1532 Electronics

60
Chapter

27

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Electronics
(7) They have sharp melting point.
Semiconductor electronics
ID (8) Bond strengths are identical throughout the solid.
(9) These are considered as true solids.
(10) An important property of crystals is their symmetry.
Amorphous or glassy solids
U
(1) These solids have no definite external geometrical form.
(2) Ions, atoms or molecules of these solids are not arranged in a
definite fashion.
YG

Solids
It is a state of matter which has a definite shape and a definite volume.
The characteristic properties of the solid depends upon the nature of forces
D

acting between their constituent particles (i.e. ions, atoms or molecules).

(3) Example : Rubber, plastic, paraffin wax, cement etc.
Solids are divided into two categories.
(4) They do not possess definite facets or faces.
Crystalline solids
(5) These have short range order, and there is no long range order.
U

(1) These solids have definite external geometrical form.

(6) They are isotropic.
(2) Ions, atoms or molecules of these solid are arranged in a definite
fashion in all it’s three dimensions. (7) They do not have a sharp melting point.
(8) Bond strengths vary.
ST

(9) These are considered as pseudo-solids or super cooled liquids.

(10) Amorphous solids do not have any symmetry.
Terms Related with Crystal Structure
(1) Crystal lattice : It is a geometrical arrangement of points in space
where if atoms or molecules of a solid are placed, we obtain an actual
crystal structure of the solid.
(3) Examples : Quartz, calacite, mica, diamond etc. (2) Basis : The atoms or molecules attached with every lattice point in
a crystal structure is called the basis of crystal structure.
(4) They have well defined facets or faces.
(5) They are ordered at short range as well as at long range.
(6) They are anisotropic, i.e. the physical properties like elastic
modulii, thermal conductivity, electrical conductivity, refractive index have
different values in different direction.

Space lattice

Basis containing two different ions

 Electronics 1533

Number of lattices = 4
Monoclinic

a bc  =  = 90o KclO3, FeSO4

and   90o etc.
 c


b a

60
Number of lattices = 2
(3) Unit cell : Is defined as that volume of the solid from which the Triclinic
entire crystal structure can be constructed by the translational repetition in
three dimensions. The length of three sides of a unit cell (3D) are called
primitives or lattice constant they are denoted by a, b, c
c a bc  K2Cr2O7, CuSO4

E3
  etc.
90o


b b a
 Number of lattices = 1
  a

Rhombo-hedral or

c  Trigonal
b 

a Primitive cell : A primitive cell is 3aDminimum
(4)
2D unit cell
the simple unit cell with particles Fig.
only27.1
unit cell volume unit cell or
at the corners is a primitive unit cell
and other types of unit cells are called non-primitive unit cells. There is only
one lattice point per primitive cell.
ID a
a =b=c ==
90o
Calcite, As, Sb,
Bi etc.
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 
(5) Crystallographic axis : The lines drawn parallel to the lines of c  b
intersection of the faces of the unit cell are called crystallographic axis.
Number of lattices = 1
All the crystals on the basis of the shape of their unit cells, have
been divided into seven crystal systems as shown in the following table. Hexagonal
YG

Table 27.1 : Different crystal systems

System Lattice Angle Examples
constants between a =bc  =  = 90o Zn, Cd, Ni etc.
lattice c and  = 120o
constants
Cubic   b
a 
D

Number of lattices = 1
c

a =b=c = =  = Diamond, NaCl, Different Types of Symmetry in Cubic Lattices
 90o Li, Ag, Cu,
 NH4Cl, Pb etc. (1) Centre of symmetry : An imaginary point within the crystal such
U

a
b that any line drawn through it intersects the surface of the crystal at equal
Number of lattices = 3 distances in both directions.
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Tetragonal

c a =bc = =  = White tin, (2) Plane of symmetry : It is Fig.

an imaginary
27.2 plane which passes through
90o NiSO4 etc.
  the centre of a crystal and divides it into two equal portions such that one
 part is exactly the mirror image of the other.
a
b
Number of lattices = 2
Orthorhombic

c (B) Diagonal plane of

  a bc = =  = HgCl2, KNO3, (A) Rectangular plane
90 o gallium etc. of symmetry symmetry
 a Fig. 27.3
b
 1534 Electronics
A cubical crystal possesses six diagonal plane of symmetry and three (3) Atoms per unit cell : An atom located at the corner of a unit cell
rectangular plane of symmetry. of a lattice is shared equally by eight other unit cells in the three
(3) Axis of symmetry : It is an imaginary straight line about which, if dimensional lattice. Therefore, each unit cell has 1/8 share of an atom at its
th

the crystal is rotated, it will present the same appearance more than once each corner. Similarly, a face of the unit cell is common to the two unit cells
during the complete revolution. in the lattice. Therefore, each unit cell has 1/2 share of an atom at its each
In general, if the same appearance of a crystal is repeated on rotating face. The atom located at the centre of the unit cell belongs completely to
the unit cell.
360 o
through an angle , around an imaginary axis, the axis is called an n- Let N , N and N be the number of atoms at the corners, centre and
n c b f

face of the unit cell respectively. Therefore the number of atoms per unit
fold axis.
N N
Table 27.2 : A cubical crystal possesses in all 13 axis cell is given by N  N b  f  c
of symmetry 2 8

60
Axis of four-fold Axis of three-fold Axis of two-fold (i) In sc lattice : N b  0, N f  0, N c  8 so N  1
symmetry = 3 symmetry = 4 symmetry = 6
(Because of six faces) (Because of eight (Because of twelve (ii) In bcc lattice : N b  1, N f  0, N c  8 so N  2
corners) edges)
(iii) In fcc lattice : N b  0, N f  6, N c  8 so N  4

E3
(4) Co-ordination number : It is defined as the number of nearest
neighbours that an atom has in a unit cell. It depends upon structure.
(i) Simple cubic structure : Each atom has two neighbours along X-
axis, two along Y-axis and two along Z-axis so co-ordination
number = 6.
(ii) Face-centred cubic structure: Every corner atom has four
neighbours in each of the three planes XY, YZ, and ZX so co-
(4) Elements of symmetry : The total number of planes, axes and
centre of symmetry possessed by a crystal are termed as elements of
symmetry. A cubic crystal possesses a total of 23 elements of symmetry.
Planes of symmetry  (3  6)  9 ,
ID
ordination number = 12
(iii) Body-centred cubic structure: The atom of the body of the cell has
eight neighbours at eight corner of the unit cell so
number = 8.
co-ordination

(5) Atomic packing fraction (or packing factor or relative packing

U
density)
Axes of symmetry  (3  4  6)  13 ,
The atomic packing fraction indicates how close the atoms are packed
Centre of symmetry = 1. together in the given crystal structure or the ratio of the volume occupied
YG

Total number of symmetry elements = 23 by atoms in a unit cell in a crystal and the volume of unit cell is defined as
APF.
More About Cubic Crystals
(i) For sc crystal : Volume occupied by the atom in the unit cell
(1) Different lattice in cubic crystals : There are three lattice in the
cubic system. 4 3 a 3
 r  . Volume of the unit cell  a 3
(i) The simple cubic (sc) lattice. 3 6
(ii) The body-centered cubic (bcc). a 3 / 6 
D

(iii) The face-centered cubic (fcc). Thus P.F.    0 .52 = 52%

a3 6
sc bcc fcc
3
(ii) For bcc : P.F.   68%
U

8

(iii) For fcc : P.F.   74%
3 2
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(A) (B) (C)

Fig. 27.4 (6) Density of unit cell : Density of unit
(2) Atomic radius : The half of the distance between two atoms in
contact is defined as atomic radius. Mass of the unit cell nA nA
cell   
D
Volume of the unit cell NV Na 3
r C
r where n = Number of atoms in unit cell (For sc lattice n = 1, for
r r a
a
bcc lattice n = 2, for fcc lattice n = 4), A = atomic weight, N =
r r a Avogadro’s number, V = Volume of the unit cell.
a C
r r (7) Bond length : The distance between two nearest atoms in a unit
a
A a B cell of a crystal is defined as bond length.
A a B
r fcc unit cell (i) In a sc lattice : Bond length = a (ii) In a bcc lattice : Bond length
bcc unit cell
sc unit cell
r  a/2 2 3a a
r = a/2 r  3a/4  (iii) In a fcc lattice : Bond length 
2 2
Fig. 27.5
 Electronics 1535

Hexagonal Close Packed (HCP) Structure (5) Hydrogen bonding : Hydrogen bonding is due to permanent dipole
interaction.
The HCP structure also maximizes the packing fraction
(i) This bond is stronger than vander Waal's bond but much weaker
than ionic and covalent bond.
(ii) They possesses low melting point.
(iii) Common examples are H O, HF etc.
2

Single, Poly and Liquid Crystals

c
(1) Single crystal : The crystals in which the periodicity of the pattern
extends throughout the piece of the crystal are known as single crystals.
b
a Single crystals have anisotropic behaviour i.e. their physical properties (like

