Ideas and Concepts are abstract representation of reality. It focuses on the nature or essence of things.

Ideas are
mental signs whereby humans grasp and understand the essences of things.
Classifications of Ideas:

Ideas may refer to an actual reality or to the idea itself. Other ideas may be as they are or as product of the
imagination. They may refer to the universal or to the particular extension. Ideas are classified into:

A.1. First Intention – ideas that express objects not only as they are in the mind but also as they are in reality.
Examples: The idea of a clinic, a hospital, or a house.
A.2. Second Intention – ideas that express what they are in the mind. Concepts that express things that has mental
existence These things that exist as a result of being thought of. Examples: Pegasus, Batman, and Superman
B.1. Concrete – an idea that expresses a form as inhering in a subject. Examples: beautiful lady, brilliant lawyer,
excellent teacher and caring nurse
B.2. Abstract - an idea that expresses form only, separated from its subject. Examples: beauty, brilliance, health
and wealth
C.1. Absolute – an idea that expresses a thing as a substance or an independent reality. Examples: man, planet,
ocean
C.2. Connotative – an idea that expresses an accident or quality inhering in a substance. Examples: teacher,
anesthesiologist, pediatrician and driver
D.1. Positive – an idea that expresses a thing according to what it is or what it has. Example: rich, educated,
perfect, skilled
D.2. Negative – an idea that expresses a thing according to what it is not or what it lacks. Examples: poor,
uneducated, imperfect, unskilled

TERMS: The Expressions of Ideas

A term is an external representation of an idea. For every idea there is a corresponding term. Words, however, are
not necessarily terms. Thus, there is no one to one correspondence between terms and words. A word may not
necessarily represent an idea but all terms are words that contain corresponding ideas.

Properties of TERMS
a. Comprehension-the sum total of all qualities, which constitute the meaning of a term. The comprehension of
a term expresses the essence of the object. The comprehension therefore is the meaning. Example: Man = rational
animal

b. Extension – the sum total of all individuals or objects to which the comprehension of a term is applied.
Example: Man = Peter, Paul, John

Comprehension and extension are inversely proportional. The greater is the comprehension of a TERM, the less is
its extension. The less its comprehension the greater is the extension.

The Inversely Proportional Relationship of Comprehension and Extension

Notice that when the comprehension of the term substance increases its extension decreases. Man has the largest
comprehension but the least extension.
Kinds of TERMS according to Comprehension
1. Univocal – a term that is used in exactly the same sense and meaning in at least two occurrences. Example:
Peter is a nurse. John is a nurse. Man is in this case is univocal.
2. Equivocal – a term that is used with totally different meanings in at least two occurrences. Example: The
rebel base is located at the base of the mountain. Base in this case is equivocal.
3. Analogous- a term that expresses not exactly the same but not totally different meanings. Example: good
teacher, good clinical instructor, and good robber.
Good in this case is analogous.

Kinds of Terms according to Extension

1. Singular- refers to a definite individual or thing. The indicators are:
a. The definite article “The” example: The student is comatose.
b. Proper names – examples: Cubao, Michael, Luneta
c. Demonstrative Pronouns/Adjectives- examples: this, that, these, those
d. Superlative Adjectives – example: most, best, worst
e. Personal Pronouns – examples: he, her, we, our

1. Particular- refers to an indefinite part of a whole. The indicators are;

a. Indefinite article “a” or “an”
b. Use of numbers: either ordinals or cardinals such as: ten, three, sixty, second, third
c. General Ideas – examples: Filipinos are hospitable. Men are stronger than women
d. Indefinite Pronouns/Adjectives-examples: some, few, several

2. Universal – refers to all individuals signified by the term. The indicators are;
a. Universal Quantifiers – examples: all, each, everyone
b. Universal Ideas – examples: Man is rational, A giraffe is an animal with a long neck.

