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BSRT

First Year-First Semester

MIDTERM COVERAGE

NAME:
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Medina College
Bulatok, Pagadian City

VISION
An educational community of men and women
dedicated to the formation of the whole person
with professional competence and commitment
to promote local, regional and national
development.

MISSION
As an institution of higher learning, the College commits itself to offer a
well-rounded program of liberal education and to provide varied
opportunities for students to grow professionally, spiritually, socially
and culturally. In the pursuit of this mission, Medina College is guided
by the following commitments:

 As a CHRISTIAN COMMUNITY it welcomes faculty, staff and

students with various religious beliefs and respects the
religious freedom of every member while providing
opportunities for them to grow in their faith life.
 As an ACADEMIC COMMUNITY, it offers quality and
responsive education to prepare its graduates for national and
global competitiveness.
 As a FILIPINO COMMUNITY, it promotes the formation of the
student’s awareness of their civic and social responsibilities and
development of the students’ pride for the nation’s rich cultural
heritage.

This instructional material was collaboratively developed and

reviewed by educators from Medina College – Pagadian City.
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Introductory Message
Hello learner!
I hope you’re ready to gain new more knowledge through this learning module.
As part of the healthcare institution, you have to think logically inside the
hospital in every decision you make to avoid risking the lives of your patients.
This learning material is made simplier and handy to let you have the
opportunity to learn at your own pace and comfort.
Please read completely the written texts and follow the instructions carefully so
that you will be able to get the most of this learning material. Enjoy learning!

Overview

This module was designed and written to help you understand

what the terms are in forming ideas, judgments and
propositions. This material covers the different kinds of terms,
elements of propositions and different rules of forming
propositions.

After going through this module, you are expected to:

1. Make your own examples of propositions
2. Determine the different kinds of terms used in different
propositions.
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MODULE

Pre-Assessment

 Answer the following by wring PT if the sentence is a Positive term and NT if the
sentence is a Negative term. Write your answer on the space provided before each
number.

______1. Irregular payment.

______2. Passion in teaching

______3. Reckless actions

______4. Love of parents

______5. Loyalty to one’s friend

______6. Hatred towards family

______7. Working passionately

______8. Sympathy for animals

______9. Understanding one’s self

______10. Absences in schools

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LESSON

Continuity

 Intended Learning Outcome:

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1. Be familiar with the meaning, forms and classification of terms;
2. Understand how the comprehension and extension of terms are related;
3. Understand the propositions and distinguish its kinds;
4. Know the natures and meaning of judgments;
5. Construct various kinds of categorical propositions.

Lesson Proper

Definition/Nature of Terms
 ‘’Term’’ is from Latin word terminus which literally means the “last element to which
a proposition may be resolved’’. It is a sign or representation of an idea or concept.
Example: ‘’Cat’’ is a sign or representation of the real thing-an animal which is four-legged,
meows and can be a pet.
In relation to inference or arguments, the ‘’term’’ is a word or arrangement of words that can
serve as the subject or predicate of a proposition which, basically is a statement of denial or
affirmation about something,
Example: ‘’ A cat is an animal’’, the words ‘’cats’’ and ‘’animals’’ are terms: ‘’cat’’ serves as the
subject-term and ‘’animal’’ as the predicate-term of the proposition.

Terms can be expressed in oral and written from:

 Oral Form – When a human voice utters a sound defined by the use of vowels and
consonants.

 Written Form – When a group of characters or letters are inscribed with the use of an
instrument (pen) on a surface or paper.
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Kinds of Terms
In logic, terms are classified according to these four perspective: 1) exactness;
2) comprehension; 3) extension; 4) opposition.

Exactness
Terms are understood based on how they manifest or express ideas.
Has 3 kinds:
Univocal Terms
Used in precisely the same sense or meaning in any given context.
Examples: Attorney (lawyer)
Metals (gold, silver, copper, lead)
Physician (doctor of medicine)
Equivocal terms
Those which are, in a given context, used in two or more different
senses or meanings.
Examples: light (as the opposite of heavy) and light (as something
produced by electricity)
Star (as a heavenly body studied in astronomy) and star (as
movie celebrity).
Press (as a media) and press (as act of pushing)
Analogous terms
Those which are used in different but related senses or meanings; their
uses are neither identical nor entirely different. It is commonly used in
figures of speech.

