WRITTEN REPORT

(SKELETAL SYSTEM)

INTRODUCTION TO SKELETAL SYSTEM

Definition of Skeletal System

· It is our body's central framework.

· It provides the structure for our bodies.

· Adult human body consists of 206 bones while in infants, there are 270 bones.

- Babies or infants have more bones than adults. Why? Because most of their bones

consist of cartilages only and as they are growing, these cartilages and other bones

are combining together to form the 206 bones of an adult.

 · Also called musculoskeletal system.

· It consists of bones and connective tissue, including cartilage, tendons,

ligaments, skull, spine (vertebrae), ribs, arms and legs.

Functions of the Skeletal System

Function #1: Allow us to move

● Skeleton supports our body weight to help us stand and move.

*We cannot move without our skeleton, more precisely without our bones. It is

what we use to move our bodies naturally.

● Joints, connective tissue and muscles work together to make our body mobile.

*We can do any movement due to the bones that link to one another on our body.

The bones act as levers and also form joints that allow muscles to pull on them

and produce movement.

Function #2: Produces blood cells

● Bones contains bone marrow

*So, what is bone marrow? A bone marrow is the soft, fatty substance located

inside your bones. It includes cells that create blood cells and platelets and is

responsible for the production of billions of new blood cells each day. It also

stores fat, which is converted into energy as needed.

● Red, white blood cells and platelets are produced in the bone marrow.

*The white blood cell that is formed in the bone marrow is the one that protects

our bodies from infection, while platelets are in charge of regulating bleeding.

Red blood cells are created in the bone marrow and are the ones that carry
 oxygen throughout our bodies. The bone marrow is a vital component of the body

since its absence can be fatal.

Function #3: Support and Protect organ

● Your skull shields your brain, your ribs protect your heart and lungs, and your

backbone protects your spine.

*Many of the body's major organs are protected by bone in one form or another.

The skull shields the brain, the most essential organ. The brain is encased in a

strong bone that shields it from any injuries or damage. The ribcage, a kind of

bone, protects the organs such as the lungs and the heart from any type of

damage or trauma that might result in organ damage. Our spinal column is made

up of 33 separate, interconnecting bones called vertebrae. These bones enable

you to twist and turn while assisting in protecting your spinal cord from harm.

Function 4: Stores Minerals

● Bones hold your body’s supply of minerals like calcium and vitamin D.

*Calcium, which is a type of mineral, is the most important mineral for our bones.

The bones themselves are formed of minerals and serve as a mineral repository

for calcium and phosphorus, which may be given up if the body demands the

minerals for other activities.

Types of Bones

The human skeleton has a number of functions, such as protection and

supporting weight. Different types of bones have differing shapes related to their

particular function. So, what are the different types of bones? How are they

categorized?

There are five types of bones in the skeleton: flat, long, short, irregular, and sesamoid.

1. Flat Bones

There are flat bones in the skull (occipital, parietal, frontal, nasal, lacrimal,

and vomer), the thoracic cage (sternum and ribs), and the pelvis (ilium, ischium,

and pubis). The function of flat bones is to protect internal organs such as the

brain, heart, and pelvic organs. Flat bones are somewhat flattened, and can

provide protection, like a shield; flat bones can also provide large areas of

attachment for muscles.

Flat bones are made up of a layer of spongy bone between two thin layers

of compact bone. They have a flat shape, not rounded. Examples include the
 skull and rib bones. Flat bones have marrow, but they do not have a bone

marrow cavity. The skull is the bony structure of the head and face.

2. Long Bones

The long bones, longer than they are wide, include the femur (the longest

bone in the body) as well as relatively small bones in the fingers. Long bones

function to support the weight of the body and facilitate movement. Long bones

are mostly located in the appendicular skeleton and include bones in the lower

limbs (the tibia, fibula, femur, metatarsals, and phalanges) and bones in the

upper limbs (the humerus, radius, ulna, metacarpals, and phalanges).

