Electromagnetic Induction 1

60
Chapter
23

E3
Electromagnetic Induction
Magnetic Flux is produced in the circuit called induced emf. The induced emf

(1) The total number of magnetic lines of force passing

normally through an area placed in a magnetic field is equal to

the magnetic flux linked with that
dA area.

ID persists only as long as there is change or cutting of flux.

(2) Second law : The induced emf is given by rate of change of

magnetic flux linked with the circuit i.e. e  

d  . For N turns
U
B dt
 N d
e ; Negative sign indicates that induced emf (e)
dt
opposes the change of flux.
YG

Fig. 23.1 (3) Other formulae :  = BA cos ; Hence  will change if

either, B, A or  will change
d N (2  1 ) NA (B2  B1 ) cos 
So e   N  
  dt t t

(2) Net flux through the surface   B  d A  BA cos θ

NBA(cos 2  cos1 )
D

( is the angle between area vector and magnetic field t

vector) Table 23.1 : Induced i, q and P

then  = BA, If  =
U

If  = 0o 90o then  = 0
Induced current (i) Induced charge ( q) Induced power (P)
(3) Unit and Dimension : Magnetic flux is a scalar quantity.
It’s S.I. unit is weber (wb), CGS unit is Maxwell or Gauss × cm2; e N d N e2 N 2  d 
2
i  . dq  i dt    d P   
ST

R R dt R R R  dt 
( 1 wb  10 8 Maxwell ).
Induced charge is
(4) Other units : Tesla × m2 It depends on time
N  m Joule Volt Coulomb time independent.
   and resistance
Amp Amp Amp
 Volt sec = Ohm × Coulomb = Henry × Amp. It’s Lenz's Law
dimensional formula [] = [ML2T–2A–1] This law gives the direction of induced emf/induced current.
Faraday's Laws of Electromagnetic Induction According to this law, the direction of induced emf or current in a
(1) First law : Whenever the number of magnetic lines of
circuit is such as to oppose the cause that produces it. This law
force (magnetic flux) passing through a circuit changes an emf
is based upon law of conservation of energy.
 2 Electromagnetic Induction
(1) When N-pole of a bar magnet moves towards the coil, induced current as seen by observer O is in anticlockwise

the flux associated with loop increases and an emf is induced in direction. (figure)

it. Since the circuit of loop is closed, induced current also flows
v
in it.
S N N

(2) Cause of this induced current, is approach of north pole

Observer
and therefore to oppose the cause, i.e., to repel the approaching
Fig. 23.2
north pole, the induced current in loop is in such a direction so

60
that the front face of loop behaves as north pole. Therefore

Table 23.2 : The various positions of relative motion between the magnet and the coil

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S N G S N G N S G N S G
Position of magnet Observer Observer
Observer Observer

Direction of induced
current

Behaviour of face of
Anticlockwise direction

As a north pole As a south pole

ID
Clockwise direction Clockwise direction

As a south pole
Anticlockwise direction

As a north pole
U
the coil

Type of magnetic Repulsive force Attractive force Repulsive force Attractive force
force opposed
YG

Magnetic field linked Cross (×), Increases Cross (×), Decreases Dots () Increases Dots () Decreases
with the coil and it’s
progress as viewed
from left
D

(3) If the loop is free to move the cause of induced emf in A time varying magnetic field
dB
always produced
dt
the coil can also be termed as relative motion. Therefore to
U

induced electric field in all space surrounding it.

oppose the cause, the relative motion between the approaching
magnet and the loop should be opposed. For this, the loop will Induced electric field (Ein) is directly proportional to induced
 
ST

itself start moving in the direction of motion of the magnet. 

emf so e  Ein  d l ..…(i)

(4) It is important to remember that whenever cause of d

From Faraday's second laws e   ..…(ii)
dt
induced emf is relative motion, the new motion is always in the
  d
direction of motion of the cause. 
From (i) and (ii) e  Ein.d l  
dt
This is known as

Induced Electric Field integral form of Faraday’s laws of EMI.