Examples: Hand of the clock

Eye of the needle
Ears of corn
Foot of the mountain

Comprehension
Terms are classified as positive, negative, privative, simple, complex,
concrete or abstract.
Positive terms
Those which are express an affirmation of a particular things.
Examples: Service to mankind
Dedication to one’s work
Love of God
Negative terms
Those which are express the absence (or negation) of a thing.
Examples: Unmindfulness, Negligence, Immensity (denies
measurability).
No-self, infinity (denotes the absence of limitation)
Privative terms
Those which are actually negative terms which denote the absence of
something (or a perfection) in a being which the being ought to have.
Example: Blindness (because it is a privation in a being who ought to
possess perfection of sight)
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Ignorance (because normally, one could know and should know

what he is supposed to know)
Simple terms
Those which consist of a single word.
Example: Mother Man
Fidelity Courage
Hope
Complex terms
Those which have more than one word.
Example: Sin again the holy spirit
Love of one’s parents
The President of the Republic of the Philippines
Mayor of the city of Manila
Concrete terms
Those which express concrete ideas.
Example: Head of the state Wood
Metal Man
Flower Animal
Abstract terms
Those which express abstract ideas.
Example: Metalness Woodiness
Humanity Animality
Wisdom Prudence

Extension
Terms are classified as singular, universal, indefinite, particular or
collective
Singular terms
Those which apply to only a single individual or group (taken as a
whole).
Example: This student My teacher This school
This street That house The brightest Filipino
Universal terms
Those which are used for each or for all individuals to which they
apply.
Example: Every mother All students Any teacher
Each dean All security guards
Indefinite terms
Those which do not have specific words that indicate their
extension (meaning they do not have specific quantifiers).
Example: Candidates Students Teachers
Squares Fathers
Particular terms
Those which stand for an indefinite group or individuals.
Example: Most teachers Not all squares Few fathers
Almost all theorist
Collective terms
Those which may be singular, universal, particular or indefinite
as they express the idea of groups.
Example: Crowd This family All committees.
Some nurses Delegation
Some armies
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Opposition
Terms are classified as contradictory, contrary or paradoxical
Contradictory term
Those which are so opposed to each other in terms of their
meanings that when one (of the terms) is accepted, the other is rejected.
Example:
Absent and Present (one cannot be both present and absent)
Living and Dead (a person cannot be both living and dead)
Contrary term
Similar to contradictory terms in that they are also opposed to each
other in terms of their meanings; however, they do not exclude each other,
leaving a middle ground or possibility for their relation.
Example: Rich and Poor (middle ground: middle class)
None and All (middle ground: some)
Heaven and Hell ( middle ground: purgatory, for Catholics)
Paradoxical terms
Those which seem to be contradictory terms, yet are combinable or
reconcilable.
Example: The evil of good (and vice-versa)
Honest liar, Heartless heart, Decision to indecision,
Human inhumanity, Living dead,
Consistent inconsistency
Sure to uncertainty
Agreement to disagree

Supposition and Appellation

These two are important properties (or functions) of terms used in a proposition. Because
it is not possible to always produce the actual things to be discussed, terms are employed to
stand for them.

Supposition
Derived from the Latin word subponere or supposition, which means to ‘’stand for’’.
Logicians define supposition as the precise meaning that a term stands for in a proposition.
Logicians divide supposition into four standpoints:

Standpoint of the Object

Divided into real, ideal (imaginary) and intramental (logical)
Real Supposition
The use of a term to represent the actual existence of a thing in the
external world
Example: Abu Sayyaf of Mindanao
The New People’s Army of the Philippines
Ideal Supposition (Imaginary)
The use of term to stand for an object of imagination or fancy.
Example: Batman, Superman, Cat woman, Flying Horse
Intramental Supposition (Logical)
The use of a term to denote something that exists only in the mind.
Example: Blue charcoal, Shore at the middle of the sea, smile without
a face, footprints in the air.
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Standpoint of the Extension of the Term

Divided into singular, universal, particular and collective. The discussion
given earlier on the classification of ideas in terms of extension applies to
this one.