Other Properties of Terms and Ideas

1. Supposition
Supposition refers to the specific meaning of the term as used in the statement, the meaning of the term
according to its context. It is the actual idea or reality being meant by the term. Example: Dr. Garcia runs a
flourishing pharmaceutical business. The supposition of the term “runs” is manages.

2. Predicaments
Predicaments refer to the set of fundamental ideas in terms of which all other ideas can be expressed. This
is otherwise known as categories or first intentions. Predicaments are applied to universal concepts by which other
concepts can be expressed or classified.

2 types of Predicaments
1. Substance-it is that which has its existence not in another but in and for itself. It is defined without reference
to a subject. Examples: Hospital, Medicines, Blackboard; chalk; book
2. Accident- refers to everything added to a substance as a further determination.
Examples: blue; big; soft; triangular

Types of Accidents
1. Quantity- the modification of a substance as regards the effect of having extension and divisibility. Examples:
200 pounds., six feet, 2 kilometers, ten centimeters
2. Quality- the formal determination of a substance, which may be a habit, disposition, capacity or the form and
figure of a thing. Examples: charming, hot, smooth
3. Relation- the manner in which substances refer to each other.
Examples: Student, teacher, principal, son, fiancée
4. Action- the production of an effect in another. Examples: teaching, coaching, directing, dancing
5. Passion- the reception of an effect from another. Examples: was seen, was taught, being heard
6. When(Time)- the situation in time. Examples: last night, tomorrow, today at 7 a.m.
7. Where(Place) – the position in space. Examples: here, there, Quezon City, at school, in the classroom room,
at the hospital
8. Posture- the determination of the substance as to the disposition of its parts
Examples: sitting, lying, standing
9. Habit – the determination of the substance as to the external appearance or outfit.
Examples: in a black dress, in brown shoes, covered by a blanket

3. Predicables
Predicables refer to the kind of relations, which may be obtained between a term and the subject of which
it is predicated. Predicables are also known as second intentions.

Types of Predicables
1. Genus- a universal idea which expresses a part of the essence of a thing, that part which is common with
other species in the same class.
Examples: A lake is a body of water. , Man is an animal, A syrup is a medication
2. Specific Difference- a universal idea which expresses a part of the essence of a thing, that part which
differentiates it from that of other species.
Examples: A lake is water surrounded by land. , Man is rational, A syrup is a concentrated sugar solution
3. Species- a universal idea that expresses the complete essence of a thing. Adding the specific difference to the
genus constitutes it.
Example: A lake is a body of water surrounded by land, Man is a rational anima, A syrup is a medication dissolved
in concentrated sugar solution
4. Property – a universal idea that expresses an attribute that belongs to the thing by
natural necessity.
Examples: A lake is a body of fresh water. , Man is capable of speech. A syrup is sweet
5. Logical Accident – a universal idea that is not a part of the essence of a thing but something that belongs to
the thing not by natural necessity but by contingency.
Examples: The lake is large, calm, and picturesque. , Peter is tall, dark and handsome, A syrup may contain
flavoring to make medication more palatable

4. Definition
Definition is the process of laying down the meaning of a term or an idea by giving its predicaments and
predicables. It is the process of specifying the idea being signified by the term through the manifestation of its
conceptual features or nature. Ex. Man is a rational animal.

Kinds of Definition
Nominal Definition or Stipulative definition. The type of definition in which meaning are taken from the term
itself. It is done by:
Pointing out the object meant or by giving examples. The meaning of the term is recreated using memory or by
undergoing simple apprehension or by enumerating objects that falls under its categories
Example: House- bungalow, nipa hut, mansion
Medication- Pill, Capsule, Extract, Suppository
Etymological definition. The meaning of the term is taken from the derivation or origin of the term.
Example: Psychology – from the terms “psyche” which means “mind” and “logos” which means “study” . It is
therefore the study of the mind

Definition by Synonym. The meaning of the term is given by giving a familiar term that has similar meaning
Example: Liliputan- small
Real Definition. The type of definition in which the meaning or essence or nature of the term is externally
manifested. This is done through:

Genus and Specific deference. The genus which is the essential feature of a thing which it possesses in common
with other things in a group is presented together with the essential feature of a thing which makes it unique from
other members of the group in order to point out to a particular specie.
Example: Man is a rational Animal or an embodied
spirit
Ethics is a philosophical study of the
morality of human acts

b. Genetic Definition. A definition that presents and explains the process or the origin of a thing.
Example: An analysis is the process of breaking down the parts of a whole and establishing the relationships of the
parts to other parts and to the whole
c. Causal Definition. It is a definition that presents the
efficient cause (who made it) and the final cause ( for what it was made)
Example: A thermometer is a device that is used to measure the body’s Temperature
d. Descriptive Definition. It is the process of presenting the features and the physical characteristics of a thing.
Example: A hospital is a building with relatively adequate facilities to treat the and care for the sick

5. Division
Division is the systematic enumeration of the component parts of a whole.

3 types of Division:
1. Physical Division- the enumeration of the quantitative parts of a quantitative whole. Ex. Man has head, arms,
body, legs etc.
2. Logical Division- the breaking up of a logical whole into its logical parts. Ex.: Man is white, yellow, brown,
or black.
3. Metaphysical Division- the breaking up of a thing to its essential constituents into genus and specific
difference.
Ex. Man is a rational animal.

6. Classification
Classification is the systematic arrangement of major divisions and subdivisions. Classification starts from
the less general to a more general grouping of things. It is considered the reverse of division. It is the process of
putting together things of similar characteristics.

PROPOSITION: A product of Judgment

Propositions are statements written or spoken that externally communicate mental sentence. When
propositions express assertions of the relationship or disagreements of two ideas they are known as categorical
propositions. When they express relationships between two or more propositions, which assert the nature and
validity of their connections they are known as hypothetical proposition.
A proposition has three elements; subject, predicate and copula. The subject and the predicate are the two
terms or ideas that are being related. Thus, they are called the matter of the proposition. The copula is the unifying
principle that gives the structure of the proposition thus it is called the form for it specifies the actual relation
between the subject and the predicate.
Propositions and sentences, like words and terms are different from each other. All propositions are
sentences but not all sentences are propositions because some sentences do not express judgment.

Properties of Categorical Propositions

Quality refers to the affirmation or denial of the relationship of the two terms or ideas. The quality of a
proposition is seen in the copula. If the copula expresses that the two ideas are identical then the quality is said to
be affirmative. If the copula expresses that the two ideas are not identical or if the subject denies the predicate then
the quality of the proposition is negative.

Quantity refers to the extension of the subject term of the proposition. The quantity of the subject term
determines the quantity of the whole proposition but not the quantity of its predicate.

Three types of Quantities

1. Particular- when the subject term involves only part of the whole extension of the term. Example: Some
nurses are patient.
2. Universal- when the subject term involves all the extension of the term.
Example: All nurses are care-givers.
3. Singular- when the subject term involves the only extension or a specific extension of the term.
Example: Wilden is the dean of the medical college.
(Note; For our purpose, any singular extension is analogous or equal to universal extension)

Types of Categorical Propositions

Quantity and quality are found together in categorical propositions. Variations in these two properties
determine the four types of categorical propositions.
· A - propositions are universal and affirmative
Example: All Nurses are required to take the licensure exam.
· E - propositions are universal and negative
Example: All nurses are not required to take the licensure exam.
· I - propositions are particular and affirmative
Example: Some nurses are required to take the licensure exam.
· O - propositions are particular and negative
Example: Some nurses are not required to take the licensure exam.
Thus, A and I propositions are affirmative while E and O propositions are negative. A and E propositions are
Universal while I and O Propositions are particular.
The following illustration will help clarify the distinctions among the four types of propositions.