60
mechanical strength, refractive index, thermal and electrical conductivity)
are different along different directions. The small sized single crystals are
(A) (B)
(1) a  b  c Fig. 27.6 called mono-crystals.
(2) Number of atoms per unit cell = 6 (2) Poly-crystals : A poly-crystal is the aggregate of the monocrystals
whose well developed faces are joined together so that it has isotropic
(3) The volume of the hexagonal cell = 3 2 a 3 properties. Ceramics are the important illustrations of the poly-crystalline

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solids.
 2
(4) The packing fraction  (3) Liquid crystals : The organic crystalline solid which on heating, to a
6 certain temperature range becomes fluid like but its molecules remain
(5) Coordination number = 12 oriented in a particular directions, showing that they retain their anisotropic
properties, is called liquid crystal. These crystals are used in a liquid crystal
(6) Magnesium is a special example of HCP lattice structure. displays (L.C.D.) which are commonly used in electronic watches, clocks and
micro-calculators etc.
Bonding Forces in Crystals
The properties of a solid are mainly determined by the type of
bonding that exists between the atoms. According to bonding in crystals
they are classified into following types.
(1) Ionic crystal : This type of bonding is formed due to transfer of
ID Energy Bands
This theory is based on the Pauli exclusion principle.
In isolated atom the valence electrons can exist only in one of the
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electrons between atoms and consequent attraction between them. allowed orbitals each of a sharply defined energy called energy levels. But
when two atoms are brought nearer to each other, there are alterations in
(i) In NaCl crystal, the electron of Na atom is transferred to chlorine energy levels and they spread in the form of bands.
atom. In this way Na atom changes in to Na ion and Cl atom changes into
+

Cl ion.
–
YG

Actual separation of atoms

(ii) Cause of binding is electrostatic force between positive and in the crystal
negative ion. E
(iii) These crystal are usually hard, brittle and possesses high melting
and boiling point.
(iv) These are bad conductor of electricity.
(v) Common example are NaCl, CsCl, LiF etc.
D

(2) Covalent crystal : Covalent bonding is formed by sharing of

electrons of opposite spins between two atoms
(i) The conductivity of these solids rise with rise in temperature.
(ii) These crystal posses high melting point. O
Energy bands are of following
r0 types r
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(iii) Bonding between H , Cl molecules Ge, Si, Quartz, diamond etc. are
2 2
(1) Valence Fig.
band : The
27.7 energy
Origin bandbands
of energy formed
in a by
solida series of energy levels
common example of covalent bonding containing valence electrons is known as valence band. At 0 K, the electrons
(3) Metallic bonds : This type of bonding is formed due to attraction fills the energy levels in valence band starting from lowest one.
ST

of valence (free) electrons with the positive ion cores (i) This band is always filled with electrons.
(i) Their conductivity decreases with rise of temperature.
(ii) This is the band of maximum energy.
(ii) When visible light falls on a metallic crystal, the electrons of atom
absorb visible light, so they are opaque to visible light. However some (iii) Electrons are not capable of gaining energy from external electric
orbital electrons absorb energy and reach in excited state. They then return field.
to their normal states, remitting light of same frequency. (iv) No flow of current due to electrons present in this band.
Common examples are Na, Li, K, Cs, Au, Hg etc. (v) The highest energy level which can be occupied by an electron in
(4) Vander waal's crystal : These crystal consists of neutral atoms or valence band at 0 K is called fermi level.
molecules bonded together in solid phase by weak, short range attractive
forces called vander Waal's forces. (2) Conduction band : The higher energy level band is called the
conduction band.
(i) This bonding is weakest and occurs in solid CO , methane, paraffin,
ice, etc.
2

(i) It is also called empty band of minimum energy.

(ii) They are normally insulator, they are soft, easily compressible and (ii) This band is partially filled by the electrons.
posses low melting point.
 1536 Electronics
(iii) In this band the electrons can gain energy from external electric (1) When an electron is removed from a covalent bond, it leaves a
field. vacancy behind. An electron from a neighbouring atom can move into this
(iv) The electrons in the conduction band are called the free electrons. vacancy, leaving the neighbour with a vacancy. In this way the vacancy
They are able to move any where within the volume of the solid. formed is called hole (or cotter), and can travel through the material and
(v) Current flows due to such electrons. serve as an additional current carriers.
(3) Forbidden energy gap (E ) : Energy gap between conduction band
g (2) A hole is considered as a seat of positive charge, having
and valence band E g  (C.B.)min  (V .B.)max magnitude of charge equal to that of an electron.

max.
(3) Holes acts as virtual charge, although there is no physical charge
C.B. on it.
min.
Eg (4) Effective mass of hole is more than electron.

60
max.
V.B. (5) Mobility of hole is less than electron.
min.
Intrinsic Semiconductors
Fig. 27.8
(i) No free electron is present in forbidden energy gap. (1) A pure semiconductor is called intrinsic semiconductor. It has
(ii) Width of forbidden energy gap depends upon the nature of thermally generated current carriers

E3
substance. (2) They have four electrons in the outermost orbit of atom and
(iii) As temperature increases (), forbidden energy gap decreases () atoms are held together by covalent bond
very slightly. (3) Free electrons and holes both are charge carriers and n e (in
Table 27.3 : Types of solid C.B.)  n h (in V.B.)
Properties Conductors Insulators Semiconductors (4) The drift velocity of electrons (v e ) is greater than that of
Electrical
conductivity
Resistivity

Band
10 to 10 Ʊ/m
2 8

10–2 to 10–8 -m

(negligible)
10 –8

108 -m

C.B.
Ʊ/m 10–5
to 10 Ʊ/m
0

105 to 100 -m

ID holes (v h )
(5) For them fermi energy level lies at the centre of the C.B. and V.B.
(6) In pure semiconductor, impurity must be less than 1 in 10 8 parts
of semiconductor.
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structure C.B.
C.B. (7) In intrinsic semiconductor
Eg (large) Eg (small) ne(o )  nh(o )  ni ; where n e(o )  Electron density in conduction band,
V.B.
n h(o )  Hole density in V.B., ni  Density of intrinsic carriers.
YG

V.B.
V.B.
(8) The fraction of electrons of valance band present in conduction
Energy gap Zero or very small Very large; for Ge  0.7 eV
(Eg) diamond it is 6  E / kT
Si  1.1 eV band is given by f  e g ; where E = Fermi energy or k = Boltzmann's
eV g

GaAs 1.3 eV constant and T = Absolute temperature

GaF2  2.8 eV (9) Because of less number of charge carriers at room temperature,
intrinsic semiconductors have low conductivity so they have no practical
Current Free electrons –– Free electrons and
use.
D

carriers holes
Condition of V.B. and C.B. are V.B. – V.B. – somewhat (10) Number of electrons reaching from valence band to conduction
V.B. and C.B. completely filled completely empty  Eg / 2kT
at ordinary or C.B. is some filled band n  AT 3 / 2 e
C.B. – somewhat
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temperature what empty C.B. – filled Extrinsic Semiconductor

completely
unfilled (1) An impure semiconductor is called extrinsic semiconductor
Temperature Positive Zero Negative (2) When pure semiconductor material is mixed with small amounts of
ST

co-efficient of
resistance certain specific impurities with valency different from that of the parent
Effect of Decreases — Increases material, the number of mobile electrons/holes drastically changes. The
temperature process of addition of impurity is called doping.
on
conductivity Impurity
Effect of Increases — Decreases
temperature Intrinsic Extrinsic
+ S.C.
on resistance S.C.
Examples Cu, Ag, Au, Na, Pt, Wood, plastic, Ge, Si, Ga, As etc.
Hg etc. mica, diamond, Fig. 27.9
glass etc. (3) Pentavalent impurities : The elements whose atom has five valance
Electron 1029/m3 — Ge ~ 1019 /m3 electrons are called pentavalent impurities e.g. As, P, Sb etc. These
density Si ~ 1016 /m3 impurities are also called donor impurities because they donate extra free
electron.
Holes in Semiconductors
 Electronics 1537
(4) Trivalent impurities : The elements whose each atom has three P-Type Semiconductor
valance electrons are called trivalent impurities e.g. In, Ga, Al, B, etc. These
impurities are also called acceptor impurities as they accept electron. These are obtained by adding a small amount of trivalent impurity to
(5) The compounds of trivalent and pentavalent elements also behaves a pure sample of semiconductor (Ge).
like semiconductors e.g. GaAs, InSb, In P, GaP etc.
Intrinsic P-type
(6) The number of atoms of impurity element is about 1 in 10 8 + S.C.
S.C.
atoms of the semiconductor. trivalent impurity
(7) In extrinsic semiconductors n e  n h
(8) In extrinsic semiconductors fermi level shifts towards valence or Ge Ge Ge
conduction energy bands.
(9) Their conductivity is high and they are used for practical purposes. Acceptor

60
hole
(10) In a doped extrinsic semiconductor, the number density of e  of
the conduction band (n ) and the number density of holes in the valence
e Ge As Ge
band (n ) differs from that in a pure semiconductor. If n is the number
h i

density of electron in conduction band or the number density of holes in

Valence
valence band in a pure semiconductor then ne nh  ni2 (mass action law) electrons

E3
(11) Extrinsic semiconductors are of two types Ge Ge Ge
(i) N-type semiconductor (ii) P-type semiconductor
N-Type Semiconductor (1) Majority charge carriers – holes
Fig. 27.13
Minority charge carriers – electrons
These are obtained by adding a small amount of pentavalent impurity
(2) n >> n ; i >> i
to a pure sample of semiconductor (Ge).