Standpoint of the Comprehension of the Term

Divided into simple, compound, concrete and abstract. The discussion given
earlier on the classification of ideas in terms of comprehension applies to
this one.

Standpoint of meaning
Supposition is classified as precise, ambiguous or proper.
Precise supposition
The use of a term to stand for only one meaning in proposition.
Example: Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo is the President of the Republic of
the Philippines
Ambiguous supposition
The use of a term to stand for several probable meanings in the
proposition.
Example: For sale automobile owned by a lawyer slightly used.
Proper supposition
The use of a term to represent a proper object.
Example: Manila is the capital of the Philippines
Tagbilaran City is the capital of Bohol
Jerusalem is the capital of Israel

Appellation
The term appellation literally means “the calling of something’’.
Applied in logic, appellation refers to the function of a term that denominates another term.
There are two terms that governs appellation, namely: Appellant (pertains to the
denominating term) and Appellate (pertains to the denominated term).

For example:
Excellent teacher =Excellent teacher
(Appellant) (Appellate)

Smart Contestant =Smart Contestant

(Appellant) (Appellate)
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The Predicaments (Categories) and the Predicables

Generally, categories (predicaments) are ideas that express the essence (quiddity) of a
thing. To Aristotle, there are two kinds of categories, also called supreme predicaments:
 Substance (in Philosophy, is understood as a being whose existence is independent of
other beings).
 Accident (in Philosophy, is a being whose existence is dependent on other beings).

Ten categories of Aristotle are as follows:

Substance
Is a being that does not need any other being or thing I order for it to
exist. It is a thing in itself.
Example:
Table, Rock, mountain, cat, bird, Snake, Elephant and Man
Quantity
An accident through which a substance becomes divisible into parts, or
may have an extension or a numerical (number) modification
Example:
Width, length, and size
Quality
An accident through which a substance could have a formal (pertaining
to form) modification.
Example:
Color, Figure, Shape, and Health
Relation
An accident that pertains to the reference of a substance to another.
Example:
Maternity, Paternity, Sorority, Fraternity and Superiority.
Action
An accident that pertains to on one substance producing an effect in
another.
Example: Driving (a road roller or a car)
Peeling (a banana)
Passion
An accident that refers to a substance being affected by another.
Example:
Being humiliated, Being Murdered and being kicked out
from a job or position.
When
An accident that pertains to a circumstances or situation relative to
place or a point in space.
Example:
Yesterday, Today, Tomorrow, noon, Morning, Evening
And Dawn.
Where
An accident that refers to a circumstances or situation relative to
place or a point in space.
Example: On the table
Downstairs
In the Philippines
Posture
An accident that refers to a being’s determination relative to the
disposition of its parts.
Example: Kneeling, walking, sitting and standing
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Habit
An accident that refers to a being’s outward modification of another
being relative to equipment or clothing.
Example: Clothed, hatted, and armed

The Predicables

Logicians define predicables as the various ways or modes of predicating universal

concepts. Aristotle, made it clear that there are only five ways through which a predicate can
describe or ‘’say’’ something about the subject. They are as follows:

(1) Genus
Expresses a part of the essence of a subject which the subject has in common with other
species belonging to its class.
For example: ‘’Acacia has leaves, trunks and branches’’
The predicate terms leaves, trunks and branches expresses only some part of the
essence of Acacia which it shares in common with other trees.

(2) Species
Expresses the fullness of the essence (whole) of a subject.
For example: ‘’Man is a thinking being’’
This means that any member of the humankind (species) is ontologically capable of
thinking.

(3) Specific Difference

(Also called Differentia) expresses a part of the essence of a subject through which the
subject is distinguished from other species belonging to the same genus.
For example: Human person and a brute
Specific difference is “rationality’’; Human person is rational, a brute is not.

