Unit-3-Cognitive Development

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 Unit 3 – Cognitive Development
Introduction
“Every student can learn, just not on the same day or the same way”. – George Evans

Each child develops the ability to think

and to discover the environment. This is called
cognitive development. Cognitive
development refers to the acquisition of
knowledge, development of skills,
and enrichment of problem solving
abilities which facilitate the child’s capacity
to think and understand the world. Cognitive
development explores the changes in the
mental abilities of childrenthroughout
their growing years. Cognitive
development explores the changes in
the mental abilities of children throughout their growing years.
https://www.bacttraining.com/2nd-stage-of-piagets-cognitive-development/

In this module, the developing mind is discovered through the theories of Jean Piaget
and Lev Vygotsky. The module will provide answers on the nature of knowledge among
children and how their knowledge change at different pace and time. It is because
experiences of children can influence their cognitive development. It will also look into the
diverse factors affecting language and cognitive development and as well as the theories of
intelligence.
This unit will be completed in 12 hours.
In this Unit, you are expected to:
1. Differentiate Piaget’s cognitive theory and Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory;
2. Explain the crucial role of language to the development of higher-level thinking,
reasoning, and memory processes;
3. Understand the different factors affecting cognitive and language development;
4. Explore changes in human mind with emphasis on individual differences and
intelligence;
5. Draw implications of these cognitive development theories, theories of intelligence,
and theories of language development to education, child care, and parenting;
6. Critique researches on cognitive development of children and adolescents.
LET’S START
Try This!
Rebus puzzles are designed to test your IQ by showing words in a certain way
and you have to understand what these words try to say.
Watch this video in this link https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pXmXS84DPKc
Answer the following questions:
1. How many correct answers did you get?
2. Was it difficult to answer? Why?

3. What helped you in getting the clues?

4. How did you come up with your answers?

A. Cognitive Development Theories

Topic 1. Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory
Loraine S. Tattao, RGC, RPsy, LPT, PhD.

Jean Piaget’s cognitive

development theory illustrates how
young children think differently
compared to adults. Piaget’s theory aims
to describe how reasoning and thinking
develops in children following the
different stages of cognitive
development. According to Piaget,
cognitive development is an unceasing
organization and reorganization of
mental process as a product of biological maturation (nature) and https://www.verywellmind.com/piagets-
stages-of-cognitive-development-2795457 environmental experience (nurture). Piaget views children as
constructivist wherein they construct reality based on their available knowledge.
Learning Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, you are expected to:
1. Identify and differentiate the major concepts in Piaget’s theory;
2. Discuss Piaget’s stages of cognitive development;
3. Discriminate behaviors and actions of children with Piaget’s stages of
cognitive development;
4. Identify educational implications of Piaget’s theory.
LET’S LEARN
Do this!
Try to analyze the following situations and determine whether the child/children
involved is/are toddlers (T), preschoolers (PS), grade school children (GSC), or adolescents
(A).
1. Mother hides the toy of Cyrille but Cyrille seems not affected. She cheerfully finds
another toy from her toy basket.
2. Nisha is asked to write a story on what life would be during the Civil War.
3. Daddy and Lauren play peek-a-boo. Lauren giggles with delight.
4. Lyndzei and Linae enjoy taking turns helping their mother bake in the kitchen.
5. Mother shows Mariel a bouquet of flowers which consists of tulips and carnation. She
asked Mariel if there are more flowers or tulips. Mariel answers, “more tulips”.
6. A group of learners brainstorm about the effect of the pandemic to global economy.
7. “Someone is playing drums in the sky,” Zailon said.
8. Mikka smilingly nods on the telephone to answer her mother who is on the other side
of the phone asking if she likes the food prepared for her.
9. A child prefers 10 pieces of 10 peso coins than a 200-peso bill.
10. Teacher Laurie asks her learners to classify the things found in the classroom into
living or non-living thing.

JEAN PIAGET’S COGNITVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY

Jean Piaget coined the term genetic epistemology referring to the study of the origin
of knowledge. Piaget’s background in zoology is quite apparent from his definition of
intelligence as a basic life function that helps the organism adapt to its environment. (Shaffer
and Kipp, 2007)

Piaget’s Major Concepts:

Scheme
Piaget proposes that cognition develops through the enhancement and modification of
mental structures or schemes. A scheme is a pattern of thought or action and represents the
real world. (Shaffer and Kipp, 2007). It is any concept or idea on how the world works.
Schemes are used by children to interpret and organize the world they live in.