Intrinsic
S.C.
+
Pentavalent
N-type
S.C.
ID h e h

(3) Conductivity   n  e
e

h h

(4) P-type semiconductor is also electrically neutral (not positively

charged)
(5) Impurity is called Acceptor impurity.
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impurity
(6) Acceptor energy level lies just above the valence band.
Fig. 27.10
Conduction band
Ge Ge Ge
YG

Donor Eg  1 eV Acceptor levels

electron EF Ea  0.01eV
Valence band
Ge As Ge
Fig. 27.14
Valence Density of Charge Carriers
electrons
D

Due to thermal collisions, an electron can take up or release energy.

Ge Ge Ge Thus, occasionally a valence electron takes up energy and the bond is
broken. The electron goes to the conduction band and a hole is created.
U

And occasionally, an electron from the conduction band loses some energy,
(1) Majority charge carriers – Fig.
electrons
27.11
comes to the valence band and fills up a hole. Thus, new electron-hole pairs
Minority charge carriers – holes are formed as well as old electron-hole disappear. A steady-state situation is
(2) n >> n ; i >> i reached and the number of electron-hole pairs takes a nearly constant value.
ST

e h e h

(3) Conductivity   n  e For silicon at room temperature (300 K), the number of these pairs is about
7  10 m . For germanium, this number is about 6  10 /m .
e e

15 3 19 3

(4) N-type semiconductor is electrically neutral (not negatively

charged) Table 27. 4 : Densities of charge carriers
(5) Impurity is called Donar impurity because one impurity atom
Material Type Density of Density of
generate one electron.
conduction holes (m–3)
(6) Donor energy level lies just below the conduction band. electrons (m– 3)

Conduction band Copper Conductor 9  1028 0

EF Ed  0.01eV Silicon Intrinsic 7  1015 7  1015

Eg  1 eV Donor levels semiconductor
Silicon doped with N-type 5  1022 1  109
Valence band phosphorus (1 part semiconductor
in 106)
Fig. 27.12
 1538 Electronics
Silicon doped with P-type 1  109 5  1022 (1) Depletion region : On account of difference in concentration of
aluminium (1 part semiconductor charge carrier in the two sections of P-N junction, the electrons from N-
in 106 region diffuse through the junction into P-region and the hole from P
region diffuse into N-region.
Conductivity of Semiconductor Due to diffusion, neutrality of both N and P-type semiconductor is
disturbed, a layer of negative charged ions appear near the junction in the
(1) In intrinsic semiconductors n = n . Both electron and holes
e h
P-crystal and a layer of positive ions appears near the junction in N-crystal.
contributes in current conduction. This layer is called depletion layer
(2) When some potential difference is applied across a piece of
intrinsic semiconductor current flows in it due to both electron and holes – +
i.e. i = i + i  i  eA [n e v e  n h v h ]
e h
VB

60
e– hole
Electric field
i
P N
V Depletion layer
(i) The thickness of depletion layer is 1 micron = 10 m.

E3
–6

Fig. 27.15 Fig. 27.18

1
J i (ii) Width of depletion layer 
(3) As we know    . Hence conductivity of semiconductor Dopping
E AE
(iii) Depletion is directly proportional to temperature.
  e[ne  e  nh  h ] ; where v = drift velocity of electron, v = drift
e h

(iv) The P-N junction diode is equivalent to capacitor in which the

and  h 
vh
E
 mobility of holes
v
velocity of holes, E = Applied electric field  e  e  mobility of electron
E ID
depletion layer acts as a dielectric.
(2) Potential barrier : The potential difference created across the P-N
junction due to the diffusion of electron and holes is called potential barrier.
For Ge VB  0.3 V and for silicon VB  0.7 V
(4) Motion of electrons in the conduction band and of holes the
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valence band under the action of electric field is shown below On the average the potential barrier in P-N junction is ~ 0.5 V and
the width of depletion region ~ 10 m. –6

E V 0.5
YG

Conduction electron Conduction band So the barrier electric field E    5  10 5 V / m

d 10 6
– – (3) Some important graphs
Eg Hole Band gap Potential Charge density

P N P N
– + – + – Valancy band
+
D

– – – – –
–
 Distance distance
Electric field E
Electric field
U

Fig. 27.16
(5) At absolute zero temperature (0 K) conduction band of P N
semiconductor is completely empty i.e.  = 0. Hence the semiconductor
behaves as an insulator.
ST

Distance

P-N Junction Diode Fig. 27.19

(4) Diffusion and drift current : Because of concentration difference
When a P-type semiconductor is suitably joined to an N-type holes/electron try to diffuse from their side to other side. Only those
semiconductor, then resulting arrangement is called P-N junction or P-N holes/electrons crosses the junction, which have high kinetic energy. This
junction diode diffusion results in an electric current from the P-side to the N-side known
as diffusion current (i )
P-N Junction df

P N As electron hole pair (because of thermal collisions) are continuously

P N created in the depletion region. There is a regular flow of electrons towards
Anode Cathode the N-side and of holes towards the P-side. This makes a current from the
N-side to the P-side. This current is called the drift current (i ). dr

Fig. 27.17 Biasing

 Electronics 1539
It means the way of connecting emf source to P-N junction diode. It
is of following two types
(1) Forward biasing : Positive terminal of the battery is connected to
the P-crystal and negative terminal of the battery is connected to N-crystal

E
Reverse Breakdown
– + If the reverse biased voltage is too high, then breakdown of P-N
Eb
junction diode occurs. It is of following two types
(1) Zener breakdown : When reverse bias is increased the electric
field across the junction also increases. At some stage the electric field
becomes so high that it breaks the covalent bonds creating electron, hole
pairs. Thus a large number of carriers are generated. This causes a large

60
P N current to flow. This mechanism is known as Zener breakdown.
+ – (2) Avalanche breakdown : At high reverse voltage, due to high
(i) In forward biasing width of depletion layer decreases
Fig. 27.20 electric field, the minority charge carriers, while crossing the junction
(ii) In forward biasing resistance offered R  10 - 25 Forward
acquires very high velocities. These by collision breaks down the covalent
bonds, generating more carriers. A chain reaction is established, giving rise
(iii) Forward bias opposes the potential barrier and for V > V a

E3
B
to high current. This mechanism is called avalanche breakdown.
forward current is set up across the junction.
Special Purpose Diodes
(iv) The current is given by i  is (e eV / kT  1) ; where
(1) Zener diode : It is a highly doped p-n junction which is not
is  Saturation current, In the exponent e = 1.6  10 C, -19 damaged by high reverse current. It can operate continuously, without being
damaged in the region of reverse background voltage. In the forward bias,
k = Boltzmann's constant the zener diode acts as ordinary diode. It can be used as voltage regulator
(v) Cut-in (Knee) voltage : The voltage at which the current starts to
increase rapidily. For Ge it is 0.3 V and for Si it is 0.7 V.
(vi) df – diffusion
ID Unregulated
voltage
R

IL Load RL Regulated
Forward current in mA

dr – drift voltage
U
(B) Symbol of zener
P N diode
Idf (A) Zener diode as a voltage regulator
Idr Fig. 27.24designed diodes, which give
YG

(2) Light emitting diode (LED : Specially

Inet
Knee voltage out light radiations when forward biases. LED’S are made of GaAsp, Gap
Forward voltage etc.
Fig. 27.21 These are forward biased P-N-junctions which emits spontaneous
(2) Reverse biasing : Positive terminal of the battery is connected to radiation.
the N-crystal and negative terminal of the battery is connected to P-crystal N
E
– +
D

Eb Fig. 27.25
(3) Photo diode: Photodiode is a special type of photo-detector.
Suppose an optical photons of frequency  is incident on a semiconductor,
such that its energy is greater than the band gap of the semiconductor ( i.e.
h > E ) This photon will excite an electron from the valence band to the
U

conduction band leaving a vacancy or hole in the valence band.