(4) Property
Expresses a characteristics or an attribute that is not part of the essence of a subject,
however, must indispensably flow from its (subject) essence.
For example: ‘’Man is a talking being”. ‘’Man is the author of technology and civilization’’
and ‘’Man is a laughing being’’
Laughing, Talking and Inventing (author of technology) all stemmed from the essence
of a man. They are not necessarily part of the man, but they all necessarily flow from the essence of a
man

(5) Accident
Expresses an attribute of a subject that is neither a part nor associated with the essence of
the subject, but is related to the subject only n a contingent manner or mode.
For example: This man is tall, His hat is blue. This table is round.
Tall, blue and round do not determine the essence of their respective subjects.
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Definition of Definition

The term definition is derived from the Latin word definire (‘’to state the limits’’ or ‘’to
enclose within limit’’). In logic, definition is taken to mean the explanation of an idea (or term)
based on its content or use.

Kinds of Definition:
 Nominal Definition- explains the meaning of a term by way of considering it (the
termed defined) as a name. The term ‘’nominal’’ comes from the Latin word nominalis
(having reference to a name).
Example: Biology – Bio means life and logy means study.

 Real Definition- explains the meaning of a term by way of recounting the content of
an idea with accuracy or completeness.
Example: Man is a rational animal.

Rules of definition:
1. A definition must be clear or exact.
2. A definition must be brief.
3. A definition must not contain the term defined either tacitly or explicitly.
4. A definition must be coextensive with the term or thing defined.

Nature and Meaning of Judgment

 Judgment is a mental operation through which the mind pronounces, enunciates or
declares the agreement or disagreement of two ideas. How is a judgment expressed
and how is a proposition related to judgment? There can be no judgment where there
is no proposition. It is the proposition that gives a judgment, as it were, flesh and
blood, for it is impossible to think of a proposition less judgment.
 Proposition is a statement through which a judgment is expressed.

Elements of proposition
o Subject is the term which is either denied or affirmed.

Example: ‘’We hate corrupt government’’.

In grammatical subject, ‘’we” is the subject, but in logic, the subject
(Logical) is “corrupt government’’ since it is the one that is affirmed –
‘’ we hate’’ while the ‘’we’’ cannot be the logical subject because there
Is nothing to affirmed or negate (deny) to it.

o Predicate is that which is either denied or affirmed subject.

Example: ‘’All whales are mammals’’.

The predicate is the “mammal” because it is the one affirmed by the term (subject) whales.

o Copula normally appears in the present tense in the indicative mood of the verb to be.

Example: am, is, are, am not, and are not.

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Kinds of Proposition

 Categorical Proposition is that which affirms or denies something without

qualification or condition. It has three essential parts: Subject-term, Copula and
Predicate-term.
Example
(1) All Filipinos are Asians – The predicate-term Asians affirms the
subject-term Filipinos.

(2) All Filipinos are not Japanese – The predicate-term not Japanese
denies the subject-term Filipinos

1. Kinds of categorical propositions

a. From the standpoint of quantity, categorical proposition are classified according to

the number of objects to which the proposition is applied. Has two kinds:

*Universal proposition- Subject term is universal.

Universal Quantifiers
(These makes the subject-term universal)

Every, Each, Anything, Whatever, Everybody, Any, All, No, and None

*Particular proposition- Subject term is particular.

Particular Quantifiers
(These makes the subject-term Particular)

Much, Many, Majority, Few, Some, Most, Practically all, A portion of, Not all
and certain

Propositions with no quantifiers

(In this case, the quantity of the given proposition must be based on the
denotation of the proposition)

Examples:
(a) Members of the Philippine Army are combatants.
The example (a) is Universal because, all enlisted men in the Philippine
Army are trained to be warriors.

(b) Filipino boxers are excellent athletes.

The example (b) is Particular because, not all Filipino boxers are
champions in their divisions, save for Manny Pacquiao and a few others

b. From the standpoint of quality, what is identified is the relation established between
the subject and the predicate terms of the proposition-whether they agree (affirmative)
or disagree (negative) with each other. The quality of copula determines the quality of
proposition.

*Affirmative-if the copula is affirmative, then the proposition is also affirmative.