It is non-conservative and non-electrostatic in nature. Its
dB/dt in cylindrical space  

field lines are concentric circular closed curves. B(t) 
 P
  
       r
 
      
 
Concentric circular field    

  a 
lines of induced electric 

field existing
(A) everywhere inside and (B)

outside Fig.
of 23.3
cylindrical
space
 Electromagnetic Induction 1295

(3) Motion of conducting rod on an inclined plane : When

A uniform but time varying magnetic field B(t) exists in a
conductor start sliding from the top of an inclined plane as
circular region of radius ‘a’ and is directed into the plane of the
paper as shown, the magnitude of the induced electric field ( Ein) shown, it moves perpendicular to it’s length but at an angle
 Fm cos

60
at point P lies at a distance r from the centre of the circular (90   ) with the Q
direction ofBmagnetic field. R
 (90 – )
region is calculated as follows. Fm
mg cos (90–)
P v
  d

dB dB
So Eind l  e  A i.e. E(2r)  a 2 
R
mg 
dt dt dt
(A) (B)
Fig. 23.6

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a 2 dB 1
where r  a or E  ; E in 
2r dt r
Dynamic (Motional) EMI Due to Translatory Motion
(1) Consider a conducting rod of length l moving with a
 Hence induced emf across the ends of conductor

uniform velocity v perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field B ,
directed into the plane of the paper. Let the rod be moving to the
right as shown in figure. The conducting electrons also move to
the right as they are trapped within the rod.
ID e  Bv sin(90   )l  Bvl cos

So induced current i 
Bvl cos 
R
(Directed from Q to P).
U
The forces acting on the bar are shown in following figure.
× × × P × × ×
++ The rod will move down with constant velocity only if
× × × × ×  × ×
e v
Fm cos  mg cos(90   )  mg sin  Bil cos   mg sin
YG

× × × × × × ×

F  Bv l cos   mgR sin θ

× × ×
– –
× × ×
B T  l cos   mg sin  v T  2 2
Q  R  B l cos 2 θ
Fig. 23.4
Motional Emi in Loop by Generated Area

If conducting rod moves on two parallel conducting rails as

D

Conducting electrons experiences a magnetic force shown in following figure then phenomenon of induced emf can
Fm  evB . So they move from P to Q within the rod. The end P also be understand by the concept of generated area (The area
of the rod becomes positively charged while end Q becomes swept of conductor in magnetic field, during it’s motion)
U

negatively charged, hence an electric field is set up within the

× × ×P × × × ×
rod which opposes the further downward movement of electrons
× × × × × ×
ST

i.e. an equilibrium is reached and in equilibrium Fe = Fm i.e. eE = R l v v

× × × × × ×
V
evB or E = vB  Induced emf e  El  Bvl [ E  ]
l × × × × × × ×
Q vt
(2) If rod is moving by making an angle  with the direction
Fig. 23.7
of magnetic field or length. Induced emf e = Bvl sin

   

As shown in figure in time t distance travelled by conductor = vt

   
v sin l  Area generated A = lvt. Flux linked with this area  = BA =

v l sin
   
d
v Blvt. Hence induced emf | e |   Bvl
v cos 
B    
dt

(A) (B)

Fig. 23.5
 1296 Electromagnetic Induction
(1) Induced current : i 
e

Bvl Bvlv where l = length of the axle or distance between the tips of
R R
the wings of plane, Bv = vertical component of earth's magnetic
(2) Magnetic force : Conductor PQ experiences a magnetic
field and v = speed of train or plane.
force in opposite direction of it’s motion and
 Bvl  B 2vl 2 Motional EMI Due to Rotational Motion
Fm  Bil  B l 
 R  R
(1) Conducting rod : A conducting rod of length l whose one
(3) Power dissipated in moving the conductor : For uniform end is fixed, is rotated about the axis passing through it’s fixed
motion of rod PQ, the rate of doing mechanical work by external end and perpendicular to it’s length with constant angular

60
agent or mech. Power delivered by external source is given as velocity . Magnetic field (B) is perpendicular to the plane of the
dW B 2 vl 2 B 2v 2 l 2 paper.
Pmech  Pext   Fext . v  v 
dt R R

emf induces across the    


(4) Electrical power : Also electrical power dissipated in B
ends of the rod 

E3
resistance or rate of heat dissipation across resistance is given     

Q P
as where  = frequency    l  
2
H  Bvl  2 2 2
B v l (revolution per sec) and T =     
Pthermal   i2 R    .R ; Pthermal 
t  R  R
Fig. 23.10
Time period.
(It is clear that Pmech. = Pthermal which is consistent with the
principle of conservation of energy.)
(5) Motion of conductor rod in a vertical plane : If
conducting rod released from rest (at t = 0) as shown in figure
ID (2) Cycle wheel : A conducting wheel each spoke of length l
is rotating with angular velocity  in a given magnetic field as
shown below in fig.
U
then with rise in it’s speed (v), induces emf (e), induced current Due to flux cutting each metal spoke becomes identical cell
(i), magnetic force (Fm) increases but it’s weight remains of emf e (say), all such      
B
constant. identical cells connected in      
YG

