacles will exist that must be

overcome. Career academies are no exception to this rule. Guidelines for control over

the necessary funds to run a successful career academy must be established between the

school district, funding agencies, and the staff who implement the program. Apathy

amongst the staff must be overcome or avoided in order for a fully functional academy to

run effectively. This must be considered as staff are chosen or hired who will be

involved in the academy. Union contract guidelines must also be considered in this

process. Full administrative support is a critical component in a career academy. These

are some of the obstacles that must be considered and overcome when implementing a

career academy into a high school (Shorr, 1999, pp. 381-382).

26
 Collaboration amongst the staff is an important element in a functioning career

academy. Common planning times amongst all the staff in the academy are necessary so

that weekly meetings can be held to facilitate this collaboration. During this meeting

time, the bond between staff can be strengthened while instructional, motivational, and

cooperative strategies can be planned (Shorr, 1999, p. 383)

Professional development and training for the staff is another key component for

the career academies. Training is necessary in order for teachers to learn to collaborate

and educate in a cooperative manner. Special training is also necessary for teachers to

learn to integrate the technology required by the academy focus into the curricula for

each of their classes (Shorr, 1999, p. 383).

Industry and community partnerships play an important role in a successful career

academy. Representatives from the industry by which the academy is focused participate

as important partners in all aspects of the career academy. Members of the community

also can help staff members make additional connections with other potential industry

participants who did not originally share the enthusiasm for becoming involved with high

school students who are considered at risk (Shorr, 1999, pp. 383-384).

In career academies, curriculum is developed combining learning outcomes from

several disciplines with the advantages of team teaching and computer technologies. The

curriculum should be designed thematically to incorporate the technology and principles

27
of the career field the academy is based upon. Using technology, teachers can design

projects based on the tenets of the career academy by utilizing components of the career

academy such as special speakers, field trips, mentors, internships, and parents. Classes

are blocked into adjacent time periods to allow for plenty of time to accomplish the tasks

and activities associated with a major project. The projects are designed in such a way

that they lead up to a culminating senior project that incorporates all that they have

learned through their years in the career academy. This senior project would be a large

part of a portfolio the students would compile to present to a future employer

demonstrating the skills and knowledge they have acquired through participation in the

career academy (Shorr, 1999, pp.384-386).

Students follow a block schedule for their classes throughout the day. Students

move together from class to class. The block typically consumes either the entire

morning or afternoon, and the academy teachers decide on how to divide up the time.

Block scheduling allows for more flexibility in class length permitting classes to be

longer or shorter, as necessary.

Extra help is available through a variety of avenues in the career academy.

Students who obtain a grade lower than a C must participate in tutoring sessions

occurring before or after school until their grade rises to a C or better. The tutoring is

also available to all of the students on a voluntary basis. Community volunteers, parents,

and retired citizens are recruited to work as tutors for the students (Shorr, 1999, p. 386).

28
 A mentoring program in which industry, community, and business people are

paired up one on one with a high school student is a part of the career academy model.

The mentor works with the student and provides guidance, instruction, and an example of

how to use education to become successful in life. A study at Colombia University

investigated the lives of 100 prominent Americans and found that those who came from a

disadvantaged background were especially likely to cite the influence of a mentor as a

key to their success (Rutherford, 1998, pp.78-86). A major goal of the mentoring

program is to introduce the students to the world of work as many of them come from

poor urban or immigrant families (Shorr, 1999, p.386).

The internship program is a vital link in the career academy between the school

training and the labor market. Students are exposed to the world of work and to a variety

of opportunities that exist in the field they have chosen. The combination of practical

experience and educational training provides motivation to the students and ensures that

they receive training that is compatible with the local labor market. Internships usually

begin as unpaid experiences, but often lead to paid opportunities (Shorr, 1999, p.388).

Twilight School

The other organizational component of the Talent Development Model is the

Twilight School. This is an after-hours, on-site, short-term alternative program for a

small group of students who have serious discipline and attendance issues. Twilight

School meets for three hours each day after the regular program is dismissed. The

29
smaller classes are for those students who are coming from juvenile justice institutions

and court referrals, or for those who have regular confrontations with teachers or other

students disturbing the learning environment for the rest of the class. These classes are

taught by regular day school faculty who are working on overtime. Students in Twilight

School take three academic courses which are the same as day school courses so that they

can return to day school any time they are ready (Jordan, 2000, p. 170).

Outcomes of Career Academies

Schools that have implemented career academies have reported positive results.

Hollywood High School, in Hollywood, CA, (78 percent minority population and 85

percent free or reduced lunch population) gives testimony to improved results in several

key areas. There was an 83 percent graduation rate for those students who completed the

academy program compared to 35 percent that were not in the program. The senior

project generated enough enthusiasm that 100 percent of participating students completed

the project satisfactorily. More than 65 percent of the students received scholarships to

2- and 4-year colleges and universities (Shorr, 1999, pp. 388-389).

In other studies of career academies, similar positive results were reported.

Attendance rates increased by between 10 and 20 percentage points which probably

accounts for the improvement in grades and graduation rates (Elliott, 2002, p. 88).

30
Possible Reasons Why Career Academies Promote Higher Achievement

One of the more obvious reasons career academies seem to be effective is the

identifiable core of teachers and students that belong to the academy. Teachers identify

themselves with the academy, regardless of whether they have classes containing only

academy students. These teachers know who the academy students are, share

information about these students, and intensively tracks these students’ behavior and

absences – even more so than for other non-academy students (Hanser, 2000, p.33).

Even more important than the teachers who identify themselves with the

academy, the students identify themselves as being a part of a special program. Students

express their feelings toward the academy as a tight-knit, family unit. Students are aware

of the fact that the teachers share information about them and monitor their progress and

development. Students notice the increased attention they receive both inside and outside

of the classroom. They recognize more positive communication between their teachers

and parents. While the vocational opportunities afforded to the students through the

career academies may motivate students, research indicates that the nurturing

environment offered to students in this atmosphere is the major factor in improving

achievement (Elliott, 2002, pp. 88-89).

31
Chapter 3: The Effectiveness of Career Academies

Introduction

Over the past twenty years, there has been extensive research on education reform

focusing on the achievement gap between white and minority students. East High School

in Columbus, Ohio, an inner-city school whose demographics are 97 percent African-

American, has implemented a possible solution to improve student achievement within

the school and to narrow the achievement gap between African-American and White

students. The program, which has been implemented into four low performing high

schools in Columbus, is called Columbus Pathways to Success Initiative. This program

is based on research-based model called the Talent Development model out of Johns

Hopkins University. The comprehensive reform model was implemented at East High

School and was structured by High Schools That Work, a non-profit comprehensive

school reform organization that is funded by grant money.

Columbus Pathways to Success Initiative (CPSI)

CPSI is a high school reform model developed in 1999 based on High-Schools-

That-Work and other nationally recognized reform models. This initiative is a

collaborative effort between the Columbus Public Schools, the Columbus Chamber of

Commerce, Columbus Education Association, Columbus State Community College, and

other post secondary institutions. It was initiated by the Chamber of Commerce as an

32
effort to develop the future workforce within Columbus instead of drawing people from

other places. The rationale for the school system is to improve the student retention rate

and to improve student achievement. There are several components within the CPSI

which include the following: Freshman Success Academy, Acceleration Academy, a

summer bridge program, career academies, teacher advisement program, staff

development, public relations, data collection, analysis, and recommendations.

High-Schools-That-Work

There are several key practices that are adopted by schools that follow this model

of school reform. High-Schools-That-Work (HSTW) is a comprehensive reform grant

that works with the school and provides funding to implement these practices. It

provides professional development for staff and funding for extra positions and programs

necessary for this reform to be successful.

There are three goals of HSTW. The first goal is to increase achievement in

mathematics, science, communication, problem-solving, and technical skills. Another

goal is to blend the content of traditional college preparatory courses with quality

vocational and technical studies. The third goal is to advance policies and leadership

initiatives necessary to sustain a continuous school-improvement effort.