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Example
 Willie Revillame is the host of the ABS_CBN game Wowowin.
 Osama bin Laden is a prominent terrorist leader.
 Vilma Santos is a noted superstar.

*Negative- if the copula of the proposition is negative, the proposition is also negative
Example
 Willie Revillame is not the host of the ABS_CBN game Wowowin.
 Osama bin Laden is not a prominent terrorist leader.
 Vilma Santos is not a noted superstar.

c. Combination of quantity and quality of categorical propositions results to following:

A Universal/ Singular Affirmative
E Universal/Singular Negative
I Particular Affirmative
O Particular Negative

Propositions may be expressed as follows:

A All men are mortal Universal Affirmative
E No men are mortal Universal Negative
I Some men are mortal Particular Affirmative
O Some men are not mortal Particular Negative

 The following are examples of categorical propositions with certain quality and quantity
represented by symbols A, E, I, O.
Proposition Symbol Quantity Quality
1. Men are rational beings A Universal Affirmative
2. Dr. Jose P. Rizal is a Filipino A Singular Affirmative

2. The quantity of the predicate term of categorical propositions

In logic, subject-term of any proposition always has quantity and its predicate term
always has quantity.

a. The following are the rules in determining the quantity of the predicate.
 All affirmative propositions always have particular (undistributed)
predicate terms.
 All negative propositions always have universal (distributed)
predicate terms.

 From the foregoing rules, the following conclusions may be drawn:

 That A and I propositions have particular predicate terms.
Example:
A- All students are industrious.
Su C+ Pp

I- Some students are industrious.

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 Su C+ Pp That E and O propositions have

universal predicate terms.
Example:
E- No students are industrious
Su C- Pu
O- Some students are not industrious
Sp C- Pu

b. All affirmative propositions (A and I) always have particular predicate terms. It is fitting
to discuss the two kinds of quantification in this section: (1) Universal quantification
and (2) Existential quantification.

(1) Universal Quantification

Applies to statements which are universally true.
The rule mentioned above (b) is dully observed in this proposition. In
the first example, the predicate term ‘’four sides’’ is particular but on the
second example, the predicate term “horses” is universal.

Example: ‘’All squares have four sides”

“ No whales are horses”
(2) Existential Quantification
Applies to statements that contain the idea that at least one
individual bears the truth of a statement. This generally applicable to
particular affirmative proposition

Example: “Some lawyers are priests”

“ Some politicians are journalists”

 Venn-Euler diagrams may be used to quantify the predicate terms of a proposition:

A Proposition: All Filipinos are Asians

Su Pp

Asian
Subject Term Predicate Term (Predicate Term)

Filipinos + Asian = Filipinos

(Subject Term)

S=P
P Or
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In the above example, the predicate term Asian contains the comprehension
(totality) of the subject term Filipinos since, legally, any Filipino citizen is
geographically-not necessarily from the standpoint of race-Asian. However, not
all Asians are Filipinos. This is why only a part of the extension of the predicate
term Asians is identified with the subject term Filipinos. Hence, it can be argued:
All Filipinos are Asians, but not all Asians are Filipinos.

I Proposition: Some Filipinos are OCWs.

Sp Pp

OCWs
(Predicate Term)
Subject Term Predicate Term
Filipinos
Filipinos + OCWs = (Subject Term)

Or

P
S P Or

In this example (I), only a part of the extension of the predicate term OCWs
(Overseas Contract Workers) is identified with the subject term Filipinos. Hence,
it can be said that only a part of the comprehension (totality of the whole
population) of Filipinos is identified or contained in the predicate term OCWs.
This obviously means that not all Filipinos are OCWs. Thus, the quantity of the
predicate term OCWs is particular.

In affirmative propositions (A and I) only have part of the extension of the

predicate term is identified with the subject term, in negative propositions (E and
O) the predicate term is excluded from the comprehension of the subject term
and the subject term is excluded from the extension of the predicate term.

E Proposition: No Christians are Buddhists.

Su Pu

Subject Term + Predicate Term = Christians Buddhist

Christian Buddhists Subject Term Predicate

Term

Or
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S P

O Proposition: Some Christians are not Buddhists.