Which obviously increase the conductivity of the semiconductor.
P N Therefore, by measuring the change in the conductance (or resistance) of
the semiconductor, one can measure the intensity of the optical signal.
ST

– +
(i) In reverse biasing width of depletion layer increases
Fig. 27.22
(ii) In reverse biasing resistance offered R  10  Reverse
5

(iii) Reverse bias supports the potential barrier and no current flows
across the junction due to the diffusion of the majority carriers. Fig. 27.26
(4) Solar cells : It is based on the photovoltic effect. One of the
(A very small reverse currents may exist in the circuit due to the
semiconductor region is made so thin that the light incident on it reaches
drifting of minority carriers across the junction) the P-N-junction and gets absorbed. It converts solar energy into electrical
(iv) Break down voltage : Reverse voltage at which break down of energy.
semiconductor occurs. For Ge it is 25 V and for Si it is 35 V.
(v) Reverse voltage

Break down Reverse current

P-N Junction Diode asFig.a 27.27
Rectifier
voltage
Idf
Idr
Inet

Fig. 27.23
 1540 Electronics
Rectifier is a circuit which converts ac to unidirectional pulsating
output. In other words it converts ac to dc. It is of following two types
(1) Half wave rectifier : When the P-N junction diode rectifies half of
the ac wave, it is called half wave rectifier

output
Input RL dc
ac

V or I

60
Input
ac signal + + V0 or I0
(i) During positive half cycle
– – Diode : D forward biased
1

V or I
D 2
reverse biased
Output
dc signal + + V0 or I0 Output signal obtained due to D only

E3
1

(i) During positive half cycle (ii) During negative half cycle
Diode Fig. 27.28
forward biased Diode : D 1
reverse biased
Output signal obtained D forward biased
2

(ii) During negative half cycle Output signal obtained due to D only 2

Diode reverse biased (iii) Fluctuating dc constant dc.

Output signal

constant but pulsating (mixture of ac and dc) in nature .

(iv) Average output in one cycle
not obtained
(iii) Output voltage is obtained across the load resistance R . It is not L
ID
constant but pulsating in nature.

(v) Average output : Vav 

2 V0
Filter
(iv) Output voltage is obtained across the load resistance R . It is not

, Iav 
2 I0
L

 
U
I0 V0 V0
Idc  and Vdc  ; I0  V0 I0
  rf  RL (vi) r.m.s. output : Vrms  , Irms 
2 2
(r = forward biased resistance)
YG

(vii) Ripple factor : r = 0.48 = 48%

I V
(v) r.m.s. output : Irms  0 , Vrms  0 (viii) Ripple frequency : The ripple frequency of full wave rectifier = 2
2 2
 (Frequency of input ac)
(vi) The ratio of the effective alternating component of the output
voltage or current to the dc component is known as ripple factor. (ix) Peak inverse voltage (PIV) : It's value is 2V 0

81 .2
 I 2 
1/2
(x) Efficiency : %  for r << R ,   81.2%
I  r
D

f L

r  ac   rms   1
 = 1.21 1 f
Idc  Idc   RL
 
(vii) Peak inverse voltage (PIV) : The maximum reverse biased voltage (3) Full wave bridge rectifier : Four diodes D , D , D and D are used in 1 2 3 4

the circuit.
U

that can be applied before commoncement of Zener region is called the PIV.
When diode is not conducting PIV across it = V 0
During positive half cycle D and D are forward biased and D and D
1 3 2 4

Pout are reverse biased

40.6
(viii) Efficiency : It is given by %   100  During negative half cycle D and D are forward biased and D and D
ST

Pin rf
1
2 4 1 3

are reverse biased

RL
D1 D4
If R >> r then  = 40.6%
L f

ac –
If R = r then  = 20.3%
L f
supply
D3 RL Vout
Irms  D2
(ix) Form factor =   1 .57 +
Idc 2 V
(x) The ripple frequency () for half wave rectifier is same as that of Input
ac signal + +
ac.
(2) Full wave rectifier : It rectifies both halves of ac input signal. –
D1
Output
dc signal
RL
D2 D3 D4 D1 D3
O/P (dc)
Fig. 27.30
D2
Input
ac signal + +
 Electronics 1541
(2) A transistor is mostly used in the active region of operation i.e.
emitter base junction is forward biased and collector base junction is
reverse biased.
Transistor
(3) From the operation of junction transistor it is found that when the
(1) The name of this electronic device is derived from it's fundamental current in emitter circuit changes. There is corresponding change in
action transfer resistor.
collector current.
(2) Transistor does not need any heater or hot filament, transistor is
small in size and light in weight. (4) In each state of the transistor there is an input port and an output
port. In general each electrical quantity (V or I) obtained at the output is
(3) Transistor in general is known as bipolar junction transistor.
controlled by the input.
(4) Transistor is a current operated device.
Table 27.6 : Circuit diagram of PNP/NPN transistor
(5) It consists of three main regions
NPN – transistor PNP – transistor

60
(i) Emitter (E) : It provides majority charge carriers by which current
flows in the transistor. Therefore the emitter semiconductor is heavily P N P
N P N
doped.
Ib Ie Ib
(ii) Base (B) : The based region is lightly doped and thin.
(iii) Collector (C) : The size of collector region is larger than the two Ie
other regions. Ib Ib

E3
– –
+
(6) Junction transistor are of two types : mA A mA mA A mA
– + +
(i) NPN transistor : It is formed by sandwiching a thin layer of P-type
semiconductor between two N-type semiconductors
VEB VCB VEB VCB
E N P N C E C
Ie Ic Ie Ic

B
Fig. 27.31
In NPN transistor electrons are majority charge carriers and flow from
emitter to base.
B
ID Ib Ib
U
5% emitter electron combine with the 5% emitter holes combine with the
(ii) PNP transistor : It is formed by sandwiching a thin layer of N-type
holes in Vthe
EB base region Vresulting
CB in electrons VinEB the base region
VCBresulting
semiconductor between two P-type semiconductor
small base current. Remaining 95% in small base current. Remaining 95%
electrons enter the collector region. holes enter the collector region.
E P N P C E C
YG

Ie > Ic , and Ie = Ib + Ic Ie > Ic , and Ie = Ib + Ic

B Transistor Configurations
Fig. 27.32 B A transistor can be connected in a circuit in the following three
In PNP transistor holes are majority charge carriers and flow from different configurations.
emitter to base.
Common base (CB), Common emitter (CE) and Common collector
In the symbols of both NPN and PNP transistor, arrow indicates the (CC) configuration.
D

direction of conventional current.

(1) CB configurations : Base is common to both emitter and collector .
Working of Transistor
PNP
(1) There are four possible ways of biasing the two P-N junctions Ie Ic
U

(emitter junction and collector junction) of transistor. E C

(i) Active mode : Also known as linear mode operation. +
B
(ii) Saturation mode : Maximum collector current flows and transistor – RL
Ib VCB = output
ST

acts as a closed switch from collector to emitter terminals. VEB = input

–
(iii) Cut-off mode : Denotes operation like an open switch where only +
leakage current flows.
(iv) Inverse mode : The emitter and collector are inter changed.
(i) Input current = I (ii) Input voltage = V
e EB

Table 27.5 : Different modes of operation of a transistor Fig. 27.33

(iii) Output voltage = V (iv) Output current = I
CB C

Operating mode Emitter base bias Collector base bias

With small increase in emitter-base voltage V , the emitter current I EB e

Active Forward Reverse increases rapidly due to small input resistance.

Saturation forward Forward
(v) Input characteristics : If V = constant, curve between I and V is
CB e EB

Cut off Reverse Reverse known as input characteristics. It is also known as emitter characteristics
Inverse Reverse Forward
VCB = – 10 V

Ie (mA) VCB = – 20 V VCB = 0

VEB (in volt)

 1542 Electronics
Output characteristics : Variation of collector current I with V can be C CE

noticed for V between 0 to 1 V only. The value of V up to which the I

CE CE C

changes with V is called knee voltage. The transistor are operated in the
CE

region above knee voltage.

70 IB=300 A
Input characteristics of NPN transistor are also similar to the above 60
figure but I and V both are negative and V is positive. IB=250 A
50
e EB CB

Dynamic input resistance of a transistor is given by IB=200 A

 V  40 IB=150 A
Ic (mA)
Ri   EB 
 { R is of the order of 100 } 30 IB=100 A
 Ie VCB  constant
i

20 IB=50 A

60
(vi) Output characteristics : Taking the emitter current i constant, the IB=0 mA
e
10
curve drawn between I and V are known as output characteristics of CB
C CB

configuration. 0 5 10 15 20
Ic (mA) VCE (volt)
Ie = 40 mA Fig. 27.38

E3
Ie = 30 mA  V 
Dynamic output resistance R0   CE 

Ie = 20 mA  IC  I B  constant
Ie = 10 mA
Ie = 0 mA Field-Effect Transistor
The low input impedance of the junction transistor is a handicap in

 27.35
Fig.
Dynamic output resistance Ro   CB
 iC
V

VCB (in volt)




 ie  constant
ID
certain applications. In addition, it is difficult to incorporate large numbers
of them in an integrated circuit and they consume relatively large amounts
of power. The field-effect transistor (FET) lacks these disadvantages and is
widely used today although slower in operation than junction transistors.
P-type gate
Input
U
(2) CE configurations : Emitter is common to both base and collector. signal Depletion region
The graphs between voltages and currents when emitter of a transistor –
is common to input and output circuits are known as CE characteristics of Drain
+
a transistor.
YG