At the high school level, HSTW advocates ten key practices essential for reform

to be successful in increasing student achievement. The first key practice is setting high

33
expectations and getting more and more students to meet them. Incorporating vocational

studies into the regular curriculum is another key practice. The emphasis in these studies

is using high level mathematics, science, language arts, and problem solving skills in the

modern workplace. The academic studies should increase student access to academics

that teach the essential concepts from the college preparatory curriculum by incorporating

real-world problems and projects into the lessons. The program of study should be

challenging with an upgraded academic core and a major emphasis. The course of study

will give students and parents a system integrating school-based and work-based

learning. The learning would span across high school and post-secondary studies. The

fifth key practice involves teachers working together. Organization, structure, and

scheduling should give academic and vocational teachers the time to plan and deliver

integrated instruction aimed at teaching high-level content. Another key practice is

getting students actively engaged in rigorous and challenging learning. Each student and

his/her parent should receive guidance and advisement ensuring the completion of an

accelerated program of study. The ninth key practice is to provide a structured system of

extra help to enable students with inadequate preparation to complete a high-level

program of study. The last key practice advocated by HSTW is to use student assessment

and evaluation data to continuously improve school climate, organization, management,

curriculum, and instruction. The purpose of this data analysis is to promote student

learning and to recognize students who meet performance goals. When these practices

are adhered to, reform is successful, student achievement is increased, and the school

improves continuously.

34
The Talent Development Model

The Talent Development Model was formulated at Johns Hopkins University and

implemented into a few high schools in Baltimore, Maryland. This model incorporates

several components which were adapted and used at East High School. The two major

components originating in the Talent Development Model used at East High School were

the career academies (curriculum with a focus on future career skills) and twilight school

(an after-school program for students who are unable to successfully function in a

traditional classroom).

Academic Emergency

As part of the federal government’s education reform initiative, No Child Left

Behind, schools that meet a certain number of criteria are labeled into different

categories. Columbus Public Schools and East High School was in the lowest category,

academic emergency. During the summer following the 2002-2003 school year,

Columbus Public Schools were moved out of the academic emergency and into the

academic watch category on the state report card.

Career Academies

The model chosen for continuous improvement was career academies. The model

organizes large schools into smaller learning communities called “schools within a

35
school” or academies. Freshman entering the school are part of the Freshman Success

Academy which will be explained in great detail later in the research. Upon successful

completion of the freshman year, students are required to select a career academy based

on their future interests. The students have four possibilities to choose from which

include the following career academies: Health Sciences, Arts and Communications,

ACE (Architecture, Construction, and Engineering), and TEAM (Technology,

Engineering, and Manufacturing). The students are then organized by academy into

smaller groups who travel together between classes and have the same team of teachers in

their core-academic classes for three years. The classes are all centered on the theme of

their career academy, and the students have opportunities at earning college credit,

experiencing valuable internships, gaining important know-how, and learning from a

mentor from the business community. Students in the career academies will have the

opportunity to earn for free up to 45 college credits and will leave high school with the

promise of a job. The career academy gives focus and purpose to the high school

academic experience.

Architecture, Construction, and Engineering Academy (ACE)

The ACE academy focuses primarily on the building trades. As sophomores, the

students take typical college preparatory courses in addition to electives centered on the

trades including an introductory foundation class for the academy. The students have the

36
opportunity to take classes to learn such skills as Auto-CAD, mechanical drawing, and

basic construction skills.

After their sophomore year, students have three options within the ACE

Academy. They may choose from one of the following: architectural/civil technology,

mechanical technology, or structural technology. Then, during their junior and senior

years, the students continue to take their college preparatory classes at East, but they

spend half of their time at a vocational career center receiving hands-on training in a

specific trade. The core academic classes have incorporated into them projects and an

emphasis centered on the construction trades. Students have the opportunity to volunteer

their time to work on building projects outside of the school setting through Habitat for

Humanity and other non-profit organizations. The academy has several business partners

in the community that provide opportunities for professional development, field trips, and

special speakers. These business partners also provide internship opportunities and

mentors for the students. During the summer between their junior and senior years, the

students are involved in an internship with a business partner and are enrolled in college

classes where they can earn college credit. Students would choose this academy if they

had an interest in the construction trades, architecture, or engineering.

Upon graduation, having come through the ACE Academy, the students would be

ready to enter a post-secondary institution in any of the following programs: architecture,

civil engineering technology, construction management, heating, ventilation, and air-

conditioning technology. If their goals do not include further education, they would be

37
adequately prepared for the work force. Their previous work experience would be such

that they would qualify for many jobs requiring such previous experience. Students also

have had many opportunities to meet and network with people in the industry. The ACE

Academy is sponsored by the Columbus Chamber of Commerce.

Arts and Communication Academy

The Arts and Communication (A&C) Academy is for those students who are

artistically inclined and would enjoy creating, performing, or writing. The students in

this academy would follow a similar college preparatory schedule during their freshman

(FSA) and sophomore year as the students in the ACE Academy. Their schedule would

include Career Connections during their freshman year and a Foundations course during

their sophomore year.

At the end of their sophomore year, students have the opportunity to choose from

three different courses of study to follow during their junior and senior years. The first

career path is in Communications Media where they would study multimedia, computer

graphics, creative writing, and publication. The second career path is the Performing

Arts. Students would study music, theatre, and dance (if available). The third career path

is the Visual Arts in which students would study art, photography, and design. Students

in the A&C Academy, during their summers, have the opportunity to take college classes

and take part in an internship.

38
Health Sciences Academy

Students in the Health Sciences Academy have an interest in a career in the health

industry. They have strong science aptitude and a desire to work with and help other

people. Their course of study will follow a similar route as the other academies during

their freshman (FSA) and sophomore years. These students follow a rigorous science and

math curriculum.

At the end of their sophomore year, students in the Health Sciences Academy

have two career paths to choose from in which their course of study during their junior

and senior years will follow. The first career path is the Medical Services which would

lead to further education and jobs in nursing, lab technicians, EMS, or pharmacy. The

second career path students may choose from is Sports and Fitness Management. This

path would lead to further education and jobs in sports and fitness management, or

athletic training. Students in the Health Sciences Academy also have the opportunity to

earn college credit and take part in internships during their summers. The Health

Sciences Academy is sponsored by the Columbus Chamber of Commerce.

39
Technology, Engineering, and Manufacturing Academy (TEAM)

The Technology, Engineering, and Manufacturing (TEAM) Academy is for

students who want to receive training and education preparing them for careers in

designing new products and in the assembly of the products. Again, students follow a

similar course of study during their freshman (FSA) and sophomore years as students in

the other academies. Students should have strong aptitude in mathematics and computer

science. They should enjoy working with their hands, understanding how things work,

and designing things.

As with the other academies, students can choose from three different career paths

at the end of their sophomore year. The first career path is Electronic Engineering

Technology in which students will learn the basics in electrical technology. This path

would prepare students to work in the field of electronics or electrical technology. The

second career path is Computer Aided Design Technology which would train the students

in mechanical drafting, computer aided drafting (CAD), and basic manufacturing and

mechanical principles. The third career path is Mechanical Engineering Technology

which is similar to the other two paths with the addition of Machining, Hydraulics, and

Robotics. The students in the TEAM Academy also have the opportunities to earn

college credit, take part in summer internships, and have the promise of a job upon high

school graduation. The TEAM Academy is sponsored by the Columbus Chamber of

Commerce.

40
The Freshman Success Academy

The research will focus on the Freshman Success Academy (FSA). The FSA is a

self-contained school-within-a-school organized around interdisciplinary teams of

teachers designed to provide incoming freshman a smooth transition to high school. The

rationale for the FSA is to improve student attendance, improve academic success, reduce

the drop out rate, and instruction focused on career education. There are many

components that are incorporated into a successful FSA.

Teacher Buy-in

In order for the FSA to be successful, teachers must buy in to the collaborative

effort. Teachers must be willing to work as a team to accomplish common goals.

Oftentimes, teachers in the academy setting will be required to go above and beyond the

contractual expectations of a teacher. General hiring and interview practices ensure that

new members of the team do buy-in, but it is crucial for current staff members to

cooperate with the team concept.

Lead Teachers

The lead teacher of the academy plays an important role in the success of the

academy. They communicate regularly with both school administration and district

administration in order to ensure the academy is functioning and achieving its

41
expectations. The lead teacher accomplishes this by attending all scheduled district-wide

and school lead teacher/administrator meetings.

The lead teacher of the academy provides necessary leadership within the

academy. They clarify team goals and priorities. They facilitate the collection and team

analysis of data. The lead teachers plan agendas, coordinate team meetings and

documentation of activities. They coordinate all team activities and staff development

for team members.

Teacher Collaboration

Collaboration amongst the team of teachers is a key part in the FSA. The team of

teachers involved in the FSA work together very closely in standardizing the experience

of the students in all of their classes. In order to facilitate this collaboration, the teachers

share a common planning time in which they meet at least twice a week to coordinate

their plans (Appendix C). The teachers have a common syllabus (Appendix A) that

outlines common expectations, a common grading scale, the teaching philosophies and

objectives of each course. There are ten core values that are posted in a visible and

creative way in each classroom. These values are emphasized, taught, and adhered to in

every classroom as what the behavioral expectations are. Several times throughout the

school year the teachers map and integrate their curriculum. They plan cross-curricular

projects and activities so that the students receive different academic perspectives on the

same project or learning unit.