O l
Rod will achieve a constant maximum (terminal) velocity vT parallel fashion e net  e      

if Fm  mg × × × × × (emf of single cell). Let N be      

R
B 2 v T2 l 2 × × × × × × ×
the number of spokes hence      

So  mg l
t=0 1 Fig. 23.11
R e net  Bwl 2 ;  2
× × × Fm mg × × 2
mgR
D

 vT  2 2
B l × × × ×
mg × × Here e net  N o i.e. total emf does not depends on number of

Fig. 23.8 spokes ‘N’.

U

(3) Faraday copper disc

Special cases
 
generator : A metal disc can be B
Motion of train and aeroplane in earth's magnetic field
assumed to made of uncountable
ST

radial conductors when metal disc O r

rotates in transverse magnetic

field these radial conductors cuts

Fig. 23.12
(A) (B) away magnetic field lines and
Fig. 23.9
because of this flux cutting all becomes identical cells each of
1
emf ‘e’ where e  B r 2 ,
Induced emf across the axle of the wheels of the train and it 2

is across the tips of the wing of the aeroplane is given by e =

 Electromagnetic Induction 1297
(4) Semicircular conducting loop : If a semi-circular (2) Induced current : At any time t,
e e0
conducting loop (ACD) of radius i  sin  t  i0 sin  t where i0 = current amplitude or max.
  R R
‘r’ with centre at O, the plane of C S A e NBA   0 
r   current i0  0  
 R R R
loop being in the plane of paper. r B
  
Inductance
The loop is now made to rotate O
  
 = t (1) Inductance is that property of electrical circuits which
with a constant angular velocity , B
Fig. 23.13 opposes any change in the current in the circuit.
about an axis passing through O
(2) Inductance is inherent property of electrical circuits. It

60
and perpendicular to the plane of paper. The effective
will always be found in an electrical circuit whether we want it or
resistance of the loop is R.
not.
In time t the area swept by the loop in the field i.e. region II
(3) A straight wire carrying current with no iron part in the

E3
1 1 dA r 2
A  r(r )  r 2 t ;  circuit will have lesser value of inductance.
2 2 dt 2
(4) Inductance is analogous to inertia in mechanics,
Flux link with the rotating loop at time t   BA
because inductance of an electrical circuit opposes any change
Hence induced emf in the loop in magnitude
of current in the circuit.
| e|
d
dt
B

Periodic EMI
dA Br 2
dt

2
and induced current i 
| e|
R

B r 2
2R
ID Self Induction
Whenever the electric current passing through a coil or
circuit changes, the magnetic flux linked with it will also change.
U
Suppose a rectangular coil having N turns placed initially in
a magnetic field such that  = 2 As a result of this, in accordance with Faraday’s laws of

magnetic field is perpendicular to  electromagnetic induction, an emf is induced in the coil or the
YG

B
it’s plane as shown. circuit which opposes the change that causes it. This
n̂
 – Angular speed phenomenon is called ‘self induction’ and the emf induced is

 – Frequency of rotation of called back emf, current so produced in the coil is called

coil induced current.

R – Resistance of coil Induced current Induced current

D

R
Fig. 23.14
For uniform rotational motion
with , the flux linked with coil at any time t
U

  NBA cos  NBA cos t

Rheostat Key Rheostat Key
  0 cos ωt where 0 = NBA = maximum flux
ST

(1) Induced emf in coil : Induced emf also changes in (A) Main current (B) Main current decreasing
increasing Fig. 23.15
periodic manner that’s why this phenomenon called periodic
EMI
d
e  NBA  sin t  e  e 0 sinωt where e0 = emf
dt
amplitude or max. emf  NBA    0  (1) Coefficient of self-induction : Number of flux linkages
with the coil is proportional to the current i. i.e. N  i or
N  Li (N is the number of turns in coil and N – total flux
N
linkage). Hence L  = coefficient of self-induction.
i
 1298 Electromagnetic Induction
(2) If i = 1amp, N = 1 then, L =  i.e. the coefficient of self
induction of a coil is equal to the flux linked with the coil when
the current in it is 1 amp.
d
(3) By Faraday’s second law induced emf e   N .
dt Toroid
di di Winding
Which gives e   L ; If  1 amp / sec then |e|= L. 0 N 2r Core
dt dt L
2
Hence coefficient of self induction is equal to the emf r
i
induced in the coil when the rate of change of current in the coil

60
is unity.

