Journal of Advances and Scholarly Researches in Allied Education

Vol. 13, Issue No. 1, April-2017, ISSN 2230-7540

Feminism or Nationalism: Indian Women in the

20th Century

Dr. Yuthika Mishra*

Associate Professor, History, University of Delhi

Abstract – The Indian Women’s Movement can claim to be a hundred years old as of now. During a span of
a century several changes have taken place within it. Apart from several ups and downs the movement
also saw an expansion in its scope, a variation in the themes and issues tackled by it and a definite
broadening of its base over the years to include the women from all the spectrums of society. Feminism
in colonial India was essentially entwined with the issue of nationalism – an idea that was the driving
force of anti- colonial movements not only in India but other countries grappling with the juggernaut of
colonialism. The feminist movements of some of the other countries in the world are much older in terms
of being organized efforts at reform. The attempt here is to define what a ‘movement’ is and how it
emerges and then merges to attain a larger connotation of the ‘movement’.

The other emphasis in this paper is on the historiographical and ideological evolution that has taken
place in the writings on these movements both by indigenous as well as international scholars. There is
no dearth of writing and the enormous amount of literature present makes the task of writing on
women’s movement extremely demanding. This paper tries to analyze, although rather briefly, the
various aspects related to the women’s movement viz. its varied achievements over the century on the
issues concerning women. As the story unfolds one gets an impression of a movement that underwent
several changes over the years not only in terms of its nature but also in terms of the ideological trends
involved namely, revivalist, reformist, nationalist, imperialist influence before independence; liberal,
Marxist and socialist during both the phases i.e. pre and post-independence period and post-
colonialists and post - modernist in the contemporary context.

Women’s movement forms a part of the larger social movements which are understood by sociologists
as a type of group action undertaken by large groups of individuals or organizations focused on specific
political or social issues. This is a key word used by the political scientists and sociologists to describe
the mobility of the newly emergent forces prodded on by the 19th century forces of industrialization and
urbanization. They have developed a variety of theories and empirical research on social movements
which argue that the freedom of expression, education and economic independence, considered as the
hallmarks of Western culture are responsible for the variety and flagrancy of the social movements.

-----------------------------------X----------------------------------

HISTORIOGRAPHY same. For instance, the contest over what is public

and what is private, the position of women as
Any attempt at examining the historiography involves compared to the rest of the society and across
theoretical issues. The women‘s movements the groups like race, caste and community are issues
world over had to grapple with the various conceptual more or less common to both the hemispheres.
frameworks prevalent over different periods of time. This appears to make the task of globalizing of
For instance in the US , the left termed it a bourgeois women‘s issues much easier although in one‘s
struggle as different from ‗the true class struggle‘ and enthusiasm it should not be forgotten that women
the right called it a ‗socialist disease‘. There have of the world do not constitute a homogenous
been several similarities as well as dissimilarities category. The very common counter argument for
between the women‘s movements of the world which this statement is that even if they are not a uniform
are evident from the works of feminist scholars, group there is one aspect which is common and
which also bears witness to the multiplicity of feminist that stems from their being women.
www.ignited.in

1
theories. There is a vast plethora of problems and
the nature of these problems also has remained the Here, an attempt has been made to delineate the
major theories that appear to influence Indian
1
Kachuck Beatrice, ‗Feminist Social Theories: Themes and
Women‘s history writing although by no means
Variations‘, Sociological Bulletin, 44(2), September 1995. they are followed rigidly. On the contrary any