42
Small Learning Communities

The FSA is organized into small learning communities, called teams, in which

students travel in groups to the same classes with the same team of teachers. The

academy has a designated location within the building so the students spend the majority

of the day in the same section of the school. The FSA is located primarily in the

basement of the high school.

Career Connections

Every freshman within the academy takes an elective course called Career

Connections. This course offers the students an overview of possible careers as well as

different career development activities. The course is an introduction to the career

focused education that is a key component in the academy model.

Communication with Parents

Communication with the parents is emphasized within the FSA. To open up this

communication, teachers participate in home visits during the summer prior to the school

year. During these visits, teachers share the student’s schedules, discuss values and

expectations, and show a promotional video showcasing the FSA. The visits are effective

in conveying the educational opportunity available to the student as well as opening

43
communication between teachers and the parents. Throughout the school year, parents

will receive a personal phone call twice a month from a teacher in the team (Appendix

D). A record of these phone calls is kept in a phone log which records what was

discussed in each conversation (Appendix J). At the beginning of the year, the parents

are invited via phone to an Open House in which the parents are introduced to the entire

staff, reminded of expectations, and served refreshments.

The Importance of Academic Achievement

The curriculum of the FSA is college preparatory. One of the purposes of the

FSA is to improve academic achievement of the students. There are several procedures

in place to assist in accomplishing this purpose. First, there is a weekly grade check for

the students where each teacher communicates the current grade the student has in that

class. This occurs Monday or Tuesday of every week, and its purpose is for the students

to have current and regular feedback in each of their classes. In order to regularly

evaluate the progress of the freshman class as a whole, data is collected and evaluated on

a weekly basis (Appendix E and F). The data includes attendance, parental contact,

discipline, and the number of students with A’s or B’s and F’s. At the end of the first

semester, students are called in with their parents for a conference with the team of

teachers to review a credit check sheet. The credit check sheet (Appendix B) is a paper

with all of the core courses and electives listed as well as the grades and credits earned by

that student for the first semester. The teachers use this opportunity to explain the

progress of the student so far, communicate areas of weakness where the student may

44
have fallen behind, and remind them of the importance of being successful in all of their

classes as a freshman. For instances where there are persistent behavioral, academic, or

social problems, the team calls an intervention meeting. The parent’s attendance is

requested by phone, and then teachers and oftentimes the social worker meet with the

student. Strengths of the student are shared and discussed first, followed by a discussion

of the problem(s) that persist. The student is given an opportunity to share any concerns

that he/she might have, and then a plan is laid out to correct the current problem

(Appendix K). A follow-up meeting is scheduled to discuss progress or the lack thereof

in the specified area.

Another important piece in the FSA regarding academic achievement is the free

extra help that is available to all students. Math classes are double blocked throughout

the year to make certain that all students receive the necessary instruction to catch them

up if necessary and to ensure success in their future high school math courses. There also

are available Career Based Intervention (math assistance) classes for those who come into

high school lacking the basic math skills necessary to be successful in high school math.

Also available to the students is after school tutoring in all of their core academic courses.

Students may go as often as they need and stay as long as they need to guarantee that they

understand and remain caught up in their studies.

45
Attendance Policy

Attendance is a priority in the FSA. In order for students to achieve academically,

they must be in school on a regular basis. This priority is emphasized in each of the core

academic courses by making attendance a significant part of the grade received. The

students receive ten points each day for being in class on time which accounts for 15 -20

percent of the overall grade in each class.

Small Class Size

A priority of the FSA is to maintain small class sizes to ensure good individual

attention for all of the students. The teacher to student ratio is 1:25 or smaller. This is

also part of the smaller learning communities.

Acceleration Academy

Acceleration Academy is an important piece of the reform model affecting

student achievement. Acceleration Academy is an after hours “safety net” program

designed to help students who have a difficult time adjusting to high school. Students

can be assigned, with parental approval, to the Acceleration Academy if they struggle

46
with attendance, behavior, or academics in the traditional daytime high school classroom.

The classes meet from 2:00 pm until 6:00 pm every day.

The rationale for the Acceleration Academy is to reduce the number of

distractions for the other students in the day program, and to provide the necessary skills

for these students to be successful in the day program. This program provides an

alternative environment with more extensive support services in order to increase

opportunities for student achievement. As students experience success in this

environment, the drop out rate is reduced.

There are many components that make the Acceleration Academy unique and

successful. Students will receive instruction in math, reading/language arts, and study

skills. There is also tutoring for the Ohio Ninth Grade Proficiency Tests. The student to

teacher ratio is no more than 1:15. Students are assigned for a mandatory minimum of

one semester in which they can earn credits, and, if they are successful, they may return

to the day program. Since the academy meets after school, transportation is provided to

students who need it. If students return to the day program, they are monitored and

mentored to ensure a successful return. It is possible for students to make up credits they

have previously lost.

47
Summer Bridge

Summer Bridge is another “safety net” program designed to provide reading,

math, and study skills to incoming freshman. The rationale for the program is to improve

math and reading skills, improve study skills for the rigor of high school, and introduce

students to post-secondary education and career opportunities.

There are several important components that make up the Summer Bridge

program. Math and reading acceleration are components that help to ensure future

success in high school with these vital skills. Study skill techniques are also taught

during Summer Bridge. Students receive extra opportunities to take the proficiency test

if they attend this program. Students can attend at no cost to them or their parents, and

they receive free transportation and free breakfast.

Ohio Ninth Grade Proficiency Tests

The State of Ohio administers a ninth grade proficiency test in the areas of

Reading, Writing, Citizenship, Mathematics, and Science. Students are required to pass

all five parts of the proficiency test in order to graduate from high school. These tests are

a priority within the FSA. The thinking is that if a freshman has passed all or most of the

tests as a freshman then their probability of successfully graduating from high school

increases dramatically. Therefore, a good amount of time is devoted to preparing the

students for these proficiency tests. In the math classes, the math teachers organize the

48
students based on whether or not they have passed the math proficiency test. The

students that have not passed the test remain in the classroom and receive extensive

instruction and preparation for the test. The students who have already passed the test

(and do not have to take the test again) go to work on a hands-on project that is an

extension of the classroom curriculum. These students have the opportunity to work on

projects that the regular classroom and routine would not be able to facilitate like

building balsa-wood bridges and working with graphing calculators. This makes it

possible for the students who need the extra instruction in order to pass the proficiency

test get it without boring the students who have already passed.

Rewards and Motivation

Another important piece in the FSA is motivating students on to success and then

recognizing them for success. There are many different ways in which students are

motivated and rewarded for doing the right thing academically and behaviorally. In each

class, teachers have tickets to give to students for doing something good (Appendix G).

This may be something as simple as answering a difficult problem correctly, a random

act of kindness, or doing an assigned task well. These tickets are stored in a ticket bin,

and each week the teachers draw five names out of the bin. The students whose names

were drawn receive the opportunity to choose a prize out of the prize drawer which is

stocked with an assortment of prizes such as candy, candles, school supplies, make-up,

school spirit items, etc. The teachers are responsible for keeping the prize drawer well

stocked. All of the tickets not drawn that week then go into a separate bin that will be

49
drawn from at the award assemblies for much larger prizes such as sweatshirts, DVD

players, boom boxes, etc.

Awards Assemblies

Four times per year, after each nine week grading period, award assemblies are

held to honor student achievement (Appendix H). Once again, parents are invited over

the phone to attend and see their child receive an award. At the assembly, awards are

handed out recognizing achievement in the following categories: perfect attendance,

outstanding scholar (honor roll), most improved student, outstanding student (exceptional

academic and behavioral performance), and 110 percent (hardest worker award). Many

students may receive a certificate for performance in each category, but then one student

is voted as the overall winner in that category by the teachers. The winner receives a

certificate, a reward (usually a sweatshirt, purse, or something similar), their picture on

the school web-site, and their name on a plaque displayed in a trophy case in the hallway

at school. Any student that earns a 4.0 (straight A’s in all subject areas) receives a t-shirt

with their certificate. Throughout the award assembly, names are drawn from the ticket

bin for various prizes. The last assembly of the year is a picnic at a park near the school.

These assemblies are a celebration of student accomplishment that is enjoyed by parents

and students alike.