(4) Units and dimensional formula of ‘L’ : It's S.I. unit

Square coil
weber Tesla  m 2 N m Joule Coulomb  volt
   

E3
Amp Amp Amp 2 Amp 2 Amp 2 2 2 0 N 2 a
L
volt  sec  O
  ohm  sec . But practical unit is henry (H). It’s
amp
dimensional formula [L] = [ML2T–2A–2]

(5) Dependence of self inductance (L) : ‘L’ does not depend

upon current flowing or change in current flowing but it depends
upon number of turns (N), Area of cross section (A) and
permeability of medium ().
ID Coaxial cylinders

L
0
2r
r
log e 2
r1

l
r1

r
U
2 .303 r r2
0 log10 2
‘L’ does not play any role till there is a constant current 2r r1
flowing in the circuit. ‘L’ comes in to the picture only when there
YG

is a change in current.

(6) Magnetic potential energy of inductor : In building a Mutual Induction

steady current in the circuit, the source emf has to do work
Whenever the current passing through a coil or circuit
against of self inductance of coil and whatever energy
changes, the magnetic flux linked with a neighbouring coil or
consumed for this work stored in magnetic field of coil this
D

circuit will also change. Hence an emf will be induced in the

energy called as magnetic potential energy (U) of coil
neighbouring coil or circuit. This phenomenon is called ‘mutual
i N i

1 1
U Lidi  Li 2 ; Also U  (Li)i 
U

0 2 2 2 induction’.

(7) The various formulae for L

i1 i2
ST

Condition Figure Variable

current Load
Circular coil P S
R
0N 2r M
L
2
Fig. 23.16

Solenoid
l
 0 r N 2 A N 2 A
L  (   0 r )
l l

i
 Electromagnetic Induction 1299
(1) Coefficient of mutual induction : Total flux linked

with the secondary due to current in the primary is N2 2 and (A) k=1 (B) 0 < k < 1 (C) k=0
N2 2  i1  N 2  2  Mi 1 where N1 - Number of turns in

primary; N2 - Number of turns in secondary; 2 - Flux linked

(7) The various formulae for M :
with each turn of secondary; i1 - Current flowing through

primary; M-Coefficient of mutual induction or mutual Condition Figure

inductance. Two concentric coplaner circular i

60
coils
(2) According to Faraday’s second law emf induces in R P
r
d 2 di  0 N 1 N 2 r 2
secondary e 2   N 2 ; e 2  M 1 M  S
dt dt 2R

E3
di1 1 Amp
(3) If  then |e2| = M. Hence coefficient of
dt sec
Two Solenoids
mutual induction is equal to the emf induced in the secondary l

coil when rate of change of current in primary coil is unity.

i1
μ0 N1 N 2 A Secondar
M Primary
(4) Units and dimensional formula of M : Similar to self-

inductance (L)

(5) Dependence of mutual inductance

ID l

Two concentric coplaner square

(N1 turns)
y (N 2
turns)

(1)
U
coils (2)
(i) Number of turns (N1, N2) of both coils i
0 2 2 N1 N 2l 2
(ii) Coefficient of self inductances (L1, L2) of both the coils M l
YG

L
(iii) Area of cross-section of coils L

(iv) Magnetic permeability of medium between the coils ( r)

Combination of Inductance
or nature of material on which two coils are wound
(1) Series : If two coils of self-inductances L1 and L2 having
(v) Distance between two coils (As d increases so M
D

mutual inductance are in series and are far from each other, so
decreases)
that the mutual induction between them is negligible, then net
U

(vi) Orientation between primary and secondary coil (for 90o self inductance LS  L1  L2
orientation no flux relation M = 0)
When they are situated close to each other, then net
ST

(vii) Coupling factor ‘K’ between primary and secondary coil

inductance LS  L1  L2  2 M

(6) Relation between M, L1 and L2 : For two magnetically

(2) Parallel : If two coils of self-inductances L1 and L2
coupled coils M  k L1 L 2 ; where k – coefficient of coupling or having mutual inductance are connected in parallel and are far
coupling factor which is defined as 1 1 1
from each other, then net inductance L is   
LP L1 L2
Magnetic flux linked in secondary
k ; 0k1 L1 L2
Magnetic flux linked in primary LP 
S L1  L2
P S Air S P
P
gap When they are situated close to each other, then