Organization and Adaptation

Organization is the process by which children combine existing schemes into new and
more complex intellectual schemes. Piaget believed that children are continuously organizing
whatever schemes they have into more complex and adaptive structures.

The goal of organization is to promote adaptation, the process of adjusting to the

demands of the environment. According to Piaget, adaptation occurs through two
complementary activities: assimilation and accommodation. (Shaffer and Kipp, 2007).
Assimilation
 Assimilation is the process by which children try to interpret new experiences in
terms of their existing models of the world, the schemes they already possess. The child tries
to adapt to a new stimulus by interpreting it as something familiar. Assimilation is the
expansion of the child’s knowledge.

Accommodation
Accommodation is the process of modifying existing structures in order to account for
new experiences. It is the change of cognitive structures or the existing scheme in order to
incorporate or adapt to a new experience.

Equilibration
Equilibration refers to the force which drives the learning process. A child
experiences equilibrium when his schemas can deal with most new information through
assimilation. However, a state of disequilibrium occurs when new information cannot be
incorporated into existing schemas Equilibrium is restored through successful
accommodation. (McLeod, S. A., 2018)

Piaget's 4 Stages of Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development proposes that children pass through
different stages suggests that children move through four different stages of intellectual
development which reflect the increasing sophistication of children's thought. (McLeod, S.
A., 2018)

According to Piaget, these stages of intellectual growth represent qualitatively

different levels of functioning and form called invariant developmental sequence; that is,
all children pass through the stages in the same order and these stages can never be skipped
because each successive stage builds on the accomplishments of previous stages. (Shaffer and
Kipp, 2007)

1. Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 Years)

In sensorimotor stage, the

sensory inputs and motor capabilities
of infants are coordinated. Infants use
their senses and motor abilities to
explore the environment. They
manipulate and experiment on their
environment. One of the remarkable
achievements in this stage is the
development of object permanence.
Object permanence is the thought that
objects continue to exist even when
they are no longer visible or detectable through the other senses.

http://sociologycanvas.pbworks.com/w/page/61769093/Sensorimotor%20stage%20of%20development
 Table. 1. Summary of the Piaget’s Account of Sensorimotor Development

Substage Methods of solving problems or Imitation Object Concept

producing interesting
Outcomes

1. Reflex activity Exercising and accommodation Some reflexive Tracks moving object but
(0–1 month) of inborn reflexes. imitation of motor ignores its disappearance.
responses

2. Primary circular Repeating interesting acts that Repetition of own Looks intently at the spot
reactions are centered on one’s own body. behavior that is where an object
(1–4 months) mimicked by a disappeared
companion

3. Secondary circular Repeating interesting acts that Repetition of own Searches for partly
reactions are directed toward external behavior that is concealed object
(4–8 months) objects. mimicked by a
companion

4. Coordination of Combining actions to solve Gradual imitation Clear signs of emerging

secondary schemes simple problems (first evidence of novel responses; object concept;
(8–12 months) of intentionality). deferred imitation searches for and finds
of very simple concealed
motor acts after a object that has not been
brief delay. visibly displaced.

5. Tertiary circular Experimenting to find new Systematic Searches for and finds
reactions ways to solve problems or imitation of novel object that has been visibly
(12–18 months) reproduce interesting outcomes. responses; deferred displaced
imitation of simple
motor acts after a
long delay

6. Invention of new First evidence of insight as the Deferred imitation Object concept is
means through child solves problems at an of complex complete; searches for and
mental combinations internal, symbolic level. behavioral finds objects that have
(18–24 months) sequences. been
hidden through invisible
displacements.