50
Honor Roll Students

There are special opportunities for students who make the honor roll for a nine-

week grading period. First, they receive a certificate and recognition at the awards

assembly (Appendix I). Secondly, a church in the surrounding neighborhood sponsors a

free breakfast for the honor roll students in which they invite special speakers who are

both community leaders and East High Alumni. Finally, they receive the opportunity to

participate in the Honor Roll Sponsorship Program. This program allows each of the

honor roll students to choose a fellow student who did not make the honor roll with

whom to partner. If the honor roll student maintains his/her honor roll status while

pulling their partner up onto the honor roll, then both students receives a free t-shirt and a

pizza party. This program provides motivation for the students to stay on honor roll

while helping a fellow student to achieve this status. Honor roll is a significant

achievement, and it should be duly recognized and aspired to.

Hand Prints

Success on the Ohio Ninth Grade Proficiency Test is a very important aspect in

determining the success of the FSA. Therefore, when students achieve in this area by

passing each part of the proficiency test, they are afforded the opportunity to be

recognized for many years to come. For each area of the proficiency test in which the

student passes, they place their handprint on the wall of the classroom that corresponds to

51
the section that they passed (for example, if they passed the math section, then they

would place their handprint on the wall in their math classroom). The handprints will

remain on the wall for all to see indefinitely.

Cleveland Trip

Towards the end of the year, the entire FSA will be rewarded for their efforts with

an all day trip to Cleveland. The staff and students travel to and from Cleveland in

luxury charter buses. In Cleveland, they spend the morning touring a historical cemetery

and an African-American museum. Then they board a luxury boat for a lunch cruise out

onto Lake Erie. On the boat, the staff and students are treated to an all-you-can-eat

buffet, music, and a DJ. There are academic assignments aligned with the trip, but it is

primarily a reward for a great school year.

Team T-Shirts

As a way of building team pride within the FSA, each year team t-shirts are

designed. Everyone (staff and students) are required to purchase one to wear to all of the

award assemblies and the Cleveland trip. The t-shirts can be purchased in orange or

black (school colors) and have “Property of East High” on the front and the motivational

slogan for the year on back.

52
Pilgrim Mentoring

Mentoring programs are another opportunity promoting success in the lives of

students. In the career academy, the students will receive mentoring from a business

person, but in the FSA the students are required to become a mentor to an elementary age

child who struggles with academics. Pilgrim Elementary School is a feeder school for

East High School. The elementary school is in academic emergency. The FSA has

instituted a mentoring program in which the ninth graders are paired up with a child in

the first through sixth grade who is need of help. Each Monday afternoon, after school,

the ninth graders walk down to Pilgrim Elementary School to spend 45 minutes working

with a child who is assigned to them for the year. During this time, the child must spend

twenty minutes reading out loud and writing sentences based on what they have read.

The ninth graders then work with the children on any other school work their child needs

to finish. The students have established many strong relationships with their child and

are hopefully increasing their chance of success in the classroom. The freshman do

receive community service hours in return which they need for graduation.

The Research Process

While there are several factors that may contribute to the achievement gap such as

socio-economic status, lack of family/community support, poor school conditions, etc.,

the researcher will focus on the differences between the racial disparities. The researcher

53
will explain the overall program that has been implemented and analyze the results by

making two separate comparisons. The comparisons will evaluate data that was gathered

during two different academic years, 2000-01 (pre-academy) and 2002-2003 (fully-

functional academy). The researcher will analyze data from these years to compare the

results within the school to evaluate the academy’s effectiveness within the school as

well as to compare the results with the white population within the State of Ohio to

evaluate the academy’s effectiveness in narrowing the achievement gap between White

and African-American students.

Results within the School

There are several important statistics that are analyzed to evaluate the success of

the academy. The first data set that is evaluated is the attendance rate. During the 2000-

01 school year, the attendance rate for the freshman class was 73 percent, and, during the

2002-03 school year, the attendance rate increased to 86 percent.

Results on the Ohio 9th Grade Proficiency Test improved in every subject area

significantly between the 2000-01 and 2002-03 school years. There was continuous and

consistent improvement in the rate of students who passed in all five sections of the

proficiency test. The following chart demonstrates the progress of passing rates as the

academy model was implemented into the school.

54
 Ohio 9th Grade Proficiency Test Scores

Test 1st Year 2nd Year 3rd Year

00-01 01-02 02-03

Writing 76% 77% 91%

Reading 69% 73% 79%

Math 35% 44% 54%

Citizenship 55% 58% 70%

Science 37% 38% 46%

These results represent students who were first year freshman at East High School

during that school year. There is consistent improvement in all areas of the proficiency

test after the implementation of the academy model.

The failure rates decreased in all of the core academic subject areas during these

same school years as the following chart demonstrates. The percentages represent the

number of students taking the course that earned a failing grade and, therefore did not

receive credit for this required course.

55
 Failure Rates

00-01 01-02 02-03

English 32.7% 30% 3.2%

Science 33% 23.5% 14.7%

Social Studies 28% 28% 17.9%

Algebra 28% 33% 17.9%

The decreasing number of failures, combined with the improved attendance rate

and improved success on the proficiency tests, were a large factor in improving the

matriculation rate. The matriculation rate for the Freshman Success Academy is defined

as the number of students who received enough credits to make them legitimate

sophomores at the end of their freshman year. The matriculation rate for East High

School freshman improved from 52 percent at the end of the 2001-02 school year to 68

percent at the end of the 2002-03 school year.

There were some other statistics that were indicative of the large number of

students who succeeded in the F.S.A. atmosphere. There were 180 freshman enrolled in

the F.S.A. Of those students, an average of 7 percent earned a 4.0 G.P.A. (straight A’s)

each of the nine-week grading periods. An average of 15 percent earned at least a 3.5

G.P.A. each nine-week grading period. An average of 44 percent earned at least a 3.0

56
each nine-week grading period which placed them on the school’s honor roll. These

numbers indicate that a large number of students thrived while enrolled in the F.S.A.

Statistics Comparing East High School with the State of Ohio Disaggregated by

Race

The following statistics were generated through the Ohio Department of

Education website. The website makes available data and a statistic-generating program

called Microstrategy. This program contains data from the State of Ohio, Ohio’s schools,

and school districts, and it allows generation of comparative statistics. The address for

the website is www.ilrc.ode.state.oh.us/Microstrategy.

Attendance Rates Results Disaggregated by Race

Attendance Rate – Building and District

East High School Attendance Rate Columbus Public Schools Attendance

Rate by Race

2000-01 2002-03 2000-01 2002-03

78.5* 86.6* White 89.9 93.3

Black 90.4 92.7

*East High School’s racial composition is almost 100% Black

57
 Attendance Rate – State of Ohio

2000-01 2002-03

White 94.5 White 94.5

Black 91.2 Black 93.1

The achievement gap is not obviously reflected in the attendance rates at the

district and state level. There is a noticeable gap between students who attend East High

School (almost exclusively African-American) and all the other White students in the

State of Ohio. There is a significant decrease in this achievement gap during the time

between the 2000-01 and the 2002-03 school years. The gap decreased from 16 percent

during the 2000-01 school year to 7.9 percent during the 2002-03 school year. The

increase in attendance at East High School may partially account for the increased

academic achievement.

Proficiency Results Disaggregated by Race

The following chart shows the results of all five parts of the Ohio Ninth Grade

Proficiency Tests for 2000-01 and 2002-03. It compares the freshman students attending

58
 East High School (comprised of almost all African-Americans) with both the Black and

White students across the State of Ohio.

East High School State of Ohio – State of Ohio –

Black Students White Students

2000-01 2002-03 2000-01 2002-03 2000-01 2002-03

Writing 76% 91% 80% 80% 94% 90%

Reading 69% 79% 76% 75% 94% 90%

Math 35% 54% 38% 42% 79% 78%

Citizenship 55% 70% 59% 62% 87% 86%

Science 37% 46% 46% 48% 85% 81%

The results indicate that gains were made over these years in decreasing the

achievement gap between White and African-American students. As previously stated,

the academy structure significantly improved the results in every area within the school.

The results also indicate that the school made more progress in each area when compared

to the other Black students in the State of Ohio. In fact, East High freshman had

considerably more students pass each area of the proficiency test in 2002-03 except for

the science section in 2002-03 than did all of the other Black students across the State of

Ohio.