Fig. 23.17
 1300 Electromagnetic Induction
L1 L2  M 2
LP 
L1  L2  2 M

Growth and Decay of Current In LR- Circuit LC- Oscillation

If a circuit containing a pure inductor L and a resistor R in When a charged capacitor C having an initial charge q0 is

series with a battery and a key then on closing the circuit current discharged through an inductance L, the charge and current in
through the circuit rises exponentially and reaches up to a the circuit start oscillating simple harmonically. If the resistance
certain maximum value (steady state). If circuit is opened from of the circuit is zero, no energy is dissipated as heat. We also
L
it’s steady state condition then current through Lthe circuit

60
assume an idealized situation in which energy is not radiated
Induced
decreases exponentially. Induced
away from the circuit. The total energy associated with the
current current
circuit is constant.
Main
Main
+ + Frequency of oscillation is given by
current
current

E3
B K B K L
(A) Growth of current (B) Decay of current 1 rad
Fig. 23.18  
LC sec
q0
+ –
1
or   Hz
C

(1) The value of current at any instant of time t after closing

the circuit (i.e. during the rising of current) is given by
ID Eddy Current
2 LC
Fig. 23.20

When a changing magnetic flux is applied to a bulk piece of

U
  t
R conducting material then circulating currents called eddy
E
i  i 0 1  e L  ; where i0  imax  = steady state current.




R currents are induced in the material. Because the resistance of
YG

(2) The value of current at any instant of time t after opening the bulk conductor is usually low, eddy currents often have large

from the steady state condition (i.e. during the decaying of magnitudes and heat up the conductor.

R
 t (1) These are circulating currents like eddies in water.
current) is given by i  i0 e L

(2) Experimental concept given by Focault hence also

L
D

(3) Time constant () : It is given as   ; It’s unit is

R named as “Focault current”.

second. In other words the time interval, during which the

(3) The production of eddy currents in a metallic block leads
U

current in an inductive circuit rises to 63% of its maximum value

to the loss of electric energy in the form of heat.
at make, is defined as time constant or it is the time interval,
(4) By Lamination, slotting processes the resistance path
ST

during which the current after opening an inductive circuit falls to

i
i for circulation of eddy current increases, resulting in to
37% of its
i0 maximum value.
i0
i = 0.63i0 weakening them and also reducing losses causes by them

Plane metal Slotted metal

i = 0.37i0
plate plate
t= t t= t × ×
(A) (B) × × × ×
Fig. 23.19 × × × ×
×
× ×
× × ×
× ×

(A) Strong eddies (B) Feeble eddies

produced Gradual damping
Cause excessive electro
B
magnetic damping Feeble eddy currents

Strong eddy
currents
 Electromagnetic Induction 1301
(v) Energy meter : In energy meters, the armature coil

carries a metallic aluminium disc which rotates between the

poles of a pair of permanent horse shoe magnets. As the

armature rotates, the current induced in the disc tends to

oppose the motion of the armature coil. Due to this braking

effect, deflection is proportional to the energy consumed.

dc Motor

60
It is an electrical machine

which converts electrical energy

into mechanical energy.

(5) Application of eddy currents : Though most of the times

E3
(1) Principle : It is based on
eddy currents are undesirable but they find some useful
the fact that a current carrying coil
applications as enumerated below
placed in the magnetic field experiences a torque. This torque
(i) Dead-beat galvanometer : A dead beat galvanometer
rotates the coil.
means one whose pointer comes to rest in the final equilibrium

position immediately without any oscillation

equilibrium position when a current is passed in its coil.

about
ID
the
(2) Construction : It consists of the following components

figure. B

F2
C C B
U
This is achieved by winding the coil on a metallic frame the
N S N S

large eddy currents induced in the frame provide F1
YG

electromagnetic damping. A R1 R2 D D R2 R1 A

(ii) Electric-brakes : When the train is running its wheel is B1 B2 B1 B2

moving in air and when the train is to be stopped by electric

(A) (B)
breaks the wheel is made to move in a field created by Fig. 23.22
D

electromagnet. Eddy currents induced in the wheels due to the

changing flux oppose the cause and stop the train.