Bones that are longer than they are wide are called long bones. They

consist of a long shaft with two bulky ends or extremities. They are primarily

compact bones but may have a large amount of spongy bone at the ends or

extremities. Long bones include bones of the thigh, leg, arm, and forearm.
3. Short Bones

Short bones are about as long as they are wide. Located in the wrist and

ankle joints, short bones provide stability and some movement. The carpals in

the wrist (scaphoid, lunate, triquetral, hamate, pisiform, capitate, trapezoid, and

trapezium) and the tarsals in the ankles (calcaneus, talus, navicular, cuboid,

lateral cuneiform, intermediate cuneiform, and medial cuneiform) are examples of

short bones.

Short bones include the carpal bones of the hands that allow movement of

the wrist, and the tarsal bones of the feet that allow movement of the ankle. Short

bones are shaped roughly as a cube and contain mostly spongy bone. The

outside surface is composed of a thin layer of compact bone.

4. Irregular Bones
 Irregular bones vary in shape and structure and therefore do not fit into

any other category (flat, short, long, or sesamoid). They often have a fairly

complex shape, which helps protect internal organs. For example, the vertebrae,

irregular bones of the vertebral column, protect the spinal cord. The irregular

bones of the pelvis (pubis, ilium, and ischium) protect organs in the pelvic cavity.

The “irregular bones” refers to bones that perform various bodily functions,

including protecting nerve tissue and providing support for the pharynx and

trachea. They belong to the group of vertebrae and hip bones (coaxial bone) and

are categorized as neither long, short, nor flat.

5. Sesamoid Bones

Sesamoid bones are bones embedded in tendons. These small, round

bones are commonly found in the tendons of the hands, knees, and feet.

Sesamoid bones function to protect tendons from stress and wear. The patella,

commonly referred to as the kneecap, is an example of a sesamoid bone.

A sesamoid bone is a small bone that is commonly found embedded

within a muscle or tendon near joint surfaces, existing as focal areas of

 ossification and functioning as a pulley to alleviate stress on that particular

muscle or tendon.

Gross Anatomy of Bone

● Gross Anatomy is concerned with the structure of the body visible to the naked

eye. Long bones' structure allows for the best visualization of all bone

components.

● A long bone has two parts, the diaphysis and the epiphysis.

Diaphysis

● The diaphysis is a tubular shaft that connects the proximal and distal ends of the

bone, with walls made of dense and hard compact bone.

Epiphysis

● The epiphysis is a bone end that is mostly made of spongy bone and is

surrounded by a thin layer of compact bone that is covered with articular

(hyaline) cartilage.

Articular Cartilage

● The Articular Cartilage is the outer surface of the epiphyses that is covered and

made of hyaline cartilage that reduces friction at joint surfaces. It allows bones in

our joints to move smoothly past each other. For example, bone joints such as

the elbows, knees, and ankles.

Epiphyseal plate

● It is also known as a growth plate because it is a thin layer of cartilage that lies

between the epiphysis and metaphysis and is where long bones grow. A hyaline

cartilage plate in the metaphysis, located at each end of a long bone where

growth occurs, is seen in young and adolescents.

Epiphyseal line

● When the bone stops growing in early adulthood, between the ages of 18 and 21,

the epiphyseal plate turns into an epiphyseal line. The cartilage is replaced by

osseous tissue, and the presence of an epiphyseal line on an x-ray indicates that

the bone is no longer growing in length.

Endosteum
 ● Endosteum (end means inside and oste means bone) is a delicate membranous

lining found in the medullary cavity, where bone growth, repair, and remodeling

occur.

Medullary Cavity

● The hollow region of the diaphysis contains bone marrow, which is yellow in

adults and red in infants. The bone marrow is responsible for the production of

blood cells and the storage of fat.

Periosteum
 ● The periosteum is a fibrous connective tissue membrane that covers the outer

surface of the bone. The word periosteum means "around or surrounding."

Except where the epiphyses meet other bones to form joints, the periosteum

covers the entire outer surface. It serves as an insertion point for tendons and

ligaments.

Microscopic Anatomy of Bones

Bones are composed of bone matrix, which has both organic and inorganic

components. Bone matrix is laid down by osteoblasts as collagen, also known as

osteoid. Osteoid is hardened with inorganic salts, such as calcium and phosphate, and

by the chemicals released from the osteoblasts through a process known as

mineralization.