59
 It is necessary to examine the effect the academy structure at East High School

had on the achievement gap between African-American and White students. The

achievement gap decreased in every subject area of the Ohio Ninth Grade Proficiency

Test. In fact, in the writing section the African-American students at East High School

surpassed the number of White students passing this portion of the test. In Reading, the

gap decreased from 25 percent in 2000-01 to 11 percent in 2002-03. In the Math section,

the achievement gap lessened from 44 percent in 2000-01 to 24 percent in 2002-03. In

the Citizenship portion of the test, the gap was decreased by half when it went from 32

percent in 2000-01 to 16 percent in 2002-03. Finally, in the science section, the gap,

while it remains very large, did decrease from 48 percent in 2000-01 to 35 percent in

2002-03. The achievement gap between Black and White students was reduced, and in

one section eliminated, in all areas of the Ohio Ninth Grade Proficiency Test at East High

School.

Significance of the Results

These results were significant in demonstrating the effectiveness of the academy

structure in reducing the achievement gap between African-American and White

students. The major change that occurred at East High School between the two years

being compared was the implementation and the functionality of the Freshman Success

Academy.

60
Chapter 4: Perspectives, Conclusions, and Recommendations

There are five different groups of people affected by the academy model: the

teachers, the school administrators, the parents, the students, and the researchers.

Perspectives and conclusions from each group will be disclosed.

Perspectives and Conclusions of the Teachers

The Teacher Questionnaire (Appendix L) was given to seven public school

teachers who were directly involved with the Freshman Success Academy at East High

School. The teachers who shared their responses have been teaching for the following

number of years: 30, 1, 1, 6, 15, 32, and 7. There were two teachers that indicated they

have 6 years experience in an academy setting, and the rest had 3 years experience in the

academy structure. Their responses will be shared.

Question: “What are the positive aspects, if any, of teaching in an academy?”

The teacher all related how the community of teachers with shared expectations

and students allows cross-referencing and cohesiveness with one another. It allows

teachers to be unified in dealing with achievement and discipline issues. The common

planning time is important to allow time to discuss concerns. The teachers indicated they

learn much more about their students in an academy setting. They said students having

the same teachers and traveling from class to class with the same group of fellow students

61
is a positive aspect. Having common goals helps to unify the teachers. Support is natural

when the expectations are the same. Another positive aspect mentioned is the

relationships developed with the other teachers that are in the academy.

Question: “What are the negative aspects, if any, of teaching in an academy?”

Many of the teachers indicated that the negative aspects related to time issues.

Meetings absorb a large amount of the teachers planning time throughout the week.

Phone calls every two weeks to a different group of parents can also take up time. The

other issue that seemed to resonate among several of the teachers was that of

interpersonal relationships among the team members. It takes a large amount of

cooperation, flexibility, and good communication in order for the team of teachers to

function together cohesively. If a teacher is assigned to this teaching position and does

not buy in to the concept, they will have a hard time working in the team structure. There

also was mentioned a concern that the older, veteran teachers’ opinions are not

considered and valued as much as some of the younger team members.

Question: “How does the academy structure affect student attendance and

achievement?”

The teachers stressed the importance of the common planning time in order to

accomplish several goals. Attendance can be checked between teachers on a daily basis

to see which students are attending some classes but skipping others. The time together

62
enables teachers to have a stronger more unified message to the students. The common

planning time is also used to bring in parents of students who are struggling academically

or behaviorally and meet with all the teachers at once. The students understand that the

teachers communicate regularly and that if there is a problem there will be a parent

conference either by phone or in person. Another reason for the increased attendance is

the positive relationships that are formed between the students and the teachers. Some

teachers mentioned that while some progress has been made in the area of attendance,

more work can still be done across the board to improve this area. Higher achievement is

encouraged through the positive rewards recognizing the achievement.

Question: “What advice do you have for other teachers working in an academy

structure?”

Buying into the concept completely and communicating clearly are the two points

of emphasis expressed by the teachers. If a teacher does not buy in to or agree with the

concept of the academy structure, they will become problematic. It is important to be a

team player and do your part in helping the academy to be successful. Do not be afraid to

speak up and share ideas. When ideas are communicated, it is important to value all

input from every team member. Patience is an important attribute when working with

other people. Communicate, communicate, communicate and work, work, work, were

also included in the comments. Administrative support is a necessary ingredient for a

successful academy.

63
 Question: “What conclusions have you drawn in regards to the academy structure

at East High School?”

The additional support provided to the freshman is crucial in making the transition

into high school. It only works well if the teachers buy into the cooperative work

structure of the academy. It is the best solution for a very difficult environment. The

goals are accomplished much easier with a unified team working towards them, but

differences in expectations can cause problems in reaching a consensus. Beware of old

vs. young sentiments or any other issues that can divide rather than unify the team. The

4X4 block schedule helps bring academic success to the urban setting.

Perspectives and Conclusions of the School Administrators

The school administrator questionnaire (Appendix M) was given to two public

school administrators who are directly involved in the Freshman Success Academy at

East High School. They are the principal of the school who has been an administrator for

22 years, 15 in an academy school and 7 in non-academy schools, and the assistant

principal responsible for the freshman who has 13 years, 7 of those years in an academy

school, of school administration experience.

Question: “What are the critical components that must be in place within a school

in order for the academy structure to be successful?”

64
 1) Common planning time for core academic teachers in every academy is

essential.

2) A schedule that works and is true to the academy model.

3) A committed teaching staff is essential for success. Teacher buy-in and

commitment.

4) Support from the business community.

5) Support from higher education.

6) Work based learning.

7) Mentoring program.

Question: “What are the positive aspects, if any, of the academy structure in a

school?”

The relationships promoted in the academy structure seems to be the center of

many of the positive aspects relating to this model. They include small learning

communities with a common core of caring teachers. In these communities, the teachers

and students can work together with a common goal. There is a practical focus for the

staff and students. Mentoring, internships, and college opportunities in a chosen field

while the students are still in high school are all positive parts of the academy model.

Also, there is real career exploration that takes place naturally within the application of

the academies.

65
 Question: “What are the negative aspects, if any, of the academy structure in a

school?”

The scheduling is much more complicated than the traditional school schedule.

Non-cooperative team members can also end up being a negative aspect in the academy.

The principal replied that there are no negative aspects associated with the academy

model.

Question: “In your experience, how does the academy structure affect the

attendance and achievement of the students?”

The teacher/student/parent relationship enhanced in the academy structure

positively affects the attendance rate. There is a feeling of “togetherness” that is

promoted. So, when the academy model is implemented correctly, attendance and

achievement will significantly improve.

Question: “What are your concluding thoughts with regard to the academy school

structure?”

This is the only way to go in a large urban school. If students feel welcomed and

engaged both academically and socially, they have a much greater chance of being

successful.

66
 “When implemented correctly, it is a way of providing students a supportive

environment that allows them to bridge the gap between school and the working world.

It allows for the practical application of the academies in a nurturing, caring

environment.”

Perspectives and Conclusions of Students

Ten students who had completed the Freshman Success Academy during the

2002-03 school year were chosen to receive and fill out the student questionnaire

(Appendix O). They were also given a copy of the parent survey for their parents to fill

out. They were promised a pizza party at lunch if they returned the questionnaires by a

certain time. 8 of the 10 questionnaires were completed. The students included six boys

and two girls. Their responses are summarized and shared here.

Question: “Describe what things you liked, if any, about the Freshman Success

Academy?”

There were several different things that the students mentioned liking in the

Freshmen Success Academy. They enjoyed the strong relationships that they developed

with their freshman teachers. They liked the fact that if they did not understand

something academically, there was always extra help available. They felt the teachers

“broke things down” and made them easier to understand. Learning was more fun, and

they learned more than they have ever learned before. The students also expressed that

67
they could get help with things other than just academic issues – life issues. They really

liked the Cleveland trip, the projects, the end of the year picnic, and the awards

assemblies.

Question: “Describe what things you did not like, if any, about the Freshman

Success Academy?”

One student expressed that at times he did not like the added attention he

received. He said, “they are always on your back.” Another student mentioned specific

teachers they did not like or with whom they did not get along. Yet another student

expressed they did not like the other students who did not want to learn or do the work.

And several students said they liked everything about the Freshman Success Academy.

Question: “Do you feel that the Freshman Success Academy prepared you to be

successful in high school? Explain.”

Only one student responded no to this question. She said that the work was too

easy, and that they weren’t given the opportunity to work on their own like they have to

as sophomores. The other seven students responded with yeses for various reasons. One

student said that the academy allowed the majority of the freshman to mature and become

respectful of teachers. Another student said the teachers explained everything that goes

on in high school and the importance of their grades in the college process very well.

Another student made reference to the extra help available when he had trouble

understanding. Several of the students simply said they learned a lot.

68
 Question: “What would you change, if anything, about the Freshman Success

Academy?”

One student replied that she would let the freshman students work more

independently. Another student wanted to change the t-shirts. The other six students said

that they would not change anything.