Dr. Yuthika Mishra*

1241
 th
Feminism or Nationalism: Indian Women in the 20 Century

attempt to classify Indian Women‘s historiography by the social reforms led to the rise of women's
into slots is replete with difficulties often resulting in movement in early 20th century, which allied with the
failure because in India there has always been more movement for national liberation after the 1920s. An
emphasis on issue based struggle and activism assessment of the Indian and World women's
instead of on developing of theoretical perspectives. movement shows that there was a marked difference
But more recently this trend is changing in favour of in the problems and issues taken up by each. While
increasing theorization in order to assist action-based the latter was initially concerned with issue such as
programmes that form the backbone of women‘s education, voting rights, prohibition and temperance
movement in India. The best approach would be to the former was engaged with different concerns like
bring together the best of both the worlds in order to sati, widowhood, child marriage, female education
2
enrich both. and so on. Generally, the emphasis was on the
upliftment of women from the degenerated conditions
The major historiographical trends that are generally in to which they had sunk.
used by feminists are Marxism, socialism, feminist
liberalism (that appear to encompass nationalism Another noticeable change that was visible was the
and imperialism within its fold), essentialism and increasing participation of women by the early and
post- structuralism, post- modernism, post- more so by the mid-20th century so much that by
colonialism combine. Feminist liberalism is the most now it has assumed a thoroughly organized colour
sought after concept the world over as is believed it and has become a major social pressure group.
allows for the growth of personality and development. Several new issues emerged by this time like the
Essentialists on the other hand lay emphasis on the women‘s reservation Bill, the right to property for
essential differences of women from men, who might women, the bill on violence against women and
be superior according to some. Socialists and many more. The momentum provided by the socio-
Marxists see it essentially as part of the wider class political events till 1947 further provided the much
struggle and emphasize the oppression of women by needed push in the postcolonial context indeed this
men. Postmodernism rejects the belief in rational appears to be an ongoing process without which
self-functioning according to universal laws, rejects there is no possibility of any solutions or answers.
the claims of science and philosophy in providing an
objective, reliable foundation for knowledge and THE PUSH TOWARDS ‘MOVEMENT’
society and thus opens up the forum for further
debate and enquiry. Under this influence Indian In ancient India, during Vedic and post Vedic
feminism and Western feminism appear to be two periods when most of the sacred texts were written
streams of one universal phenomenon. like the Vedas, Upanishads, Brahmans, Sutras and
Smritis, it is generally believed that women had an
3
ORGANISATIONS exalted status in society as against the argument
of some modern women scholars who have shown
The term movement denotes an organized activity that all was not always well with the lot of women in
4
undertaken with a view to achieve a set of goals or to ancient India. Most of the major changes in policy
attain certain objectives. But a ‗woman‘s movement‘ regarding women and legislation concerned with
in this sense of the word appeared, in India, only by them originated in the early 20th century. Issues
the second decade of the previous century with the like women's marriage age, property right, window
formation of such women‘s organizations like the remarriage their right to adoption and maintenance,
Woman‘s India Association in 1917 and the All India right to representation right to education and many
Women‘s Conference in 1927. However there is more were propelled by the reform movements of
more to it than meets the eye. The efforts for the previous century and started taking definite
improving women's conditions are often linked to the shape by now. A ‗women's movement‘ in India in
national movement for Indian's freedom. The the true sense of the term was actually discernible
freedom struggle led to mass mobilization of people only in the second decade of the previous century
and some great women emerged from the churning and has been linked with the women‘s
5
like Sarojini Naidu, Aruna Asaf Ali, Mridula Sarabhai organizations that came up during this period. A
and others. Another unique feature of women's look at the colonial context would help highlight the
struggle in Indian is that men made the beginnings various nuances of this problem. In the Indian set
towards reform in women's conditions as early as up the colonial era is very important and relevant. It
19th century. Popularly known as the socio-religious not only released new forces of change but also
reform movement or the Indian Renaissance, which many of the features of the Western society were
began under the influence of Western liberal
democratic ideas as well as Eastern revivalist 2
Everett, J.M., 1981 or 1979, Women and Social Change in India,
ideology, this movement covered a wide range of
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p.14.
3
socio – religious evils ailing the Indian society and Altekar, A.S., 1938, Position of Women in Hindu Civilization,
Motilal Banarasidas, Delhi, 1973.
made a breakthrough in the field of societal reforms. 4
Chakravarty, Uma, ‗Conceptualising Brahminical Patriarchy in
Early India‘, in EPW, Vol. 28, No.14, 1998.
5
While the international scene had already matured in Mishra, Yuthika,’ The Indian National Movement and Women's
terms of a women's movement the impetus provided Issues: Century of Social Reforms: 1850-1950,‘ Trends in Social
Science Research, 5 (2), Dec. 1998, pp. 47-62.