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(iii) Induction furnace : Joule's heat causes the melting of a

ABCD = Armature coil, S1, S2 = split ring comutators
metal piece placed in a rapidly changing magnetic field.
B1, B2 = Carbon brushes, N, S = Strong magnetic poles
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(iv) Speedometer : In the speedometer of an automobile, a

magnet is geared to the main shaft of the vehicle and it rotates (3) Working : Force on any arm of the coil is given by
  
according to the speed of the vehicle. The magnet is mounted in F  i(l  B) in fig., force on AB will be perpendicular to plane of
the paper and pointing inwards. Force on CD will be equal and
an aluminium cylinder with the help of hair springs. When the
opposite. So coil rotates in clockwise sense when viewed from
magnet rotates, it produces eddy currents in the drum and drags
top in fig. The current in AB reverses due to commutation
it through an angle, which indicates the speed of the vehicle on
keeping the force on AB and CD in such a direction that the coil
a calibrated scale.
continues to rotate in the same direction.
 1302 Electromagnetic Induction
(4) Back emf in motor : Due to the rotation of armature coil lifts, dc drills, fans and blowers, centrifugal pumps and air
in magnetic field a back emf is induced in the circuit. Which is compressors, etc.

given by e = E – iR. ac Generator/Alternator/Dynamo

Back emf directly depends upon the angular velocity  of An electrical machine used to convert mechanical energy

armature and magnetic field B. But for constant magnetic field into electrical energy is known as ac generator/alternator.

B, value of back emf e is given by e   or e = k (e = (1) Principle : It works on the principle of electromagnetic
NBA sint) induction i.e., when a coil is rotated in uniform magnetic field, an

60
induced emf is produced in it.
E  e E  k
(5) Current in the motor : i   ; When motor
R R (2) Construction : The main components of ac generator are
E
is just switched on i.e.  = 0 so e = 0 hence i   maximum B C
R

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and at full speed,  is maximum so back emf e is maximum and
i is minimum. Thus, maximum current is drawn when the motor
is just switched on which decreases when motor attains the
N A D S
speed. B1
R1
(6) Motor starter : At the time of start a large current flows
through the motor which may burn out it. Hence a starter is used
for starting a dc motor safely. Its function is to introduce a
ID R2
B2
RL Output
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suitable resistance in the circuit at the time of starting of the Fig. 23.24

motor. This resistance decreases gradually and reduces to zero

when the motor runs at full sped.
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R R R R R (i) Armature : Armature coil (ABCD) consists of large number

C of turns of insulated copper wire wound over a soft iron core.
1 2 3 4 5 6
H (ii) Strong field magnet : A strong permanent magnet or an
Spring E
D

electromagnet whose poles (N and S) are cylindrical in shape in

M
dc mains a field magnet. The armature coil rotates between the pole
Fig. 23.23 pieces of the field magnet. The uniform magnetic field provided
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by the field magnet is perpendicular to the axis of rotation of the

coil.
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The value of starting resistance is maximum at time t = 0 (iii) Slip rings : The two ends of the armature coil are
and its value is controlled by spring and electromagnetic system connected to two brass slip rings R1 and R2. These rings rotate
and is made to zero when the motor attains its safe speed.
along with the armature coil.
(7) Mechanical power and Efficiency of dc motor :
(iv) Brushes : Two carbon brushes (B1 and B2), are pressed
P P e Back e.m.f.
Efficiency   mechanical  out   against the slip rings. The brushes are fixed while slip rings
Psup plied Pin E Supply voltage
rotate along with the armature. These brushes are connected to
(8) Uses of dc motors : They are used in electric
the load through which the output is obtained.
locomotives, electric ears, rolling mills, electric cranes, electric
 Electromagnetic Induction 1303
(3) Working : When the armature coil ABCD rotates in the It consists of two coils wound on the same core. The
magnetic field provided by the strong field magnet, it cuts the alternating current passing through the primary creates a
magnetic lines of force. Thus the magnetic flux linked with the continuously changing flux through the core. This changing flux
coil changes and hence induced emf is set up in the coil. The induces an alternating emf in the secondary.
direction of the induced emf or the current in the coil is Laminated sheets

determined by the Fleming’s right hand rule.