Perspectives and Conclusions of Parents

The parent questionnaire (Appendix N) was delivered to each parent by their child

who was also filling out the student questionnaire. Therefore, I received back eight

parent questionnaires which contained four questions each. The first three questions the

parent simply had to circle a response out of the following choices: I strongly agree, I

agree, I disagree, or undecided. The fourth question allowed them to share any

comments they had regarding the Freshman Success Academy. Their responses are

shared.

Question: “Did you feel as if you were regularly contacted regarding your child’s

progress?”

For this question, there were six parents who circled “I strongly agree,” one

parent who circled “I agree,” and one parent who circled “I disagree.”

69
 Question: “Did you feel more involved in your child’s education?”

On this question, there were five parents who circle “I strongly agree,” two

parents who circled “I agree,” and one parent who circled “I disagree.”

Question: “Did you think your child’s academic achievement improved in the

Freshman Success Academy?”

For this question, there were three parents that circled “I strongly agree,” four

parents that circled “I agree,” and again one parent that circled “I disagree.”

Question: “Do you have any comments regarding your child’s experience in the

Freshman Success Academy?”

One parent had a few negative comments questioning the amount of contact he

received from the teachers at regular intervals. He said that he would like earlier

notification if his son is not performing well in a class. He also questioned how students

were assigned to particular classes. Two parents commented on the great teachers in the

Freshman Success Academy. The other five parents did not make any comments.

70
Perspectives and Conclusions from Researchers

The past year and a half of researching both the achievement gap existing

between African-American and White students and possible solutions for this gap has

been encouraging, challenging, and enlightening. As a teacher of African-American

students, the researcher was challenged on a daily basis by the achievement gap. The

researcher was forced to evaluate why his students achieved at a lower level and what he

could do to improve achievement in his classroom. The findings, especially relating to

the academy structure, were encouraging in the results achieved.

The researcher became involved in teaching in the Freshman Success Academy at

East High School at the beginning of the 2002-03 school year. He had taught at East

High School for one year previous to this experience and had a total of eight years of

teaching experience.

In an urban setting, it is critical for schools to organize and structure themselves

such that the students feel welcomed and have a sense of belonging. The majority of

students come into school with many life issues that make learning more difficult.

Therefore, it is imperative for schools to have a strategy for creating a safe and loving

environment for the students. This makes the concept and model of smaller schools

within a school (academy) a logical strategy for fulfilling this strategy. In order for this

model to be successful, there must be some components in place within the school.

71
 Administrative support is a critical component in implementing a successful

academy. Scheduling is more complex to ensure that there is a common planning period

for all of the teachers within the academy. As the teachers come up with creative ideas

and integrative learning projects, the administration must be willing to work with changes

in the schedule and other issues that may arise. They must be willing to allow the caring

group of teachers to become creative in their teaching strategies. The administration

must recognize the priority that the freshman year is in helping students to transition into

high school and propelling them on to future success.

The teachers who teach in the academy are the key to forming and running a

successful academy. Teachers must buy into the team concept completely and be willing

to communicate and work closely with the other members of the team. They must truly

care for the students they are entrusted to teach. They must be willing to work above and

beyond what the contract requires for the benefit of the students. They must be willing to

spend extra time contacting parents and increasing their involvement. The teachers must

be committed to creating an environment where the students feel safe, loved, and

accepted and still emphasizing the importance of learning. Without teachers who are

committed to these things, the academy will not function any better than a traditional

school.

The vast majority of students with regular attendance in the Freshman Success

Academy experienced academic and social success. Across the board amongst the

freshman, academic achievement increased. This was reflected in the increased

72
attendance rate, increased number of students on the honor roll each nine weeks, and

increased proficiency test scores. The students received constant reminders of what

appropriate behavior and communication looked like in the classroom setting. The

expectations and consequences for inappropriate behavior were clearly explained on a

regular basis. As a result, discipline problems occurred less frequently.

The researcher has concluded that educators need to address the issue of the

achievement gap between African-American and White students by working to find

things that schools can do to raise the achievement of all students regardless of race.

Educators must evaluate the staff, policies, and procedures of their schools to see if

changes are necessary in order to increase achievement. A specific plan must be

formulated for each school and steps must be taken to implement and fulfill this plan.

The implementation process must be evaluated and tweaked on a regular basis to make

sure that the achievement of students remains the priority through each phase of reform.

Staff who are not committed to this priority must be moved on if possible. Our goal as

educators should be that there is truly no child left behind.

73
 Appendix A

Course Title
Expectations and Syllabus
Teacher’s name
Room #

Course Description: Describe the purpose of your class. (See Ms. Luaces’s Syllabus
for ideas if you’re not sure where to start. She’s got a great example!)

Goals and Objectives:

• Using bullet statements, define your goals and objectives for your class.
• Goals may be “to understand and use the five- paragraph essay”, or “to
determine the differences between truth and propaganda”.
• Objectives may be “to discuss works of fiction by different authors”, or
“to develop an understanding of slavery in America and its psychological,
social, economic, and political affects on the United States and the rest of
the world.” (Luaces, syllabus)
• Goals and objectives should also comply with proficiency standards and
SLCs (if your curriculum has them from the district).

Instructional Philosophy: Here, you will include some of the things you believe in,
such as giving equal opportunities for all students; how you will be teaching your subject
matter, such as using interdisciplinary instructional methods (cross-curriculum),
speaking, writing, reading, discussing, using media, etc.; and your assessment, such as a
straight-point scale, quizzes, notebooks, writing assignments, in-class work, and
homework.

Class Expectations:
• By using bullets, we will list our 10 values (as decided by the entire team)
also our late policy and pass policy.
• Late policy: 10 pts. for attendance every day. 5 points if student is tardy
(not in class after last bell), 0 points if student is absent. Attendance
points can not be made up. Teachers: Mark in grade book • for present,
for tardy, and X for absent.
• Pass policy: Ms. Luaces has designed sheets with 3 passes. Students will
be given one sheet per 9 weeks. If students use all 3 passes, no more are
given for the 9 weeks. If students do not use all passes, extra credit will be
given. 20 pts. for all 3 passes, 10 pts. for two passes, 5 pts. for one pass.

74
 Appendix A (cont.)
Class Supplies:
• Using bullets, list your required supplies, such as pen/pencil, paper, book,
etc.
• Ms. Heideman and Ms. Tice will be selling pencils in their rooms for .10 a
piece.

Grading Policy:
List your grading policy here. Please do not forget the 10 point per day
attendance. Remember, this can’t be made up.

Everyone on the Freshman Team will use the same scale for letter grades. List these as
follows:

A 90%-100% Student exceeded expectations. Student completed and turned in

all
homework on the scheduled due date. Student completed and
scored
highly on all exams and quizzes.

B 80%-89% Student met expectations. Student completed most (90%) of all

homework in a timely manner. Student participated in class.
Student completed and scored well on all major projects and
scored well on all exams and quizzes.

C 70%-79% Student is passing, but does not meet stated expectations. Student
completed most(80% or less) of homework assignments in a timely
manner. Student completed and scored average on 2/3 of the
major projects assigned. Student completed exams and quizzes.

D 60%-69% Student is passing, but meets very few stated expectations. Student
completed some (70%) of homework in a timely manner. Student
completed one major project. Student may be missing or earned an

75
 Appendix A (cont.)
F on 3 or more exams.

F 59% and below Student failed to meet expectations. Student did not complete
homework
projects. Student failed to complete or received a failing grade on
exams and quizzes.

Your semester grade will be an average of your grades for each grading period and the
grade you earn on your final exam. Your final exam is worth 1/9th of your final grade.
No student is excused from the final grade for any reason. (Luaces, syllabus)

Homework Expectations: List your expectations here, such as neat, on time, legible,
complete sentences, etc.

Assignment Heading: Name

Date
Class
Assignment

Make-Up Work: List your policy here. We’ve discussed only one day late work (no
end of semester crunch time), but we’ve not come to a consensus as of yet.

Major Projects: List any projects for the semester here.