Type Quantity Quality Property Quantity of Example

the Predicate
A Universal Affirmative U+ Particular All patients are human
E Universal Negative U- Universal All patients are not human
I Particular Affirmative P+ Particular Some patients are human
O Particular Negative P- Universal Some patients arenot human

The Quantity of the Predicate

The predicate may have a different quantity than the subject or the whole proposition. To determine the
quantity of the predicate, one must determine the quality of the proposition.
· If the proposition is negative the quantity of the predicate is universal unless it is singular
· If the proposition is affirmative, the quantity of the predicate is usually particular unless in some few instances
that it is singular, which for our purpose, is considered to be universal.
Generally, A and I propositions have particular predicates and E and O propositions have universal predicates.
Examples:
1. All men are mortals– A proposition with a particular predicate
2. Some men are mortals- I proposition with a particular
predicate
3. All men are rational animals–A proposition with a singular
predicate
4. One of the patients is a diabetic-I proposition with a singular
predicate
 5. All men are not immortal-E proposition with universal
predicate
6. Some men are not immortal- O proposition with universal
predicate

Hypothetical Proposition
Hypothetical propositions are propositions that state conditions, causation or opposition between two
judgments, set of ideas or statements.

Types of Hypothetical Propositions

1. A conditional proposition is a hypothetical proposition, which expresses a necessary relation between the
antecedent or the cause and the consequence or the effect. It is often introduced by the “if and then” clause.
Examples: If man is a material being then he is mortal
Study and you will learn
Whenever it rains the ground is wet.
The if clause is the antecedent, the then clause is the consequent thus the clause “ If man is a material being” is the
antecedent and the clause “then he is mortal” is the consequence.
Conditional propositions are true if both the clauses are true and there is sequence between them, that is, the
consequence necessarily flows from the antecedent. Thus on condition that the if clause is true and there is a valid
sequence it follows that the then clause will also be true. Conditional propositions are false if the antecedent is
false or if there is no sequence between the if clause and the then clause.

2. A Disjunctive proposition is a hypothetical proposition introduced by either …or and expresses opposition
between the two elements. Thus it provides alternatives that may be mutually exclusive to each other.

Type of Disjunctive Propositions

1. Contradictory disjunctive-when the alternatives presented are limited to only two. Only one can be true and only
one can be false. Both cannot be true and both cannot be false at the same time.
Examples: 1. Either you are alive or dead
2. One is either healthy or sick.
3. It is either true or false.
2. Contrary Disjunctive- when two alternatives are presented but a third is implied. Both alternatives may be false
because the implied one is true. Only one can be true of the two given alternatives.
Examples: 1. Either he is fat or thin
2. One is either an intensive care nurse or a
pediatric nurse
3. It is either yellow or green.
3. Sub-contrary disjunctive- when two alternatives are presented; however, both may be chosen because both could
be true. Only one of the alternatives can be false.
A true disjunctive proposition must present all the possible alternatives.
Examples: 1. Either he is a son or a father
2. She is either a nurse or a doctor
3.They are either guilty or they were
arrested unjustly.
3. A Conjunctive Proposition is a hypothetical proposition, which contains alternatives of which only one could
be true but both could be false. The relationship of the two alternatives must be mutually exclusive. It is usually
introduced by “Cannot be…. At the same time” or “cannot be both.”
Examples:
1. One cannot serve God and money at the same time.
2. He cannot be healthy and unhealthy at the same time
3. A person cannot be in the E.R.. and in the O.R.. at the same
time.
Reduction of Hypothetical Proposition
A hypothetical proposition may be expressed into the three different types through the reduction process.
Examples:
1. If a patient is a male then that person is not female. –Conditional
A patient is either male or female.-Disjunctive
A patient cannot be both male and female.-Conjunctive
2. Either she is healthy or she is sick.-Disjunctive
If she is healthy then she is not sick.-Conditional
She cannot be healthy and sick at the same time.-Conjunctive
3. A nurse cannot be both present and absent.- Conjunctive
If a nurse is present then he is not absent.- Conditional
A nurse is either present or absent.-Disjunctive