Dr. Yuthika Mishra* 1242

 Journal of Advances and Scholarly Researches in Allied Education
Vol. 13, Issue No. 1, April-2017, ISSN 2230-7540

assimilated in the Indian society, sometimes wrongly women were also changing, hence the need for
associated with modernization, giving it a new color. reforms.
Here the role of English education and socio-
religious reform movements may be mentioned for At this point it would be well to point out that British
they apparently acted as the motivators of encounter alone was not responsible for the
th
transformation. This effort created the base for a amelioration of women‘s ills. The 18 century was a
gender sensitive society, which if not missing period of major changes in India. The old order, as
previously, was dormant. symbolized by the Mughal dynasty, was crumbling
leaving space for the development of new and
th
It will be observed that change has been imminent all indigenous ideas. Thus the impact of 18 century
8
through in the Indian colonial socio-cultural set up changes combined with western rationalism. It is
and was carried out in the form of reform and revival argued that the early attempts at reforms were not so
movements. Women‘s issues formed the main plank much the outcome of Western liberal or rationalist
of the nineteenth century socio-religious reform values, but more an expression of some ‗acute
movements that are considered as one of the problems of interpersonal adjustments within the
hallmarks of modern India. It is generally believed family among the western –educated men‘.
th
that with the arrival of the British in the mid-18 Tampering with socially imposed boundaries is
century, which is also considered as the period of very obvious from the statement where it is said
beginning of modern India, things took a turn for the that changing social norms drove them to a ‗limited
better for the Indian women. Several changes also and controlled emancipation of wives as a personal
9
took place in the socio- political and economic set up, necessity for survival in a hostile social world.‘
which were the direct result of a complex interplay of Apparently, nationalism took up women‘s issues
indigenous forces and the forces of British impact. selectively. This explains to some extent the
The Indian response to the imperial stimulus was the disappearance of women‘s issues from the
Indian National Movement, by no means an isolated nationalist agenda in the beginning of the twentieth
phenomenon, which grew in the first half of the century and its subsequent refusal to take up
twentieth century. This movement, for the first time women‘s issues for negotiation with the colonial
10
saw the shattering of community identities and their state. While nationalism provided an opportunity
social boundaries. Despite the differences of caste, for Indian women to come out from private sphere
class, gender and community the struggle for into public, at the same time it limited the extent of
national liberation brought various groups together ‗their rights and opportunities outside their homes‘.
with the common objective of banishing the enemy. However, women were equal partners in the
freedom struggle and they took part alongside
The position of Indian women was affected in a big men. It has been aptly remarked that women,
way by the British influences and ideologies like the ‗played a pioneering role in changing the image of
Anglicist, Orientalist and Utilitarians. The status of woman without consciously emphasising on
women in Indian society began to -concern many gender. In as orthodox a country as India, these
th
especially during the 19 century. Several social women showed that a woman's place was not just
practices like the Purdah, Polygamy, female inside the home; that women could fight shoulder
infanticide and sati were criticized. Women‘s property to shoulder with men in the streets and in the
rights, child marriage, lack of female education, battlefields. But these women saw themselves as
widowhood and practices which debarred women freedom fighters first, and only then, if at all, as
from public life were questioned mainly in the second women. They did not seek any special privileges or
half of this century. In India social reforms in the considerations. It was by their actions and their
nineteenth century led to the rise of a ‗women‘s courage that they gained the respect of their male
11
movement‘ in early twentieth century, which in turn comrades, and inspired countless women.‘
allied, with the movement for national liberation after
6 th
the 1920s. It has been argued that they both drew By the second decade of the 20 century things
from the strength of each other. changed with the emergence of Mahatma Gandhi.
Known for his simplicity, charisma and self-control,
A review of recent research done on this subject his creed of Satyagraha (soul force) and ahimsa
throws up many new and diverse viewpoints. (non- violence) turned the nationalist struggle into a
According to one of them the reform movement mass movement. Women had started participating
played an important part in the formation of a new set in the national movement on a large-scale way
of patriarchal gender-based relations, essential for a
7
society with a majority of middle class in it. The 8
Ray and Sarkar, 1975, Raja Ram Mohun Roy and the Break with
society at this juncture was changing. Western ideas the Past.
9
and influences were reformulating the middle- class Sumit Sarkar, 1973, The Complexities of Young Bengal, pp. 504-
www.ignited.in

set up. Hence the demands of such a society on 534.

10
Chatterjee, 1989, The Nationalist Resolution of the Women
Question, pp.233-253.
6 11
Chaudhuri, 1993, Indian Women’s Movement, p. 9. Chatterjee, Manini, 1930: Turning Point, Social Scientist, 2001,
7
Radha Kumar, 1993, The Historyof Doing, pp.8-10. pp. 39-47.