The current flows out through the brush B1 in one direction

Load
Source ~ Input Output
of half of the revolution and through the brush B2 in the next half

60
Iron core
revolution in the reverse direction. This process is repeated.
Fig. 23.26
Therefore, emf produced is of alternating nature.
Nd 
e  NBA  sint = e0 sint where e0 = NBA
dt
(1) Transformer works on ac only and never on dc.

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e e
i   0 sint  i0 sint R  Resistance of the circuit (2) It can increase or decrease either voltage or current but
R R
dc Generator not both simultaneously.

(3) Transformer does not change the frequency of input ac.

If the current produced by the generator is direct current,
then the generator is called dc generator.

dc generator consists of
(iii) Commutator (iv) Brushes
(i) Armature (coil)
ID
(ii) Magnet
(4) There is no electrical connection between the winding
but they are linked magnetically.

(5) Effective resistance between primary and secondary

winding is infinite.
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In dc generator commutator is used in place of slip rings.
The commutator rotates along with the coil so that in every cycle (6) The flux per turn of each coil must be same i.e.  S   P ;
d S d
when direction of ‘e’ reverses, the commutator also reverses or   P .
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dt dt
makes contact with the other brush so that in the external load
(7) If NP = number of turns in primary, NS = number of turns
the current remains in the some direction giving dc
in secondary, VP = applied (input) voltage to primary, VS =
Armature (Coil)
Voltage across secondary (load voltage or output), eP = induced
emf in primary ; eS = induced emf in secondary,  = flux linked
D

with primary as well as secondary, iP = current in primary; iS =

S current in secondary (or load current)

N
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Commutator
Brushes As in an ideal transformer there is no loss of power
+ – i.e. Pout  Pin so VS iS  VPiP and VP  e P , VS  e S . Hence
eS N V i
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 S  S  P  k ; k = Transformation ratio (or turn

eP NP VP iS
Load
Fig. 23.25 ratio)

Table 23.3 : Types of transformer

Step up transformer Step down transformer

Transformer It increases voltage and It decreases voltage and

It is a device which raises or lowers the voltage in ac decreases current increases current
circuits through mutual induction.
P S P S
 1304 Electromagnetic Induction
energy is lost due to hysteresis. However, the loss of energy

can be minimised by selecting the material of core, which has a

narrow hysterisis loop. Therefore core of transformer is made of

soft iron. Now a days it is made of “Permalloy” ( Fe-22%, Ni-

VS > VP VS < VP 78%).

NS > NP NS < NP (iv) Magnetic flux leakage : Magnetic flux produced in the

ES > EP ES < EP primary winding is not completely linked with secondary

60
iS < iP iS > iP because few magnetic lines of force complete their path in air

only. To minimize this loss secondary winding is kept inside the

RS > RP RS < RP
primary winding.
tS > tP tS > tP

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(v) Humming losses : Due to the passage of alternating
k>1 k<1
current, the core of the transformer starts vibrating and
(8) Efficiency of transformer () : Efficiency is defined as produces humming sound. Thus, some part (may be very small)
the ratio of output power and input power
P
Pin
V i
i.e.  %  out  100  S S  100
VP i P
ID
For an ideal transformer Pout = Pin so   100% (But efficiency
of the electrical energy is wasted in the form of humming

sounds produced by the vibrating core of the transformer.

(10) Uses of transformer : A transformer is used in almost

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of practical transformer lies between 70% – 90%) all ac operations e.g.
For practical transformer Pin  Pout  Plosses
(i) In voltage regulators for TV, refrigerator, computer, air
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P Pout (P  PL )
so   out  100   100  in  100
Pin (Pout  PL ) Pin conditioner etc.

(9) Losses in transformer : In transformers some power is (ii) In the induction furnaces.
always lost due to, heating effect, flux leakage eddy currents,
(iii) Step down transformer is used for welding purposes.
hysteresis and humming.
D

(iv) In the transmission of ac over long distance.

(i) Cu loss ( i 2 R) : When current flows through the

transformer windings some power is wasted in the form of heat Transmission lines
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Low House or
(H  i 2 Rt). To minimize this loss windings are made of thick Cu G
Low
High V Load
High V
V V factory
wires (To reduce resistance)
Power Step up Step down
ST

(ii) Eddy current loss : Some electrical power is wasted in Station transformer transforme
Fig. 23.27 r
the form of heat due to eddy currents, induced in core, to

minimize this loss transformers core are laminated and silicon is

added to the core material as it increases the resistivity. The

(v) Step down and step up transformers are used in
material of the core is then called silicon-iron (steel).
electrical power distribution.