The basic microscopic unit of bone is an osteon (or Haversian system). Osteons

are roughly cylindrical structures that can measure several millimeters long and around

0.2 mm in diameter.

Each osteon consists of a lamellae of compact bone tissue that surround a

central canal (Haversian canal). The Haversian canal contains the bone’s blood

supplies. The boundary of an osteon is called the cement line. Osteons can be arranged

into woven bone or lamellar bone.

 Osteon (Haversian system)

● Osteons are roughly cylindrical structures that can measure several millimeters

long and around 0.2 mm in diameter.

● Each osteon consists of a lamellae of compact bone tissue that surround a

central canal (Haversian canal)

Haversian canal

● contains the bone’s blood supplies

● The boundary of an osteon is called the cement line -Osteons can be arranged

into woven bone or lamellar bone

WOVEN BONE

● Woven bone is characterized by the irregular organization of collagen fibers and

is mechanically weak.

● Woven bone is found on the growing ends of an immature skeleton or, in adults,

at the site of a healing fracture. Woven bone is characterized by the irregular

organization of collagen fibers and is mechanically weak, but forms quickly.

● The criss-cross appearance of the fibrous matrix is why it is referred to as woven.

It has a high proportion of osteocytes to hard inorganic salts that leads to its

mechanical weakness.

● Woven bone is replaced by lamellar bone during development. In contrast to

woven bone, lamellar bone is highly organized in concentric sheets with a much

lower proportion of osteocytes to surrounding tissue. The regular parallel

alignment of collagen into sheets, or, lamellae, causes lamellar bone to be

mechanically strong.
LAMELLAR BONE

Femur head showing trabecular bone: A cross-section of the head of the femur

showing lamellar bone on the borders and trabecular bone in the center.

● Lamellar bone makes up the compact or cortical bone in the skeleton, such as

the long bones of the legs and arms. In a cross-section, the fibers of lamellar

bone can be seen to run in opposite directions in alternating layers, much like in

plywood, assisting in the bone’s ability to resist torsion forces.

● When the same lamellar bone is loosely arranged, it is referred to as trabecular

bone. Trabecular bone gets its name because of the spongy pattern it displays in

an x-ray. The spaces within trabecular bone are filled with active bone marrow.

After a fracture, woven bone forms initially, but it is gradually replaced by lamellar

bone during a process known as bony substitution.

1. Axial Skeleton

- Axial comes from the word “axis” meaning line and its bones line up on the

central core of our body.

- Supports our brain, spinal cord, and organs of the body.

- These muscles helps the body breath and steady the parts of our appendicular

skeleton.

- Consist of 80 bones including the bones in skull, ossicle of the middle ear, hyoid

bone, vertebra, and thoracic cage.

Skull

- It has two sets of bone:

 - Eight cranial bones (Parietal bone (left and right), Temporal bones

(left and right), Frontal lobe, Occipital bone, Ethmoid bone,

Sphenoid bone).

- Fourteen facial bones (Maxilla bones (left and right), Zygomatic

bones (left and right), Mandible bone, Nasal bones (left and right),

Palatine bones (left and right), Nasal concha bones (left and right),

Lacrimal bones (left and right), Vomer bone).

- Skull support the structures of the face and protects the brains

- In the adult skull, they are tightly fused with connective tissue.

Ossicles

- Also known as the auditory ossicles.

- It is the smallest bone of our body.

- It transfers the vibrations from our eardrum to the inner ear.

- The ossicles include this bones (per ear):

- Malleus bones

- Incus Bones

- Stapes Bones
Hyoid Bone

- A horseshoe-shaped bone that sits at the front of our neck.

- Hyoid bone helps us breath, speak, and swallow.

- It is connected to the muscles of the jaw. Larynx, and tongue.

- Controls the opening to the airway and gut.

Vertebral Column

- Also known as spine.

- Supports the head.

- Surrounds and protects the spinal cord.

- We begin life with approximately 33 vertebrae, but around the age of 70,

the sacrum and coccyx may fuse together.