76
 Appendix B

NAME__________________________________

STUDENT NUMBER #______________________

(THE FOLLOWING 4 CREDITS ARE ALL REQUIRED FOR

GRADUATION AND MUST BE TAKEN IN SUMMER IF NOT PASSED)

ALGEBRA 1 (1 credit) earned failed currently taking PROFICIENCIES

PASSED
th
19 C. HISTORY (1 credit) earned failed currently taking WRITING_________
READING_________
LITERATURE (1 credit) earned failed currently taking MATH____________
CITIZENSHIP_____
PHYS. SCIENCE (1 credit) earned failed currently taking SCIENCE_________

************************************************************************
(ELECTIVES)
ART (1 credit) earned failed currently taking
BAND (1 credit) earned failed currently taking
CAREER CONNECTIONS (1/2 credit) earned failed currently taking
CBI (1 credit) earned failed currently taking
CHORUS (1 credit) earned failed currently taking
COMPUTER LITERACY (1/2 credit) earned failed currently taking
FOREIGN LANGUAGE (1 credit) earned failed currently taking
HEALTH (1/4 credit) earned failed currently taking
HUMAN RELATIONS (1/2 credit) earned failed currently taking
JOBS FOR GRADS (1 credit) earned failed currently taking
MUSIC SURVEY (1 credit) earned failed currently taking
ON YOUR OWN (1/2 credit) earned failed currently taking
P.E (1/4 credit) earned failed currently taking
ROTC (1 credit) earned failed currently taking
SCAN-TEK (1 credit) earned failed currently taking
THEATER SURVEY (1 credit) earned failed currently taking

77
 Appendix B (cont.)
************************************************************************
FIRST SEMESTER TOTAL = ____________
SECOND SEMESTER TOTAL = ____________

FRESHMAN YEAR TOTAL = _________

NINTH GRADERS NEED THE TOP 4 CLASSES AND AT LEAST 1

ELECTIVE CREDIT FOR A TOTAL OF 5 CREDITS TO BE A
SOPHOMORE
************************************************************************
THESE ARE CLASSES THAT ARE REQUIRED FOR A HIGH SCHOOL DIPLOMA:
ENGLISH (4) SCIENCE (3) TECHNOLOGY (1) FOREIGN LANGUAGE (3)
HISTORY (3) P.E.(1/2) INTERNSHIP (1) MATH (3) OTHER ELECTIVES (3)

78
 Appendix C

TEAM MEETINGS

The East High School Freshman Success

Academy will hold team meetings every Tuesday
and Thursday at 1:00 in room #002. All team
members are expected to attend all meetings.
There may be a need to have an additional
meeting day, but very seldom.
Data will be turned in at the beginning of
each Tuesday’s meetings. We will rotate duties
of taking notes at all meetings. These notes will
accompany the data that is turned into the
central office.
These meetings will cover all team issues,
conduct student contract meetings and plan
events. Please plan on approximately one hour
for each meeting. Occasionally, we will have
guest speakers and/or administration help us
become more of a “team”.

79
 Appendix D

PHONE CALLS AND

PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT

The East High School Freshman Success Academy will repeatedly

attempt to meet and involve each parent. We believe that strong parent

involvement is key to student achievement, appropriate behavior and the

overall success of our students and ultimately our program.

Teachers will be required to reach each parent (not

an answering machine) of a designated group of
students every two weeks.
These phone calls and/or home visits will be
documented and a component of our data collection
process and turned in weekly.
The content of these phone calls will be
determined by individual teachers and any team events
held. The initial phone call must only contain positive
feedback and introductory comments. Please see
administration if you need support on negative behavior
prior to your first call. Or, hurry and get all calls in
prior to any difficulties☺!

80
 Appendix E

DATA COLLECTION

The East High School Freshman Success

Academy Teachers will have to collect data for
each student each week. Teachers will need to
keep accurate attendance records, grade
updates, document parent phone calls, track
conferences (with students and/or parents), list
proficiency areas passed, and record students
removed from the learning environment.
This data will need to be reported to the lead
teacher at the beginning of Tuesday’s team
meeting. Data collection will be a necessary
component in evaluating our successes as well
as our students. We will have a building data
coordinator that may also request additional
information and assist us interpreting the
information.
Data collection is not simply “busy work” but
will enable our academy to identify both
strengths and weaknesses for continued
improvement.

81
 Appendix F

Data Collection Sheet

Meeting Date__________ Teacher_________________________

Team A or B

# of Students on Block Two Roster _____________

# of Absences in Block Two _____________

Total # of Phone Calls Made _____________

Total # of Student Conferences _____________

Total # of Parent Conferences _____________

Total # of Resource People Used _____________

Total # of Present Student Minutes

Outside Learning Environment _____________

# of Students with Grade of A or B _____________

# of Students with Grade of F _____________

Concerns:

82
 Appendix G

TICKET INCENTIVE
PROGRAM

The East High School Freshman Success

Academy will employ a ticket incentive program.
Each teacher will be given tickets weekly that
may be given out as deemed necessary. Please
give out all tickets weekly.
Students are responsible for writing their
name on the ticket and placing it in the can in
Ms Heideman’s room #2 (for team A) and Ms.
Luaces’s room #29 (for team B). Team members
will draw weekly winners at team meetings.
Winners will be announced in classes and
allowed to choose one item from the prize
drawer. Teachers will be responsible for helping
their respective teams stock the prize drawer
with various items.

83
 Appendix H

ASSEMBLIES

The East High School Freshman Success Academy is

committed to honoring students and acknowledging
accomplishments and marked improvement (no matter how small
it may be ☺). Each nine weeks, teachers will nominate students
in the following areas:
110% effort
Most improved
Perfect attendance
Scholar (this is done with GPA)
Outstanding student (not just GPA)
Each nomination will be called to the stage and receive a
certificate and a small award. This usually consists of a free food
coupon. Each category will also have a winner that will receive a
certificate, their name displayed in a plaque, a star student t-
shirt and a prize. The prizes will hopefully be donated and can
range from a backpack to a CD walkman.
Teachers will need to nominate and vote on each category.
Teachers also will help complete certificates and participate in
each assembly. The 2nd and 4th assemblies will also include
students being rewarded for each individual area they pass on
proficiency.
These assemblies not only honor students and raise self-
esteem, they teach appropriate behavior and connect with
parents in a positive manner. Hopefully, we can feature a guest
feature at each assembly also.
Teachers will need to help request donated items for each
assembly to defer costs. Parents will also be notified about each
assembly.

84
 Appendix I

Follow Me To Honor Roll Certificate

Follow Me To Honor Roll

HONOR ROLL STUDENT:

I WOULD LIKE TO SPONSOR A FELLOW FRESHMAN

STUDENT TO JOIN ME ON THE HONOR ROLL FOR THE SECOND GRADING PERIOD.

SPONSORED STUDENT:
INITIALS OF ACCEPTANCE:

I WILL REMAIN ON THE HONOR ROLL AND WILL PULL A CLASSMATE ON WITH ME.

Follow Me To Honor Roll

HONOR ROLL STUDENT:

I WOULD LIKE TO SPONSOR A FELLOW FRESHMAN

STUDENT TO JOIN ME ON THE HONOR ROLL FOR THE SECOND GRADING PERIOD.

SPONSORED STUDENT:
INITIALS OF ACCEPTANCE:

I WILL REMAIN ON THE HONOR ROLL AND WILL PULL A CLASSMATE ON WITH ME.

85
 Appendix J

Phone Log Sheet

Freshman Success Academy Phone Log

Student Name__________________________ Team A or B

Phone #_____________________ Alternate #______________________

Contact Person______________________
Best Time to Call____________________
Sections of the Proficiency Passed (check all that apply): W__R__M__C__S__

Teacher: Date: Person spoken to: Topics discussed:

86
 Appendix K

Freshman Academy Student Success Contract

Student’s Name:___________________ Date:________ Scheduled Review Date:_____

Student’s Strengths: 1)_____________________ 3)______________________

2)_____________________ 4)______________________

Signatures:________________________ _____________________________
________________________ _____________________________
________________________ _____________________________
________________________ _____________________________

Student Goal Steps to meet goal Responsible Party Progress at Review

A. 1
2
3
4
B. 1
2
3
4
C. 1
2
3
4

87
 Appendix L

Teacher Questionnaire

Thank you for sharing your time with me. I am in my final phase of writing my graduate thesis on the topic
of the achievement gap between African-American and White students. My study has centered on the
academy reform model and how it affects the achievement gap. Use the back of the questionnaire if
needed. Please return the completed form to me. Names are optional.

1. About how long have you been teaching?

_____ years teaching in an academy structure
_____ years teaching in a non-academy structure
_____ total years teaching
2. What are the positive aspects, if any, of teaching in an academy?

3. What are the negative aspects, if any, of teaching in an academy?

4. How does the academy structure affect student attendance and achievement?

5. What advice do you have for other teachers working in an academy structure?

6. What conclusions have you drawn in regards to the academy structure at East
High School?

88
 Appendix M

School Administrator Questionnaire

Thank you for sharing your valuable time with me. I am in my final phase of writing my graduate thesis on
the topic of the achievement gap between African-American and White students. My study has centered on
the academy reform model and how it affects the achievement gap. Use the back of the questionnaire if
needed. Please return the completed form to me. Names are optional.