Source
PNP
C Ic
Ib B – +
– N-type channel
E
Fig. 27.39
+ RL An n-channel FET consists of a block of N-type material with contacts
Ie VCE = output
– at each end together with a strip of P-type material on one side that is
VEB = input
D

called the gate. When connected as shown, electrons move from the source
+ terminal to the drain terminal through the N-type channel. the PN junction
is given a reverse bias, and as a result both the N and P materials near the
Input characteristics : InputFig.
characteristic
27.36 curve is drawn between base junction are depleted on charge carriers. The higher the reverse potential on
U

current I and emitter base voltage V , at constant collector emitter voltage

b EB
the gate, the larger the depleted region in the channel and the fewer the
V.
CE
electrons available to carry the current. Thus the gate voltage controls the
VCE=0
channel current. Very little current passes through the gate circuit owing to
VCE=1V the reverse bias, and the result is an extremely high input impedance. FET is
ST

100
VCE=2V uni-polar.
80 VCE=5V
Transistor as an Amplifier
60
Ib (A)
A device which increases the amplitude of the input signal is called
40
amplifier.
20
0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 Amplifier
VBE (volt)
 27.37
Fig. V  Input signal
Dynamic input resistance Ri   BE  Output amplified signal
 IB V CE  constant
Fig. 27.40
 Electronics 1543
The transistor can be used as an amplifier in the following three Change in output power(Po )
configuration (iv) Power gain 
Change in input power(Pc )
(i) CB amplifier (ii) CE amplifier (iii) CC amplifier
 Power gain   ac
2
 Resistance gain
(1) NPN transistor as CB amplifier
NPN (2) Transistor as CE amplifier
ie ic
 i 
E C – (i) ac current gain  ac   c 
 V = constant
iC RL  ib 
CE

Output signal
RL
Input B
~ VCB +
signal ib ic
+ (ii) dc current gain  dc 
VCC VCC ib
VEE ic –

60
– + Vo
(iii) Voltage gain : Av    ac  Resistance gain
Fig. 27.41 Vi
(i) ie  ib  iC ; i = 5% of i and i = 95% of i
Po
b e C e

(ii) V < V (iv) Power gain    ac

2
 Resistance gain
EE CC Pi

E3
(iii) Net collector voltage V = V – i R CB CC C L
(v) Trans conductance (g ) : The ratio of the change in collector
m

current to the change in emitter base voltage is called trans conductance.

When the input signal (signal to be amplified) is fed to the emitter
ic A
base circuit, it will change the emitter voltage and hence emitter current. i.e. g m  . Also g m  V ; R = Load resistance
V EB
L

RL
This in turn will change the collector current (i ). This will vary the collector c

voltage V . This variation of V will appear as an amplified output.  

CB CB
(3) Relation between  and  :   or  
1  1
(iv) Input and output signals are in same phase
(2) NPN transistor as CE amplifier

ie
NPN
C ic
ID Transistor as an Oscillator
(1) It is defined as a circuit which generates an ac output signal
without any externally applied input signal.
B
U
Audio frequency oscillators generates signals of frequencies ranging
RL
Output signal

E from a few Hz to 20 kHz and radio frequency oscillators have a range from
Input VCE few kHz to MHz.
Ie
signal ~ +
VCC (2) In an oscillator the frequency, waveform, and magnitude of ac
YG

VBB – power generated is controlled by circuit itself.

+ – (3) An oscillator may be considered as amplifier which provides it's
ic
own input signal.

Fig. 27.42
(4) The essential of a transistor oscillator are
(i) ie  ib  iC ; i = 5% of i and i = 95% of i
b e C e (i) Tank circuit : Parallel combination of L and C. This network
(ii) V > V 1 1
resonates at a frequency  0 
D

CC BB
.
(iii) Net collector voltage V = V – i R 2 LC
CE CC C L

(iv) Input and output signals are 180° out of phase. (ii) Amplifier : It receives dc power from the battery and converts into
ac power.
U

Different Gains in CE/CB Amplifiers The amplifier increases the strength of oscillations.
(1) Transistor as CB amplifier (iii) Feed back circuit : This circuit supplies a part of the collector
energy to the tank circuit.
Small change in collectorcurrent (ic )
ST

(i) ac current gain  ac 

Small change in collectorcurrent (ie ) Amplifier Out put
V (constant)
B

Collector current(ic )
(ii) dc current gain  dc (or ) 
Emitter current (ie )
LC network
valve of  lies between 0.95 to 0.99
dc

Change in output voltage(Vo ) Fig. 27.43

(iii) Voltage gain Av  (5) A basic common-emitter NPN oscillator is shown in the figure.
Change in input voltage (Vi )
L'
 A =   Resistance gain
v ac
C
B
VCC
E
C
L
VBB

Fig. 27.44
 1544 Electronics

A tank circuit (L-C circuit) is connected in the base-emitter circuit, in

which the capacitance C is kept variable. By changing C oscillations of a
desired frequency can be obtained. An inductance coil L' connected in the
collector-emitter circuit is coupled to coil L.

60
On completion of the circuit electrical oscillations are developed in the
Decimal and Binary Number System
tank circuit. The circuit amplifies these oscillations. A part of the amplifies
signal in the collector circuit is fed back in the base circuit by the coupling (1) Decimal number system : In a decimal number system, we have ten
between L and L'. Due to this feed back amplitude of oscillation builds up digits i.e. 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9.
till power dissipation in the oscillatory circuit becomes equal to power fed-
A decimal number system has a base of ten (10)
back. In this state the amplitude of oscillations becomes constant.

E3
The oscillations can be transferred to an external circuit by mutual
e.g. 1971 = 1000 + 900 + 70 + 1
induction in a coil connected in that circuit. = 1  10 + 9  10 + 7  10 + 1  10
3 2 1 0

MSD LSD
(6) Need for positive feedback : The oscillations are damped due to
the presence of some inherent electrical resistance in the circuit. LSD = Least significant digit
Consequently, the amplitude of oscillations decreases rapidly and the
oscillations ultimately stop. Such oscillations are of little practical
importance. In order to obtain oscillations of constant amplitude, we make
an arrangement for regenerative or positive feedback from the output
circuit to the input circuit so that the losses in the circuit can be
compensated.
ID MSD = Most significant digit
(2) Binary number system : A number system which has only two
digits i.e. 0 (Low) and 1 (High) is known as binary system. The base of
binary number system is 2.
U
(i) Each digit in binary system is known as a bit and a group of bits is
A known as a byte.
(ii) The electrical circuit which operates only in these two state i.e. 1
(On or High) and 0 (i.e. Off or Low) are known as digital circuits.
YG

Table 27. 8 : Different names for the digital signals

t
State Code 1 0

Fig. 27.45 On Off

Table 27.7: Comparison between CB, CE and CC amplifier Up Down

Characteristic Amplifier Close Open

D

Name for the State Excited Unexcited

CB CE CC
True False
Input resistance  50 to 200   1 to 2 k  150 – 800 k
(Ri) Pulse No pulse
U

low medium high

High Low
Output resistance  1 – 2 k high  50 k  k low
(Ro) medium Yes No
ST

Current gain 0.8 – 0.9 low 20 – 200 high 20 – 200 high (3) Decimal to binary conversion
Voltage gain Medium High Low (i) Divide the given decimal number by 2 and the successive quotients
by 2 till the quotient becomes zero.
Power gain Medium High Low
(ii) The sequence of remainders obtained during divisions gives the
Phase difference Zero 180o Zero binary equivalent of decimal number.
between input and
(iii) the most significant digit (or bit) of the binary number so
output voltages obtained is the last remainder and the least significant digit (or bit) is the
Used as amplifier current Power Voltage
first remainder obtained during the division.
for For Example : Binary equivalence of 61
2 61 Remainder
2 30 1 LSD
2 15 0
Digital Electronics
 Electronics 1545

2 7 1
2 3 1
2 1 1 A
T
0 1 MSD +

 (61) = (111101)
10 2

(4) Binary to decimal conversion : The least significant digit in the

binary number is the coefficient of 2 with power zero. As we move towards A OFF  Lamp ON
the left side of LSD, the power of 2 goes on increasing. A ON  Contact at T is broken
For Example : (11111100101) = 1  2 + 1  2 + 1  2 + 1  2 + 1  2 + 1
10 9 8 7 6  Lamp OFF
2

 2 + 0  2 + 0  2 + 1  2 + 0  2 + 1  2 = 2021
5 4 3 2 1 0
(3) Basic Boolean postulates and laws
Fig. 27.50

60
Voltage Signal (i) Boolean Postulates : 0 + A = A, 1 · A = A,
(1) Analogue voltage signal : The signal which represents the 1 + A = 1, 0 · A = 0,
continuous variation of voltage with time is known as analogue voltage A A 1
signal (ii) Identity law : A + A = A, A·A=A

E3
+ V0 (iii) Negation law : AA
V (iv) Commutative law : A + B = B + A, A · B = B · A
(v) Associative law : (A+B) + C = A + (B+C),
Time
– V0 (A · B) · C = A · (B · C)
(vi) Distributive law : A · (B+C) = A · B + A · C
(2) Digital voltage signal : Fig. signal which has only two values. i.e.
The27.46
either a constant high value of voltage or zero value is called digital voltage
signal