Dr. Yuthika Mishra*

1243
 th
Feminism or Nationalism: Indian Women in the 20 Century

back in 1905, when they protested against the of women and it presupposes sensitivities to crucial
partition of Bengal, but with the emergence of issues affecting the life of woman‘. She thus
Gandhi, women from all sections of society joined the recognizes the importance of 'Some unifying
movement in thousands. Historians in different hues ideological thread for various units, in order to
15
have analyzed this broadening of the horizons of achieve set goals.‘
women in the wake of the national movement and
the subsequent appearance of Gandhi, acting as the Similarly Gail Omvedt has classified women's
cementing force between the two. Some believe that movements into two types, one, women's equality
Gandhi‘s approach to women was ‗revolutionary‘ and movements and two, women's liberation movements.
he greatly contributed towards raising their status The former never challenged the existing structure
thus placing them on an equal footing with men. and aimed at equality for women within it, whereas
Another group believes that ‗Gandhi used women as the latter directly challenged the sexual division of
12 16
politically expedient tools.‘ At one place Gandhi labour in the society. Jana Everett classified these
remarked:‗ Woman is the companion of man gifted movements on the basis of two different ideologies of
with equal mental capacities…By sheer force of feminism, namely corporate feminism, which assigns
vicious custom, even the most ignorant and a greater role to women in politics because of the
worthless men have been enjoying a superiority over very fact that they are women and liberal feminism,
women which they do not deserve and ought not to which claims that since women are equal to men
13 17
have.‘ they should have the same rights. Some of the
Indian feminists have categorized the women's
By the second decade of the century the reforming movements on the basis of their approach towards
efforts of previous century bore fruit and women also the unequal position of women in the contemporary
came forward to take up their own cause. Along with society and the ways to liberate them from
women‘s organisations several prominent reformers subjugation. These categories are viz. those that
also took up issues like women‘s education, marriage are Moderate on women's rights and those that are
18
law reforms, women‘s property rights, the right to known as Radical feminists and Social feminists.
divorce and the provision for civil marriage. Often the They make a distinction of women's movements
interests of nationalists clashed with those of the into two theoretical categories: first emphasizes the
reformers and it was foregone conclusion that the modernization of patriarchal mode of regulating
former would always score over the latter. 1940s saw women and the second stresses the democratizing
the next phase of hectic reforming activity concerning of gender relations in both the private and the
the Hindu Code Bill, which covered most of the major public spaces. They also emphasize the greater
issues effecting Hindu women. Community identity democratizing role of lower class movements.
played a strong role in determining the nature of Efforts has also been made by some scholars to
these issues in post-independence India. While this divide these movements into periods or waves, like
codification remained confined to the Hindus, the the social reform movement during the freedom
more orthodox among them delayed its enactment till struggle, the movements from 1947 to 1975 the
1955-56. movements that emerged during and after the
19
international women's decade, 1975-85.
PRESENT DAY CONTEXT
Major shifts in the movement could be seen
th
With political change and independence, in the mid- towards the end of the 20 century. In the 1970's
20th century, the movement and its theorization also initiatives in the area of economic development
underwent change. According to Forbian were taken by the women's movement as was
Classification this period, from 1947 to end of 20th done by other social forces too. The 1980's saw
century, may be divided into three phases. First, from cultural problems emerging like the Shah Bano
1947 to 1969 was the phase of synthesizing the past case, the Roop Kanwar Sati episode and the anti-
and assessing the then present. Second, 1970 to Sikh riots. In the 1990's, economic liberalization got
1985 focused on a critique of the present and efforts clubbed together with the Mandal agitation, the
to excavate the past and the third, 1986 to 1997 was demand for women's reservation in legislatures and
a time for questioning categories and colonial past the Ayodhya issue. Thus minority politics seemed
leading on to the post -colonial phase where the to engulf within its fold the politics of feminism,
views on Third World Women are brought under the each group taking up different issues, irrespective
14
scanner and revised. This is not a new exercise of the fact of its suitability to its womenfolk.
and different scholars have been classifying the
women's movement according to their perception
and ideological frameworks. Neera Desai observed 15
Neera Desai, 1988, A Decade of Women’s Movement in India,
that 'the women's movement is the organized effort
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p. ix.
16
to achieve a common goal of equality and liberation Gail Omvedt, 1979, We Will Smash this Prison.
17
Jana Everett, 1979, op. cit.
18
Kalpana Shah, 1984, Women’s Liberation and Voluntary Action,
12
Basu, 1995, A Nationalist Feminist: Mridula Sarabhai, p.3. Sangari and Vaid, Recasting Women, 1989.
13 19
Gandhi, 1942, Women and Social Injustice, Karuna Chanana, Kumar 1993, op.cit., Chaudhuri 1993, op. cit., Gandhi and Shah,
Gandhi, Women‘s Roles and the Freedom Movement, 1984. 1991, The Issues at Stake: Theory and Practice in the
14
Geraldine Forbes, 1999, Women in Modern India, pp. 242- 254. Contemporary Women’s Movement in India.