Source: (Shaffer and Kipp, 2007)

 .
2. Preoperational Stage (2 - 7 years)

The preoperational stage is described as

a period where children are not yet ready to
perform operations. How children think
logically is based on their own personal
knowledge of the world rather than on
conventional knowledge.
This stage occurs roughly between
the ages 2 and 7. One of the hallmarks of
this period is the development of
language of the pre-operational child.
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-lifespandevelopment/
chapter/piagets-preoperational-stage-of-cognitive-development/

Table 2. Important features of preoperational stage

Preoperational feature Description Example

Symbolic function or Children develop the ability Children think of a stick as
symbolic thinking to make an object or thing an airplane and lets it fly.
stand for, or represent
something.
Pretend (or symbolic) play Preschool children A boy arranges chairs, sits
frequently pretend to be in front, hold on a circular
someone else (superheroes, object and says, “Fasten
mommies, drivers, nurses, your seatbelts, we are set to
daddies) and play these roles go”. He is playing the role
with props using objects or of a driver.
things around them. They
are engaged in a world of
make-believe.

Animism Preschoolers belief that A preschool child says sorry

inanimate objects have life. to a chair when he
accidentally bumps into it.
Egocentrism Young children’s inability to A child moves near the
recognize another person’s television to watch
point of view and look at the regardless of whether other
world in their own people cannot watch.
perspective.
Centration Children focus on one A child’s believes that the
characteristic or dimension tallest person in class is the
of a situation while oldest because he focused
disregarding all others. on height.
Inability to conserve Young children A child prefers a 5 pieces of
cannot follow 10 peso coin than a 500
 mental peso bill.
transformation.
(conservation)

3. Concrete Operational Stage (7 - 11 years)

According to Piaget, concrete operational

stage is considered as a major turning point
in the child's cognitive development because
it marks the beginning of logical or
operational thought. This means the child
can work things out internally in their head
(rather than physically try things out in the
real world). (McLeod, S. A., 2018). It is in
concrete operational stage where the child
employs logical thought or operations to
physical objects.

http://psych123.weebly.com/psych-journal/journal-2-jean-piagets-
constructivist-theory-of-cognitive-development

The following are the characteristics of children in concrete operational stage:

a. Classification
Classification can be sorting into categories or understanding that there are sub-
classes within a group. The child classifies what is in the environment into living things
and non-living things. But the child can understand that there are sub-classes within a
group, like animals and plants or solid, liquid, and gas.

b. Conservation
Conservation is the concept that something can stay the same in quantity even
though it looks different. That ball of clay is the same amount whether flatten it or rolled
into ball.

c. Decentration
Children need to understand decentration so they can figure out conservation.
Decentration is focused on several factors at the same time. A row of 10 cookies is a row
of 10 cookies, no matter how far apart they are spaced. At this stage, the child realizes
length and number can be manipulated at the same time.

d. Reversibility
 Reversibility involves figuring out that actions can be reversed. It is some sort of
mental gymnastics. Here, the child can understand that your pet is Nifu, Nifu is a dog, and
a dog is an animal.

e. Seriation
Seriation is about mentally sorting a group of things into some sort of order. The
child can arrange the toy cars according to color, or from smallest to biggest.

f. Sociocentricity
Sociocentricity is the ability of the child to understand that other people have their
own thoughts, feelings, and timetable. (https://www.healthline.com/health/childrens-
health/concrete-operational-stage)

4. Formal Operational Stage (11 to 12 years and beyond)

The final stage of

Piaget's theory involves an
increase in logic, the ability
to use deductive reasoning,
and an understanding of
abstract ideas. At this point,
people become capable of
seeing multiple potential
solutions to problems and
think more scientifically
about the world around them.

https://s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com/candimgs/FVMtfI/CNX_Psych_09_04_Reasoning.jpg

The ability to thinking about abstract ideas and situations is the key hallmark of
the formal operational stage of cognitive development. The ability to systematically plan
for the future and reason about hypothetical situations are also critical abilities that
emerge during this stage. (Kendra Cherry, 2020)
The following are the characteristics of adolescents in formal operational stage:

Hypothetico-Deductive Reasoning
The benchmark of formal operations is what Piaget referred to as hypothetico-
deductive reasoning (Inhelder & Piaget, 1958). Deductive reasoning, which entails
reasoning from the general to the specific, much as Sherlock Holmes would do in
examining the clues to a crime to catch the villain, is not, in itself, a formal operational
ability. (: (Shaffer and Kipp, 2007)
 Thinking Like a Scientist
In addition to the development of deductive reasoning abilities, formal-operational
children are hypothesized to be able to think inductively, going from specific observations
to broad generalizations. Inductive reasoning is the type of thinking that scientists display,
where hypotheses are generated and then systematically tested in experiments. : (Shaffer
and Kipp, 2007)
Relativistic Thinking
Adolescents are more likely to engage in relativistic thinking—in other words,
they are more likely to question others’ assertions and less likely to accept information as
absolute truth. Through experience outside the family circle, they learn that rules they
were taught as absolute are actually relativistic. They begin to differentiate between rules
crafted from common sense (don’t touch a hot stove) and those that are based on
culturally relative standards (codes of etiquette). This can lead to a period of questioning
authority in all domains. (https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wmopen-
lifespandevelopment/chapter/cognitive-development-in-adolescence/)

LET’S PRACTICE

Watch and reflect

Everything You Always Wanted to Know About Piaget’s Cognitive Development

a. Watch the video clip, Piaget's stages of cognitive development | Processing the
Environment | MCAT | Khan Academy which you can access at
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jt3-PIC2nCs
b. The video-clip provides audio-visual explanation of Piaget’s theory of cognitive
development.
c. Provide substantial answer in not more than 200 words to the following questions:

1. What does sensorimotor stage of Piaget’s theory encompass?

2. What are the differences in cognitive abilities of preoperational children and concrete
operational children?
 3. What stage of Piaget ‘s Cognitive Development do you think you are in and why?

LET’S ASSESS

Check This!

Activity 1. What are the educational implications of Piaget’s theory?

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

A. Sensorimotor stage C. Concrete operational stage

B. Preoperational stage D. Formal Operational stage

Activity 2. Give some practical ways to teach children in each of Piaget's four stages of
Cognitive Development.
References:

David R. Shaffer, Katherine Kipp, (2007). Developmental Psychology: Childhood and

Adolescence, Seventh Edition. https://www.Ebook777.com

Kendra Cherry, (2020). Background and Key Concepts of Piaget's Theory

https://www.verywellmind.com/piagets-stages-of-cognitive-development-2795457

McLeod, S. A. (2018). Jean piaget's theory of cognitive development. Simply Psychology.

https://www.simplypsychology.org/piaget.html

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wmopen-lifespandevelopment/chapter/cognitive-
development-in-adolescence/ on August 7, 2020
https://www.healthline.com/health/childrens-health/concrete-operational-stage

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u06yS0t2wyQ https://
Lesson 2. Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development
Loraine S. Tattao, RGC, RPsy, LPT, PhD.

“Through others we become ourselves”- Lev Vygotsky

Lev Vygotsky’s theory proposes that (1) cognitive growth occurs in a sociocultural
context that influences the form it takes, and (2) many of a child’s most noteworthy cognitive
skills evolve from social interactions with parents, teachers, and other more competent
associates. Hence, cognitive development is socially mediated process that may vary from
culture to culture. (David R. Shaffer, Katherine Kipp, 2007)

Social and cultural context are important in individual development. The development
of higher mental processes originates from social processes.

Learning Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, you are expected to:
1. Explain socio-cultural influences on cognitive development;
2. Differentiate Piaget and Vygotsky’s theories;
3. Identify educational implications of Vygotsky’s theory.

LET’S START
Do This! Take the Challenge!
Identify the following images. Please write the first thought that comes to your mind.
 1. What images have you identified?