1. About how long have you been a school administrator?

_____ years administrating in an academy school
_____ years administrating in a non-academy school
_____ total years as an administrator

2. What are the critical components that need to be in place within a school in order
for the academy structure to be successful?

3. What are the positive aspects, if any, of the academy structure in a school?

4. What are the negative aspects, if any, of the academy structure in a school?

5. In your experience, how does the academy structure affect the attendance and
achievement of the students?

6. What are your concluding thoughts with regard to the academy school structure?

89
 Appendix N

Parent Questionnaire

Thank you for taking the time to complete this questionnaire. I am in the final stage of writing my graduate
thesis examining the effectiveness of the academy structure in reducing the achievement gap between
African-American and White students. Please return this form to me. This form is referring to your child’s
freshman year at East High School.

Name:_____________________________ Child’s Name:________________________

Date:________________________

Please circle the reply that best describes your experience last year:

1. Did you feel as if you were regularly contacted regarding your child’s progress?

a. I strongly agree
b. I agree
c. I disagree
d. Undecided

2. Did you feel more involved in your child’s education?

a. I strongly agree
b. I agree
c. I disagree
d. Undecided

3. Did you think that your child’s academic achievement improved in the Freshman
Success Academy?

a. I strongly agree
b. I agree
c. I disagree
d. Undecided

4. Do you have any comments regarding your child’s experience in the Freshman
Success Academy?

90
 Appendix O

Student Questionnaire

Thank you for taking the time to fill out this questionnaire. This is to help me to finish
writing a thesis on the Freshman Success Academy. Please return this form to me. Use
the back of the form if you need more space.

Name:________________________________ Date:_____________________

1. Describe what things you liked, if any, about the Freshman Success Academy?

2. Describe what things you did not like, if any, about the Freshman Success
Academy?

3. Do you feel that the Freshman Success Academy prepared you to be successful in
high school? Explain.

4. What would you change, if anything, about the Freshman Success academy?

91
References:

Alson, A. (2003). The Minority Student Achievement Network. Educational

Leadership, pp. 76-78.

Baranchik, A., & Cherkas, B. (2002). Identifying gaps in mathematics preparation that

contribute to ethnic, gender, and American/foreign differences in precalculus

performance. Journal of Negro Education, 71, pp. 253-267.

Borja, R. (2002). ‘Achievement Gap’ is International Problem, UNICEF Analysis Says.

Education Week, 22, p. 10.

Borman, G. (2003). How can Title 1 improve achievement? Educational Leadership, pp.

49-53.

Cheng, S., & Starks, B. (2002). Radical differences in the effects of significant others on

students’ educational expectations. Sociology of Education, 75, pp. 306-327.

Codding, J., Tucker, M. (2000). A new high school design focused on performance: part

1. NASSP Bulletin, pp. 79-92.

Corbett, D., Wilson, B. (2002). What urban students say about good teaching.

Educational Leadership, pp. 18-22.

Darling-Hammond, L. (1997). The Right to Learn. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Elliott, M., Lawrence, M., & Gilroy, C. (2002). Career Academies: Additional Evidence

of Positive Student Outcomes. Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk,

7(1), pp 71-90.

Gehring, J. (2002). Ohio Faces up to New Achievement Data. Education Week, pp. 20-

23.

Gilroy, M. (2002). Waking up students’ math/science attitudes and achievement. The

92
 Education Digest, pp. 39-44.

Hammersley, M. (2001). Interpreting Achievement Gaps: Some Comments on a

Dispute. British Journal of Educational Studies, 3, 285-298.

Hanser, L., & Robyn, A. (2000). Implementing High School JROTCCAreer Academies

((MR-741-OSD). Santa Monica, CA: RAND.

Haycock, K. (2001). Closing the Achievement Gap. Educational Leadership, pp. 6-11.

Heimel, C. (2003). Teacher Quality Said Key in Closing Achievement Gap. Reading

Today, p. 18.

Hrabowski, F. (2003). Raising minority achievement in science and math. Educational

Leadership, pp. 44-48.

Jerald, C., & Ingersoll, R. (2002). All Talk, No Action: Putting an End to Out-of Field

Teaching. Retrieved July 19, 2003, from http://www.edtrust.org.

Jordan, W., McPartland, J., Legters, N., & Balfanz, R. (2000). Creating a

Comprehensive School Reform Model: the Talent Development High School with

Career Academies. Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk, 5(1&2), pp.

159-181.

Kober, N. (2001). It Takes More Than Testing: Closing the Achievement Gap.

Washington, D.C.: Center on Education Policy.

Lee, J. (2002). Racial and ethnic achievement gap trends: reversing the progress toward

equity? Educational Researcher, 31, pp. 3-12.

Lee, V., & Smith, J. (1995). Effects of High School Restructuring and Size on Gains in

Achievement and Engagement for Early Secondary School Students. Sociology

Of Education, 68, pp. 241-270.

93
Lubienski, S. (2002). A closer look at Black-White mathematics gaps: intersections of

race and SES in NAEP achievement and instructional practices data. Journal of

Negro Education, 71, pp. 269-287.

Lucas, S. (1999). Tracking Inequality: Satisfaction and Mobility in American High

Schools. New York: Teachers College Press.

McCombs, B. (2000). Reducing the achievement gap. Society, pp. 29-36.

Nettles, M., Millett, C., & Ready, D. (2003). Attacking the African American – White

Achievement Gap on College Admissions Tests. Brookings Papers on Education

Policy, pp. 215-252.

Quindlen, T. (2002). Reaching minority students: strategies for closing the achievement

gap. Education Update, pp. 5-8.

Roach, R. (2001). SAT Minority Achievement Gap Persists. Black Issues in Higher

Education, p. 12.

Rutherford, M. (1998, October). How to Make a Better Student. Time Magazine, pp.

78-86.

Schreiber, J., & Chambers, E. (2002). After-school pursuits, ethnicity, and achievement

for 8th- and 10th- grade students. The Journal of Educational Research, 96, pp.

90-100.

Shorr, A., & Hon, J. (1999). They Said It Couldn’t Be Done: Implementing a Career

Academy Program for a Diverse High School Population. Journal of Education

for Students Placed at Risk, 4(4), pp. 379-391.

Slavin, R. (2001). Putting the School Back in School Reform. Educational Leadership,

pp. 22-27.

94
Spencer, M.B., Noll, E., Stoltzfus, J., & Harpalani, V. (2001). Identity and school

adjustment: revisiting the “acting white” assumption. Educational Psychologist,

36, pp. 21-30.

Stern, D., Raby, M., & Dayton, C. (1992). Career Academies: Partnerships for

Restructuring American High Schools. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Taylor, K. (2003). Through the Eyes of the Students: African American Students Offer

Personal Insights into Reasons for the Minority Achievement Gap. Educational

Leadership, pp. 72-75.

The Education Trust. (winter, 2002-2003). Education Watch – Ohio – Key Education

Facts and Figures. Retrieved July 19, 2003, from http://www.edtrust.org.

95
 VITA

Eric William Reini grew up in a few different locations as a child, but spent most

of his time in Lewiston, NY. His family moved to Toledo, Oh when he was in high

school. His parents are George and Janet Reini. He is the oldest of five children. His

sister, Noelle is married with two children and is an administrator of a daycare in

Columbus Grove, OH. His brother, Seth, is currently working on his PhD in Research

Biology at the University of Florida in Gainesville, FL. His other two sisters, Megan and

Bethany, are in the 12th and the 8th grade respectively.

Eric came to know the Lord as her personal Savior at the age of six. His

relationship with Christ and the church have been important priorities throughout his life.

Today, he is actively involved in Delaware Bible Church where he serves as a Home

Church leader and is involved in children’s ministries.

Eric graduated from Emmanuel Baptist High School in Toledo, OH in 1991. He

attended Cedarville University and majored in Mathematics Secondary Education. He

played soccer for four years at Cedarville. It was his senior year that he met his wife,

Diana. He graduated in 1995, and a year later they were married.

After graduation, Eric took a job teaching math and coaching soccer at Delaware

Christian School. In addition to teaching, he took on administrative responsibilities

including at various times athletic director, chapel coordinator, and guidance counselor.

96
After six years at Delaware Christian, Eric switched over to the public school arena

where he accepted a job as math teacher at East High School in Columbus, OH. He is in

his third year at East.

Eric and Diana have two daughters, Petra Grace – age 3 and Katriella Joy – age 1.

Diana stays at home caring for the daughters and the home.

97