- It acts as an attachment point for the ribs and muscles of the back and

neck.
 Thoracic Cage

- Also known as the rib cage.

- It is the skeleton of the chest.

- It encloses and protects the organs of the thoracic cavity.

- It attaches to muscles involved with breathing and arm movement.

2. Appendicular Skeleton

· They are appendages of the axial skeleton.

· Consists of 126 bones.

· Function: structured for a greater range of motion and locomotion generation.

- Most of our bones belong here.

2.1 Pectoral or Shoulder Girdle

· Connects the bones of the upper limbs (which are the bones on our arms and

other bones that can be found in the axial skeleton) to the axial skeleton.

· Also provide attachment for muscles that move the shoulders and upper

limbs.

- Clavicle (2)

- Scapula (2)
2.2. Upper Limbs

· Include the bones of the arm, forearm, wrist, and hand.

· The only bone of the arm is the humerus, which articulates with the forearm

bones–the radius and ulna–at the elbow joint.

· The ulna is the larger of the two forearm bones.

· Upper Limbs: HAND, WRIST, AND FINGERS

- Consists of 8 bones in the wrist, 5 bones that form the palm, and 14 bones that

form the fingers and thumb.

- Humerus (2) - Arm

- Radius (2) & Ulna (2) – Forearm

Hand:

- Carpals (16) - Wrist

- Mnemonic to remember carpal bones:

- Some - Scaphoid

- Lovers - Lunate

- Try - Triquetral

- Positions - Pisiform

- That - Trapezoid
 - They - Trapezium

- Can’t - Capitate

- Handle - Hamate

- Metacarpals (10) - Palm

- Phalanges (28) - Fingers

2.3 Pelvic Girdle

· Ring of bones attached to the vertebral column (vertebrae/spine) that

connects the bones of the lower limbs to the axial skeleton.

- Coxal, innominate, or hip bones (2)

- Ilium

- Iliac Crest

- Ischium

- Acetabulum

- Pubis
2.4 Lower Limbs

· Include the bones of the thigh, leg, and foot.

· The femur articulates with the two bones of the leg–the larger tibia or

commonly known as the shin and smaller fibula.

· The thigh and leg bones articulate at the knee joint that is protected and

enhanced by the patella bone that supports the quadriceps tendon.

· Lower Limbs: FOOT AND ANKLE

- Femur (2) - Thigh

- Tibia (2) & Fibula (2) - Leg

- Patella (2) – Knee

Foot:

- Tarsals (14) – Ankle:

- Talus

- Navicular

- Calcaneus

- Cuboid

- Cuneiforms

- Metatarsals (10) – Middle of the foot

- Phalanges (28) - Toes

COMMON DISEASES THAT AFFECTS THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

Arthritis

- Inflammation or swelling of one or more joints.

- Can be genetically.

- Symptoms vary depending on the type of arthritis, but usually include joint

pain and stiffness.

Fracture

- A break in the bone which occurs when there is a sudden or very strong

pressure or force.

- Elderly and individuals with osteoporosis are at high risk of getting

fractures.
 - Fractures range from small cracks to complete breaks in any bone.

- Most common fractures are physical trauma, overuse, and osteoporosis.

Osteosarcoma

- Is a type of bone cancer that begins in the cells.

- Most often found in the long bones (often in legs but sometimes in arms).

- Tends to occur in teenagers and young adults.

- Usually its treatment was chemotherapy, surgery, and radiation.

Osteoporosis

- Bones become weak due to changes in bone mineral and density.

- Alsos known as the “silent”: disease as there are no obvious symptoms

until a bone breaks.

- It is more prevalent to older women, but anyone can develop this disease.

Sprains and Tears

- Sprains occur when a ligament attached to the joint is stretched.

- Strains also known as “tears or ton muscles”. Occurs when a muscle is

stretched or puts too much pressure on it.

- This injury was common to athletes but can happen to anyone when the

muscle was overused.

- Strains are like sprains and they range from mild to severe.

- It can be healed with ice and rest, but sometimes it needs a surgery.
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