2. Were the images familiar? Where did you see them?

3. How did you identify the images?

LET’S LEARN
” By giving our students practice in talking with others, we give them frames for thinking
on their own” – Lev Vygotsky
Lev Vygotsky believed that social interaction is crucial in cognitive development.
Vygotsky claimed that upon birth, humans are born with elementary mental functions which
are attention, sensation, perception, and memory. These elementary mental functions are
developed into higher mental functions through interaction with the environment. Vygotsky
believed that children construct knowledge actively through social interaction.
Social Influences on Cognitive Development
Like Piaget, Vygotsky believes that young children are curious and actively involved
in their own learning and the discovery and development of new understandings/schema.
However, Vygotsky placed more emphasis on social contributions to the process of
development, whereas Piaget emphasized self-initiated discovery.
According to Vygotsky (1978), much important learning by the child occurs through
social interaction with a skillful tutor. The tutor may model behaviors and/or provide verbal
instructions for the child. Vygotsky refers to this as cooperative or collaborative dialogue.
The child seeks to understand the actions or instructions provided by the tutor (often the
parent or teacher) then internalizes the information, using it to guide or regulate their own
performance.
Shaffer (1996) gives the example of a young girl who is given her first jigsaw. Alone,
she performs poorly in attempting to solve the puzzle. The father then sits with her and
describes or demonstrates some basic strategies, such as finding all the corner/edge pieces
and provides a couple of pieces for the child to put together herself and offers encouragement
when she does so.
As the child becomes more competent, the father allows the child to work more
independently. According to Vygotsky, this type of social interaction involving cooperative
or collaborative dialogue promotes cognitive development.
Concepts of Vygotsky’s Socio cultural theory
In order to gain an understanding of Vygotsky's theories on cognitive development,
one must understand two of the main principles of Vygotsky's work: More Knowledgeable
Other (MKO) and the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD).
More Knowledgeable Other
 The more knowledgeable other (MKO) is somewhat self-explanatory; it refers to
someone who has a better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner, with
respect to a particular task, process, or concept.
Zone of Proximal Development
The concept of the More Knowledgeable Other is integrally related to the second
important principle of Vygotsky's work, the Zone of Proximal Development.
This is an important concept that relates to the difference between what a child can
achieve independently and what a child can achieve with guidance and encouragement from a
skilled partner.
Vygotsky (1978) sees the Zone of Proximal Development as the area where the most
sensitive instruction or guidance should be given - allowing the child to develop skills they
will then use on their own - developing higher mental functions. (Robert Slavin)
Scaffolding
Vygotsky’s concept of scaffolding is closely related to the concept of the Zone of
Proximal Development. Scaffolding refers to the temporary support given to a child by a
More Knowledgeable Other that enables the child to perform a task until such time that the
child can perform this task independently. According to Vygotsky’s theory, scaffolding
entails changing the quality and quantity of support provided to a child in the course of a
teaching session. The MKO adjusts the level of guidance in order to fit the student’s current
level of performance. (https://www.psychologynoteshq.com/vygotsky-theory/)
Vygotsky's theory differs from that of Piaget in a number of important ways:
1: Vygotsky places more emphasis on culture affecting cognitive
development.
This contradicts Piaget's view of universal stages and content of development (Vygotsky does
not refer to stages in the way that Piaget does). Hence Vygotsky assumes cognitive
development varies across cultures, whereas Piaget states cognitive development is mostly
universal across cultures.
2: Vygotsky places considerably more emphasis on social factors contributing to
cognitive development.
Vygotsky states cognitive development stems from social interactions from guided learning
within the zone of proximal development as children and their partner's co-construct
knowledge. In contrast, Piaget maintains that cognitive development stems largely from
independent explorations in which children construct knowledge of their own. For Vygotsky,
the environment in which children grow up will influence how they think and what they think
about.
3: Vygotsky places more (and different) emphasis on the role of language in cognitive
development.
According to Piaget, language depends on thought for its development (i.e., thought comes
before language). For Vygotsky, thought and language are initially separate systems from the
beginning of life, merging at around three years of age, producing verbal thought (inner
speech).
For Vygotsky, cognitive development results from an internalization of language.
4: According to Vygotsky adults are an important source of cognitive development.
Adults transmit their culture's tools of intellectual adaptation that children internalize. In
contrast, Piaget emphasizes the importance of peers as peer interaction promotes social
perspective taking.

LET’S PRACTICE
Try this! Answer me!
Answer the following questions in not more than 250 words:
1. Discuss the concepts of the zone of proximal development and apprenticeship in
thinking as they relate to cognitive development.