+V
ID (A + B) · (A + C) = A + BC
(vii) Absorption laws : A + A·B = A, A · (A + B) = A

A ·( A  B)  A · B

(viii) Boolean identities : A  A B  A  B , A( A  B)  AB ,

U
O
Time A  BC  ( A  B) ( A  C) , ( A  B) ·( A  C)  AC  AB
Fig. 27.47 (ix) De Morgan’s theorem : It states that the complement of the whole
YG

Boolean Algebra
sum is equal to the product of individual complements and vice versa i.e.
(1) In Boolean algebra only two states of variables (0 and 1) are
allowed. A  B  A  B and A  B  A  B
(2) The variables (A, B, C ….) of Boolean Algebra are subjected to three Logic Gates and Truth Table
operations.
(i) OR Operation : Represented by (+) sign (1) Logic gate : The digital circuit that can be analysed with the help of
Boolean algebra is called logic gate or logic circuit. A logic gate has two or
A more inputs but only one output.
D

There are primarily three logic gates namely the OR gate, the AND
gate and the NOT gate.
B (2) Truth table : The operation of a logic gate or circuit can be
U

represented in a table which contains all possible inputs and their

corresponding outputs is called the truth table. To write the truth table we
Boolean expression Y = A Fig.
+ B27.48 use binary digits 1 and 0.
ST

When switch A or B is closed – Bulb glows

The 'OR' Gate
(ii) AND Operation : Represented by (·) sign
Boolean expression Y = A · B (1) It has two inputs (A and B) and only one output (Y)

When switches A and B both are closed – Bulb glows (2) Boolean expression is Y = A + B and is read as " Y equals A OR
B"

A B A
Y
B
Fig. 27.51 : Logical symbol of OR gate
Fig. 27.49 (3) Realization of OR gate
(iii) NOT Operation : Represented by bar over the variables
D1
Boolean expression Y  A A

R
B
D2
 1546 Electronics
None of the diode conducts
the out voltage at Y= Battery voltage =1
(4) Truth table for 'AND' gate
A B Y=A.B
0 0 0
(i) A = 0, B = 0 0 1 0
Both diodes D and D do not conduct and hence Y = 0
1 2 1 0 0
(ii) A = 0, B = 1 1 1 1
D = Does not conducts, D = Conducts, hence Y = 1
1 2

60
(iii) A = 1, B = 0 The 'NOT' Gate
D = Conducts, D = Does not conduct, hence Y = 1
1 2 (1) It has only one input and only one output.
(iv) A = 1, B = 1
(2) Boolean expression is Y  A and is read as ‚y equals not A‛
Both D and D conducts, hence Y = 1
1 2

E3
(4) Truth table for 'OR' gate A Y
A B Y=A+B
Fig 27.55 : Logical symbol of NOT gate
0 0 0
(3) Realization of NOT gate : The transistor is so biased that the
0 1 1 collector voltage V = V (Voltage corresponding to 1 state)
CC

1 0 1 The resistors R and R are so chosen that if the input is low i.e. O, the

The 'AND' Gate

1 1

(1) It has two inputs (A and B) and only one output (Y)
1
ID 1

transistor is in the cut off and hence the voltage appearing at the output
will be the same as applied V. Hence Y = V (or state 1)
If the input is high, the transistor current is in saturation and the net
voltage at the output Y is 0 (in state 0)
U
(2) Boolean expression is Y = A · B is read as " Y equals A AND B"

A
Y VCC = V
B 27.53 : Logical symbol of AND gate
YG

Fig.
(3) Realization of AND gate R
Y

D1 C
A R1
A 1
B
Y V E
D

V R 0
B
V
D2 Fig.: 27.56
(4) Truth table for NOT gate
0
U

A Y A
Fig. 27.54
(i) A = 0, B = 0 0 1
ST

The voltage supply through R is forward biasing diodes D and D 1 2 1 0

(offers low resistance) the voltage V would drop across R
The output voltage at Y = the voltage across diode = 0 Combination of Logic Gates
(ii) A = 0, B = 1 (1) The ‘NAND’ gate : From ‘AND’ and ‘NOT’ gate
D = conducts, D = Not Conducts
Y = A · B
1 2

A
the out voltage at Y= The voltage across the diode (D ) =0 AND NOT
B
1

(iii) A = 1, B = 0
D = Conducts, D = Not conducts A
1 2

 Y
the out voltage at Y= The voltage across the diode (D ) =0 2
B

iv) A = 1, B = 1 Fig. 27.57

 Electronics 1547

Boolean expression and truth table : Y  A  B 1 0 1

1 1 0
A B Y = A  B Y
(4) The exclusive nor (XNOR) gate
0 0 0 1 XOR + NOT XNOR
0 1 0 1 A
Y
1 0 0 1
B
1 1 1 0
A
(2) The ‘NOR’ gate : From ‘OR’ and ‘NOT’ gate  Y

60
B
A Y = A + B
OR NOT Fig. 27.60
B Boolean expression : Y = A  B = A B  AB

Logic Gates Using 'NAND' Gate

A

E3
 Y The NAND gate is the building block of the digital electronics. All the
B
logic gates like the OR, the AND and the NOT can be constructed from the
NAND gates.
Fig. 27.58
(1) Construction of the ‘NOT’ gate from the ‘NAND’ gate
Boolean expression and truth table : Y  A  B
(i) When both the inputs (A and B) of the NAND gate are joined
A B Y = A + B Y
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
1
1
1
0
0
ID together then it works as the NOT gate.
A
B
Fig. 27.61
Y
U
1 1 1 0 (ii) Truth table and logic symbol
Input Output
(3) The ‘XOR’ gate : From ‘NOT’, ‘AND’ and ‘OR’ gate. Known as
A=B Y
YG

exclusive OR gate.
or 0 1
The logic gate which gives high output (i.e., 1) if either input A or 1 0
input B but not both are high (i.e. 1) is called exclusive OR gate or the XOR
gate.
(2) Construction of the ‘AND’ gate from the ‘NAND’ gate
It may be noted that if both the inputs of the XOR gate are high, then
the output is low (i.e., 0). (i) When the output of the NAND gate is given to the input of the
D

NOT gate (made from the NAND gate), then the resultant logic gate works
A Y '  A. B as the AND gate
A
Y Y
B A
U

Y B
Fig. 27.62
(ii) Truth table and logic symbol
ST

A
A B Y Y
B
0 0 1 0
B Y ' '  A. B
0 1 1 0
A
 Y 1 0 1 0
B 1 1 0 1

table : Y = A  B = A B  A B
Fig. 27.59
Boolean expression and truth
(3) Construction of the ‘OR’ gate by the ‘NAND’ gate
A B Y
0 0 0 (i) When the outputs of two NOT gates (obtained from the NAND
gate) is given to the inputs of the NAND gate, the resultant logic gate works
0 1 1 as the OR gate

A
A

Y
 1548 Electronics

(5) Four processes of electron emission from a metal are

(i) Thermionic emission
(ii) Photoelectric emission
(iii) Field emission
(iv) Secondary emission
Thermionic Emission
(ii) Truth table and logic symbol
(1) The phenomenon of ejection of electrons from a metal surface by
A B Y the application of heat is called thermionic emission and emitted electrons

60
A B
are called thermions and current flowing is called thermion current.
0 0 1 1 0
(2) Thermions have different velocities.
0 1 1 0 1 (3) This was discovered by Edison
1 0 0 1 1 (4) Richardson – Dushman equation for current density (i.e. electric
1 1 0 0 1 current emitted per unit area of metal surface) is given as

E3
qV 11600 V
 
J  AT 2 e  W0 / kT  AT 2 e kT  AT 2 e T

Valve Electronics where A = emission constant = 12  10 4 amp/ m -K , k = 2 2

Boltzmann’s constant, T = Absolute temp and W = work function. 0

(5) The number of thermions emitted per second per unit area ( J)
depends upon following :
ID (i) J  T 2 (ii) J  e W0
Table 27.9: Types of thermionic emitters

Directly heated emitter Indirectly heated emitter

U
Plate
Plate

Electron Emission from Metal

YG

e– e–
(1) Free electron in metal experiences a barrier on surface due to
attractive Coulombian force. Cathode Filament
Cathode Filament
(2) When kinetic energy of electron becomes greater than barrier F F
Cathode is directly heated by passing Cathode is indirectly heated.
potential energy (or binding energy E b ) then electron can come out of the current.
surface of metal. Thermionic current is less. Thermionic current is more.
D

(3) Fermi energy (E ) : Is the maximum possible energy possessed by

f Energy consumption and life is small. Energy consumption and life is more.
free electron in metal at 0K temperature
(i) In this energy level, probability of finding electron is 50%. Vacuum Tubes and Thermionic Valves
U