Su Pu

Subject Term + Predicate Term = Christians Catholic

Christian Catholic Subject Term Predicate

Term

Or

S P or P

In the sample E proposition, the predicate term Buddhists is excluded from the
comprehension of the subject term Christians, and in turn, the subject term
Christians is also excluded from the extension of the predicate term Buddhists.
Simply put, there are no Christians who are at the same time Buddhists, and
vice versa.
In the O proposition given, it is asserted that some of the members of the class of
the subject term Catholics. Expressed differently, the totality of the extension of
the predicate term Catholics is excluded from some part of the subject term
Christians. This explains why the predicate term Catholics is universal in terms
of quantity. Thus, it is argued that not all Christians are Catholics because the
Catholics do not contain the totality of Christianity.

The following table summarizes the relationships among the types of categorical propositions.
Types of Quantity of the Quality of the Quantity of the
categorical Subject term proposition (or of predicate
propositions copula)
A Universal/Singular Affirmative Particular
E Universal/Singular Negative Universal
I Particular Affirmative Particular
O Particular Negative Universal

3. Reduction of propositions to logical form

A proposition is deemed constructed in its logical form if it has these three essential parts:
Subject term, Copula, and Predicate term. Consider the following guidelines in reducing a
proposition into its logical from:
1. Determine what type of categorical proposition is the given proposition (A, E, I and
O).
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2. Determine or identify the subject term of the proposition (either affirmed or denied
by the predicate term).
3. Determine the quantity of the subject term.
4. Determine the quality of the copula.

 Hypothetical Proposition is a compound or complex proposition that shows a

condition, dependency, opposition, or similarity between two or more propositions. Has
three kinds:

 Connective or conditional hypothetical proposition

This is a proposition in which the consequent depend upon the antecedent to the effect
that only if the antecedent is true can the consequent also be true. It has two essential parts:
Antecedent (the “If” clause) and Consequent (“then” close).

Example: If it rains, then the ground is wet.

(Antecedent) (Consequent)

 Conjunctive hypothetical proposition

This is the kind of hypothetical proposition that enunciates the impossibility of two things
occurring simultaneously, or two facts to be true at one and at the same time. It appears by
using the form “cannot be” and “at the same time” and is usually in negative form.
Example:
o A student cannot be academically excellent and a dunce at the same time.
o An academic institution cannot be a market place at the same time.

 Disjunctive hypothetical proposition

This is the kind of hypothetical proposition which readily exhausts all possibilities such
that no two of which can be true or false at the same time; one must necessarily be true and
the rest is false. It takes the form “either” and “or”

Example:
o It is either dawn or twilight
o It is either Monday or Saturday
o Joseph will go to Manila either by plane or by bus
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Summary of Learning

 Here are the key points that you must have to remember in lesson 3 of this module:
 Terms are signs or representation of ideas or concepts.

 Comprehension and extension are two properties of terms which are inversely related.

 Proposition is a statement which affirms or denies something the material validity of

which is determined by what is true in reality.

 Terms in the proposition are either distributed or undistributed.

 Connective or conditional hypothetical proposition this is a proposition in which the
consequent depend upon the antecedent to the effect that only if the antecedent is true
can the consequent also be true

 Conjunctive hypothetical proposition this is the kind of hypothetical proposition that

enunciates the impossibility of two things occurring simultaneously, or two facts to be
true at one and at the same time.

 Disjunctive hypothetical proposition this is the kind of hypothetical proposition which

readily exhausts all possibilities such that no two of which can be true or false at the
same time; one must necessarily be true and the rest is false.

_____________________________________________________________

References

 Logic: The Philosophical Discipline of Correct Thinking. 3rd Edition.

Published 2009 by C & E Publishing, Inc.839 EDSA, South Triangle,
Quezon City.

 Logic: Towards Critical thinking and Reasoning. 3rd Edition. Published

2008 by Educational Publishing House 526-528 United Nations Avenue
Ermita, Manila.

 Logic and Critical Thinking. 1st Edition. Published 2009 by Educational

Publishing House, Inc. 526-528 United nations Avenue Ermita, Manila.