(iii) Hystersis loss : The alternating current flowing through (vi) Audio frequency transformers are used in radiography,
the coils magnetises and demagnetises the iron core again and television, radio, telephone etc.
again. Therefore, during each cycle of magnetisation, some
 Electromagnetic Induction 1305
(vii) Radio frequency transformers are used in radio the north-south direction, then no potential difference or emf
communication. will be induced.
(viii) Transformers are also used in impedance matching.  When a conducting rod moving horizontally on equator of
earth no emf induces because there is no vertical component
of earth's magnetic field. But at poles BV is maximum so
maximum flux cutting hence emf induces.

 When a conducting rod falling freely in earth's magnetic

field such that it's length lies along East - West direction then

60
induced emf continuously increases w.r.t. time and induced
 If a bar magnet moves towards a fixed conducting coil,
current flows from West - East.
then due to the flux changes an emf, current and charge
 1 henry = 109 emu of inductance or 109 ab-henry.
induces in the coil. If speed of magnet increases then induced
 Inductance at the ends of a solenoid is half of it's the

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emf and i1 increases but vinduced
v1 induced current i2
2 (> v1) charge remains
 1 
same inductance at the centre.  Lend  Lcentre  .
S N S N  2 
 A thin long wire made up of material of high resistivity
behaves predominantly as a resistance. But it has some

Induced parameter : e1, i1, q1 e2 (> e1), i2( > i1), q2 (= q1)
ID amount of inductance as well as capacitance in it. It is thus
difficult to obtain pure resistor. Similarly it is difficult to obtain
pure capacitor as well as pure inductor.

 Due to inherent presence of self inductance in all

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 Can ever electric lines of force be closed curve ? Yes,
when produced by a changing magnetic field. electrical circuits, a resistive circuit with no capacitive or

 No flux cutting No EMI inductive element in it, also has some inductance associated
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  
 Vector form of motional emf : e  (v  B).l with it.
  
 In motional emf B, v and l are three vectors. If any two
The effect of self-inductance can be eliminated
vector are parallel – No flux cutting.
      
B B as in the coils of a resistance box by doubling
     v
D

v back the coil on itself.

l v
  l   l
 It is not possible to have mutual inductance without self
    
  inductance but it may or may not be possible self inductance
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 
  B || l so e = 0 v || B so e = 0
v || l so e = 0 without mutual inductance.
di
 If main current through a coil increases (i) so will be
ST

dt
positive (+ve), hence induced emf e will be negative (i.e.
 A piece of metal and a piece of non-metal are dropped
opposite emf)  Enet  E  e
from the same height near the surface of the earth. The non- E K E

metallic piece will reach the ground first because there will be
Circuit is made on  di
no induced current in it. e  L
dt
or i increasing
 If an aeroplane is landing down or taking off and its i i
e
wings are in the east-west direction, then the potential
difference or emf will be induced across the wings. If an
aeroplane is landing down or taking off and its wings are in  Sometimes at sudden opening of key, because of high
 1306 Electromagnetic Induction
inductance of circuit a high momentarily induced emf
produced and a sparking occurs at key position. To avoid
sparking a capacitor is connected across the key.

 Sometimes at sudden opening of key, because of high

inductance of circuit a high momentarily induced emf
produced and a sparking occurs at key position. To avoid
sparking a capacitor is connected across the key.

 One can have resistance with or without inductance but

60
one can’t have inductance without having resistance.

 The circuit behaviour of an inductor is quite different from

that of a resistor. while a resistor opposes the current i, an

E3
di
inductor opposes the change in the circuit. i
i dt
a b a b
R L
di
Vab = iR Vab  L
dt

 In RL-circuit with dc source the time taken by the current

to reach half of the maximum value is called half life time and
L
ID
it is given by T = 0.693 .
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R
 dc motor is a highly versatile energy conversion device. It
can meet the demand of loads requiring high starting torque,
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high accelerating and decelerating torque.

 When a source of emf is connected across the two ends

of the primary winding alone or across the two ends of
secondary winding alone, ohm’s law can be applied. But in
the transformer as a whole, ohm’s law should not be applied
D

because primary winding and secondary winding are not

connected electrically.
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 Even when secondary circuit of the transformer is open it

also draws some current called no load primary current for
supplying no load Cu and iron loses.
ST

 Transformer has highest possible efficiency out of all the

electrical machines.