(ii) This is a reference level and it is different for different metals. (1) Those tubes in which electrons flows in vacuum are called vacuum
(4) Threshold energy (or work function W ) : Is the minimum energy tubes.
0

required to take out an electron from the surface of metal. Also W = E – E 0 b f

(2) These are also called valves because current flow in them is
unidirectional.
ST

Ionised energy
level (3) Vacuum in vacuum tubes prevents the emission of secondary
W0 electrons and burning of heated filament (which will happen if we use air in
Eb
Fermi energy place of vacuum)
level
Ef (4) Every vacuum tube necessarily contains two electrodes out of
Ground which one is always electron emitter (cathode) and another one is electron
energy level collector (anode or plate).
W0 = Eb – Ef
(5) Depending upon the number of electrodes used the vacuum tubes
Fig. 27.64
Work function for different materials are named as diode, triode, tetrode, pentode…. respectively, if the number of
electrodes used are 2, 3, 4, 5….. respectively.
(W )
0 Pure tungsten
= 4.5 eV W0
Diode Valve
(W )
0 Throated tungsten
= 2.6 eV
(W ) = 1 eV Heater
0 Oxide coa ted tungsten Cathode (K)
Temp. Anode (P)
Fig. 27.65 P
Glass

e–

Filament
C
F F
 Electronics 1549

4 mek 2
A = Emission constant = amp / m 2  k 2
h3
S = Area of emitter in m 2 ; T = Absolute temperature in K
0 =Work function of metal in Joule; k =Boltzmann constant
The small increase in ip after saturation stage due to field emission is
known as Shottkey effect.
(4) Diode resistance
Vp
(1) Inventor : Fleming (i) Static plate resistance or dc plate resistance : R p  .
ip

60
(2) Principle : Thermionic emission
(ii) Dynamic or ac plate resistance : If at constant filament current, a
(3) Number of electrodes : Two small change ∆V in the plate potential produces a small change ip in the
P

(4) Working : When plate potential ( V p ) is positive, plate current plate current, then the ratio Vp / ip is called the dynamic resistance, or
( i p ) flows in the circuit (because some emitted electrons reaches to plate). V p
If + V p increases i p also increases and finally becomes maximum the ‘plate resistance’ of the diode rp  .

E3
ip
(saturation).
iP (iii) In SCLR : rp  R p , (iv) In TLR : R p  rp and rp   .
(5) Uses of diode valve
mA
P (i) As a rectifier (ii) As a detector
+
C (iii) As a transmitter (iv) As a modulator
VPP

F F
VP Rh –
ID Diode Valve as a Rectifier
Rectifier is a device which converts ac into dc
(1) Half wave rectifier : The circuit of half wave rectifier is shown
below. In the first half cycle of ac input the diode conducts and in the
U
Fig. 27.67 second half cycle it does not conducts. Thus half of the input cycle appear
(5) Space charge : If V p is zero or negative, then electrons collect
as output.
around the plate as a cloud which is called space charge. space charge
decreases the emission of electrons from the cathode. F
F
YG

Characteristic Curves of a Diode Output voltage

D1
~ VOut
A graph represents the variation of i p with V p at a given filament RL
current ( i f ) is known as characteristic curve.
t
E (A) Half wave rectifier (B) Output signal
T2
ip C
D

(mA) D T1 Fig. 27.69

B
(i) Output voltage is not constant but pulsating in nature.
Stopping
potential A LR TLR or SR (ii) It is a mixture of ac and dc.
(iii) The dc values of the half wave output are given by
U

O SCLR VP (volt)
V0 i0
Fig. 27.68
The curve is not linear hence diode valve is a non-ohmic device. Vd .c.  and id .c. 
 
(1) Space charge limited region (SCLR) : In this region current is space
ST

charge limited current. (iv) The r.m.s. values of the half wave output are given by

Also ip  Vp3 / 2  ip  kV p3 / 2 ; where k is a constant depending on V0 i

Vrms  and irms  0
metal as well as on the shape and area of the cathode. This is called child’s 2 2
law. (v) The ratio of the effective alternating component to the direct
(2) Linear region (LR) : In this region ip  Vp component of the output voltage or current is called ripple factor
2
(3) Saturated region (SR) or temperature limited region (TLR) : In this ia.c. i   
2
part, the current is independent of potential difference applied between the r   rms   1     1  1 .21  121% .
cathode and anode. id .c.  id . c .  2
ip  f (Vp ) , ip  f (Temperature) (vi) Efficiency of half wave rectifier is given by
The saturation current follows Richardson Dushman equation i.e.
i  AST 2e 0 / kT ; Here
 1550 Electronics


Pd .c.
 100% 
40.6
%
Triode Valve
Pa.c. r
1 p Control grid
RL Cathode (K)
(G)
The maximum efficiency (for R >> r ) = 40.6%
L p Anode (P)
Glass
irms V  P
(vii) Form factor   rms   1 .57
id .c. Vd .c. 2
G
(viii) Ripple frequency = Frequency of input ac = 
(2) Full wave rectifier : It consist of two diodes D and D . They 1 2 K
conducts alternately during positive and negative half cycle of input ac and

60
Base pins
a unidirectional (or dc) current flows in output (B) Symbol
(A) Triode valve
D1 F
F (1) Inventor : Dr. Lee De Forest
Fig. 27.71

Output voltage
(2) Principle : Thermionic emission
~ + V0 Output voltage
(3) Number of electrodes : It consists of three electrodes.

E3
RL
D1 D2 D1 D2 (i) Filament (F) : It emits electron on heating.
F O (ii) Plate or anode (P) : It collect the electrons.
D2 t
F
(iii) Control grid : It is a third electrode, also known as control grid,
(A) Full wave rectifier (B) Output signal
which controls the electrons going from cathode to plate. As a result grid
(i) The average or dc output values are controls the plate current. It is kept near the cathode with low negative

Vd .c. 
2V0

Fig. 27.70
2i
and id .c.  0

(ii) It is a mixture of ac and dc


ID
potential.
When grid is given positive potential then plate current increases but
in this case triode cannot be used for amplifier and therefore grid is
normally not given positive potential.
(iii) The r.m.s. values of the half wave output are given by
U
When grid is given negative potential then plate current decreases but
V0 i0 in this case grid controls plate current most effectively.
Vrms  and irms 
2 2 (4) Working : Plate of triode valve is always kept at positive potential
YG

w.r.t. cathode. The potential of plate is more than that of grid.

2
  
(iv) Ripple factor r     1  0 .48  48% . iP
2 2 
 
(v) Efficiency of half wave rectifier is given by P mA RL
G
Pd .c. 81.2
  100%  %
Pa.c. r
1 p K VP
D

RL – VPP
F F
The maximum efficiency (for R >> r ) = 81.2%
L p
+
i V 
(vii) Form factor  rms  rms   1 .11
U

id .c. Vd .c. 2 2 Fig. 27.72

The variation of plate potential affects the plate current as follows
(viii) Ripple frequency = Double of frequency of input ac = 2  V 
3/2

ip  k  VG  p  ; where  = Amplification factor of triode valve, k =

ST

Filter Circuit   
Filter circuits smooth out the fluctuations in amplitude of ac ripple of Constant of triode valve.
the output voltage obtained from a rectifier. The valve of V for which the plate current becomes zero is known as
G

(i) Filter circuit consists of capacitors or/ and choke coils. Vp

the cut off voltage. For a given V p , it is given by VG   .
(ii) A capacitor offers a high resistance to low frequency ac ripple 
(infinite resistance to dc) and a low resistance to high frequency ac ripple.
Therefore, it is always used as a shunt to the load.
Characteristics of Triode
(iii) A choke coil offers high resistance to high frequency ac, and almost The triode characteristics can be obtained under two sets of condition
zero resistance to dc. It is used in series. as
Static characteristics and dynamic characteristics
(iv)  - Filter is best for ripple control.
(1) Static characteristics : Graphical representation of V or V and i
(v) For voltage regulation choke input filter (L-filter) is best. p g p

without any load

 Electronics 1551
(i) Static plate characteristic curve : Graphical representation of i and p
(a) Points at which load line cuts the plate characteristic curves are
V at constant V .
P g
called operating points.

ip dip 1
Vg = 0 – 2V – 4V (b) The slope of load line AB  
dVp RL

(c) In graph, OA  Vpp  intercept of load line on V axis and P

OB  Vpp / R L  intercept of load line on i p axis.

(d) Static plate characteristic + load line

VP Dynamic plate characteristic
O
Static mutual characteristic + load line

60
Fig. 27.73
(ii) Static mutual characteristics curve : Graphical representation of i
Dynamic mutual characteristic
P

and V when V is kept constant

G P

ip VP=120V Constants of Triode Valve

VP=100V
(1) Plate or dynamic resistance (r )

E3
VP=80V P

(i) The slope of plate characteristic curve is equal to

1
plate resistance

+Vg or It is the ratio of small change in plate voltage to the change in plate
 Vg  Vg  Vg O current produced by it, the grid voltage remaining constant. That is,
3 2

(iii) Constant current characteristic curve : Graphical representation

between V and V when i is constant.
p g p
1

Fig. 27.74 ID rp 
Vp
ip
, VG  constant .