Dr. Yuthika Mishra* 1244

 Journal of Advances and Scholarly Researches in Allied Education
Vol. 13, Issue No. 1, April-2017, ISSN 2230-7540

In the past few decades a number of micro and 3. Basu, Aparna, 1995, A Nationalist Feminist:
macro struggles initiated by autonomous women's Mridula Sarabhai (1911-1974), Indian
groups have taken place addressing the issues and Journal of Gender Studies, 2(1), New Delhi,
questions of women's emancipating. The issues of Sage Publishers.
rape, sexual harassment in the work place, violence
against women in the family and public sphere have 4. Chakravarty, Uma, ‗Conceptualising
been on the forefront. More recently legislation is Brahminical Patriarchy in Early India‘, in
being extensively used to address issues of equal EPW, Vol. 28, No.14, 1998.
property rights, violence at home, reservation of jobs
for women for their empowerment, laws against 5. Chatterjee, Manini, 1930: Turning Point in
dowry and bride during, ban on fetal sex the Participation of Women in the Freedom
determination tests, female infanticide and so on. Of Struggle, Social Scientist , Jul. - Aug., 2001,
course the effectiveness of these is questionable but Vol. 29, No. 7/8 (Jul. - Aug., 2001), pp. 39-
they do act as protection for women to some extent. 47, Stable URL:
In the contemporary scenario identity issues have https://www.jstor.org/stable/3518124.
assumed a critical position and have impacted
women's question as well. Coherence of women as a 6. Chatterjee, Partha, 1989, The Nationalist
category has come to be debated within the Resolution of the Women Question in
movement itself. At the same time in a clash between Kumkum Sangari and Sudesh Vaid eds.
identity politics and feminist politics the solution is Recasting Women: Essays in Colonial
premised on the belief that a women's identity and History.
her rights can be disassociated from the religious,
ethnic, national or cultural context of her existence, 7. Chaudhuri, Maitreyi, 1993, Indian Women‘s
however the answers are not so simplistic. Mvement: Reform and Revival, New Delhi,
Radiant Publishers.
ENDNOTE
8. Everett, J.M., 1981 or 1979, Women and
A number of women's organizations have Social Change in India, New Delhi,
mushroomed in India with or without state support. Heritage Publishers.
With different kinds of programmes and functioning
they claim to work for the empowerment of women 9. Everett, Jana Matson, 1979, Women and
and at times are at loggerheads with each other Social Change in India, New Delhi,
posing questions and raising dilemmas for social Heritage Publishers.
scientists as to whether these multipronged and
diverse movements are strengths or weaknesses for 10. Forbes, Geraldine, 1999, Women in
the women's cause. Should they restrict their focus Modern India, South Asian Paperback Edn.
and retain their autonomy? Since there is no one New Delhi, Cambridge University Press.
single women's movement and there are varied
views on the state, the concept of equality in such 11. Gandhi, 1942, Women and Social Injustice,
diversity is justified. But it is important to bring out the Ahmedabad, Navjeevan Publishing House.
theoretical aspect that emerges from this diversity as
well as the meaning of emancipation for these 12. Gandhi, Nandita and Shah, Nandita, 1991,
groups and finally how the various theories of The Issues at Stake: Theory and Practice
women's emancipation stand challenged. In India at in the Contemporary Women‘s Movement
least it is felt that feminism has not been able to go in India, New Delhi, Kali for Women.
beyond the perspective of the middle class. So far as
the majority is concerned it remains more of an idea 13. Kachuck Beatrice, ‗Feminist Social
than a reality. Theories: Themes and Variations‘,
Sociological Bulletin, 44(2), September
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1245
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Feminism or Nationalism: Indian Women in the 20 Century

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Corresponding Author

Dr. Yuthika Mishra*

Associate Professor, History, University of Delhi

www.ignited.in

Dr. Yuthika Mishra* 1246