Vg=0 – 2V
 BC 
U
ip rp   
1 Vp
A  AB 
iP

ip B
C
YG

VP
O VP
Vg Fig. 27.77
(ii) It is expressed in kilo ohms (K). Typically, it ranges from 8K to
Fig. 27.75 40K. The r can be determined from plate characteristics. It represents the
(2) Dynamic characteristics : The curve plotted between i , V and V p

p p g
reciprocal of the slope of the plate characteristic curve.
when the triode contains load in the plate circuit are called dynamics
characteristics of diode. (iii) If the distance between plate and cathode is increased the r p
D

increases. The value of r is infinity in the state of cut off bias or saturation
p

(i) Load line : Voltage drop i R across load R which decreases the plate
p L L
state.
potential will be less then the supply voltage. (2) Mutual conductance (or trans conductance) (g ) m

1 Vpp (i) It is defined as the ratio of small change in plate current (ip ) to
U

Plate voltage V = V – i R  ip   Vp 
the corresponding small change in grid potential (Vg ) when plate
p pp p L

RL RL
This equation represents a straight line on the static plate characteristics,  i 
joining the points ( V pp , 0) on plate voltage axis and (0, Vpp / R L ) on plate potential V p is kept constant i.e. gm   p 
ST

 Vg 
 Vp is constant
current axis. This line known as load line.
AC ip
gm 
ip BC A
Vg=0 – 2V – 4V VP =100 V
 VPP  B
 0 ,  ip
 RL  B
C
VG
A iG O
O VP
(VPP, 0) Fig. 27.78
(ii) The value of g is equal to the slope of mutual characteristics of
m

Fig. 27.76 triode.

 1552 Electronics
(iii) The value of g depends upon the separation between grid and
m
(4) The linear portion of the mutual characteristic with maximum
cathode. The smaller is this separation, the larger is the value of g and vice m slope is chosen for amplification without distortion.
versa.
iP (mA)
(iv) In the saturation state, the value of ip  0 , g m  0

(3) Amplification factor () : It is defined as the ratio of change in

Linear part
plate potential (Vp ) to produce certain change in plate current (ip ) to
the change in grid potential (Vg ) for the same change in plate current Output

 V  –V
(ip ) i.e.     p 
gg

; negative sign indicates that V and V

 Vg  p g O Vg
 I p  a constant
– Vgg– Vi – Vgg+Vi

60
are in opposite phase.
(i) Amplification factor depends upon the distance between plate and
cathode (d ), plate and grid (d ) and grid and cathode(d ). Input
(i) For the positive half cycle of input voltage (V ) : V becomes less
pk pg gk

i g

1 Fig. 27.81
i.e.   d pg  d pk  negative, so i increases
P

d gk
(ii) For the negative half cycle of input voltage (V ) : V becomes more

E3
i g

(ii) The value of  is greater than one. negative, so i decreases

p

(iii) Amplification factor is unitless and dimensionless. (iii) The phase difference between the output signal and input signal is
(4) Relation between triode constants : The triode constants are not 180° (or )
independent of each other. They are related by the relation   rp  g m (5) Voltage amplification
The rp and g m depends on i in the following manner ip
p

rp  ip 1 / 3 , gm  ip1 / 3 ,  does not depend on i .

Above three constants may be determined from any one set of
characteristic curves.
ip
p
ID Triode
rp

–Vi
RL
Output
VO
U
VP 1  V P 2 VP1
rp  , Fig. 27. 82 : Equivalent circuit of triode amplifier
I PA  I PB A VP2
ipA Vi
I  I PB Current through the load resistance is given by ip  
gm  PA , rp  R L
YG

VG1  VG 2 C ipB
B
 Vi RL V0 R L
VP 1  VP 2  V0  ip RL   Voltage gain  
 VG1 VG2 O VG rp  RL Vi rp  R L
VG 2  VG1
Fig. 27.79
R L 
Triode as an Amplifiers Numerically A  
rp  R L rp
Amplifier is a device by which the amplitude of variation of ac signal 1
RL
D

voltage / current/ power can be increased

(1) The signal to be amplified (V ) is applied in the grid circuit and (i) If R =   A will be maximum and A = 
L max
i

amplified output is obtained from the plate circuit (Practically A < )

U

P 
(ii) If r = R  A =
Output p L

2
G RL Vo voltage
(iii) Power at load resistance P  ip V0  ip2 RL
ST

Vi Vg C
– + Condition for maximum power R = r L p

Vgg RL K Vpp
2
+ –  Vi   2 Vi2
 Pmax     RL 

 RL  RL  4 RL

Fig.sum
(2) The voltage at grid is the 27.80
of signal V and grid bias V .
i gg

Vg  Vgg  Vi
(3) Small change in grid voltage results in a large change in plate
current so results in a large change in voltage across
RL (V0  ip RL  V0  ip RL )
 The most efficient packing of atoms in cubic lattice structure
occurs for fcc.
 Electronics 1553
CE configuration.
 The lattice for NaCl crystal is fcc.
 The space lattice of diamond is fcc. (The diamond structure may be  MOSFETS : In a MOSFET, a type of three-terminal transistor, a
viewed as two fcc structures displaced from each other by one quarter of potential applied to the gate terminal G controls the internal flow of
a body diagonal). electrons from the source terminal S to the drain terminal D. Commonly,
a MOSFET is operated only in its ON (conducting) or OFF (not
 Carbon, silicon, germanium, tin can crystallize in the diamond conducting condition. Installed by the thousands and millions on silicon
structure.
wafers (chips) to form integrated circuits, MOSFETs form the basis for
 At room temperature  Ge   Si computer hardware.

 (ni )Ge ~ 2.4  1019 / m 3 and (ni )Si ~ 1.5  1016 / m 3  When a PN junction is forward biased, it can emit light, hence can
serve as a light-emitting diode (LED). The wavelength of the emitted
 In a transistor circuit the reverse bias is high as compared to the

60
c hc
forward bias. So that it may exert a large attractive force on the charge light is   
f Eg
carriers to enter the collector region.
 Ge is more sensitive to heat since it's forbidden energy gap is smaller  The fermi energy of a given material is the energy of a quantum
than that of silicon. Electrons from the valence band of Ge requires less state that has the probability 0.5 of being occupied by an electron.
energy to move from the valence band to conduction band.  Number of conduction electrons per unit volume

E3
 Both N-type as well as P-type semiconductor are neutral. (Material' s density)

 Semiconductor devices are current control devices. (Molar mass M)/N A

 The semiconductor devices are temperature sensitive devices. (N = Avogadro's number = 6.02  10 /mol)
A
23

 The electric field setup across the potential barrier is of the order  The occupancy probability P(E) : Electrical conduction of a metal
of 3  10 V/m for Ge and 7  10 V/m for Si.
5 5

 An ideal junction diode when forward biased offers zero resistance.

ID
Voltage drop across such a junction diode is zero. In reverse biased diode
offers infinite resistance and voltage drop across it is equal to voltage
depends on the probability that if an energy level is available at energy E,
is it actually occupied by an electron.
the expression for occupancy probability P(E) is given by
1
U
applied. Fermi-Dirac statistics P(E)  ; E =Fermi energy
 E  EF 
F

exp   1
 A P-N junction diode can be considered to be equivalent to a  kT 
capacitor with P and N regions acting as the plates of the capacitors and
 A good emitter should have low work function, high melting point,
YG

depletion layer as the dielectric medium.

high working temperature, high electrical and mechanical strength.
 The mobility of electron is two-three times the mobility of holes.
Therefore NPN devices are fast and hence preferred.  When triode amplifier are in series, total voltage gain
A = A A A ..........
 If Eg ~– 0 eV , the material is good conductor or metal and if 1 2 3

Eg ~– 1 eV , the material is a semiconductor. If Eg ~– 6 eV then the

 When two triode valve are in parallel
T.V.-1
D

material is an insulator. 1 1 1
Total plate resistance  
rp rp1 rp
 A P-N junction or diode acts like a valve or voltage controlled 2 T.V.-2
switch. When forward biased, it acts like ON switch. When reverse
Total mutual conductance Gm  gm1  gm 2
U

biased, it acts like an OFF switch.

 The current due to minority carriers in the junction diode is Total amplification factor  = G R m p

independent of the applied voltage. It only depends upon the R L

Voltage amplification A 
ST

temperature of the diode.

rp  R L
 Voltage obtained from a diode rectifier is a mixture of alternating
and direct voltage.  NOR gate is a universal gate because it can be used to perform the
basic logic function, AND, OR and NOT.
 Cross sectional area of base is very large as compared to emitter.
Cross sectional area of collector is less than base but greater than  Output in Ex-OR gate is '1' only when inputs are different.
emitter.  If both inputs of NAND gate are shorted then it will become 'NOT
 C.C (common collector) amplifier is called power amplifier or gate
current booster or emitter follower.
–
 Devices like tunnel diode, tetrode and thyrisisters have negative A A
resistance. NOT gate

 Transistor provides good power amplification when they are use in