2. How can Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory be applied to education?

3. You can learn more about the theory of Lev Vygotsky by clicking on the
following links: Write your learning insights after watching the video clips.
a. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9eSgt6rStzg (Scaffolding)
b. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7Im_GrCgrVA (Zone of proximal development)
c. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OP2K6-tp1uM (Socio-cultural theory
of Vygotsky)
LET’S ASSESS
Read each statement below and determine which concept of Vygotsky is described.
Write the letter of your choice on the space provided.
A. Zone of Proximal Development
B. More Knowledgeable Other
C. Scaffolding
1. Vygotsky’s term for the range of tasks that are too complex to be
mastered alone but can be accomplished with guidance and encouragement from a more
skillful partner.
2. Adult-child interactions in which children’s cognitions and modes of thinking
are shaped as they participate with or observe adults engaged in culturally relevant activities.
3. Process by which an expert, when instructing a novice, responds contingently
to the novice’s behavior in a learning situation, so that the novice gradually increases his or
her understanding of a problem.
4. When teachers assist students to adult-like activities, Vygotsky's
theory explains this as an example of .
5. Vygotsky’s emphasizes the importance of a more experienced other
who serves as a guide to the learner. It is called .
6. The teacher notices that Mariel cannot solve a problem on her own, but can
when she is given either adult or peer guidance.
7. Engaging the students in guided participation
8. Mr. Gonzaga teaches students how to perform an overhand throw by
gently guiding each student through the correct movement a few times.
9. Several parents who are making costumes for an elementary school play ask
the young cast members to assist them with such tasks as cutting fabric, pinning pieces
together, and sewing simple hems.
10. Process by which an expert, when instructing a novice, responds
contingently to the novice’s behavior in a learning situation, so that the novice
gradually increases his or her understanding of a problem

References:

David R. Shaffer, Katherine Kipp, (2007). Developmental Psychology: Childhood and

Adolescence, Seventh Edition. https://www.Ebook777.com

McLeod, S. A. (2018). Jean piaget's theory of cognitive development. Simply Psychology.

https://www.simplypsychology.org/piaget.html

Slavin, Robert E. Educational Psychology: Theory and Practice, Eighth Edition.

https://wps.ablongman.com/ab_slavin_edpsych_8/38/9951/2547615.cw/index.html
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-lifespandevelopment/chapter/vygotskys-
sociocultural-theory-of-cognitive-development/
https://www.psychologynoteshq.com/vygotsky-theory/

B. INTELLIGENCE AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

Jehan U. Gerardo, RGC, LPT, PsyD

INTRODUCTION

Children's cognitive abilities - their ability to perform mental operations, to pay

attention, to remember and to communicate about what they have learned - are sources of
great anxiety for many parents who may wonder whether their children are developing
normally.

Most people think of intelligence as describing "how smart" someone is. However,
the actual definition is quite a bit more complicated than that. Psychological researchers and
theorists have actively debated and argued over how to best define and measure intelligence
for over one hundred years. Individual theorists and researchers have disagreed on which
mixture of cognitive skills and mental capacities (problem solving, abstract thinking,
creativity, memory, concentration, interpersonal skills, body/movement skills, etc.) should be
included within the definition, and how to measure these important attributes in a fair, culture
free manner. At present, intelligence is best thought of not as a single ability or attribute, but
rather as a global construct encompassing many different and separate cognitive abilities.

Learning Objectives:

At the end of this Unit, you should be able to:

• Explain and differentiate the theories of intelligence. Create a concept map or
Graphic organizer illustrating all the theories of intelligence discussed in this
unit.
• Apply concepts and theories on children and adolescents’ cognitive development
in school teaching and student care
• Take an informed stand/position on current teaching practices

ACTIVITY

Write your understanding of the following statement.

INTELLIGENCE is…..

• the ability to create an effective product or offer a service that is valued in

a culture;

• a set of skills that makes it possible for a person to solve problems in life;
• the potential for finding or creating solutions for problems, which involves
gathering new knowledge.
- HOWARD GARDNER

Binet’s Concept of Intelligence

Binet’s Concept of Intelligence

Intelligence"It seems to us that in

intelligence there is a fundamental faculty,
the alteration or the lack of which, is of the
utmost importance for practical life. This
faculty is judgment, otherwise called good
sense, practical sense, initiative, the faculty
of adapting one's self to circumstances. A
person may be a moron or an imbecile if he
is lacking in judgment; but with good
judgment he can never be either. Indeed the
rest of the intellectual faculties seem of little
importance in comparison with judgment"
(Binet & Simon, 1916, 1973, pp.42-43).

Binet's Intelligence Test

Binet and colleague Theodore Simon developed a series of tests designed to assess
mental abilities. Rather than focus on learned information such as math and reading, Binet
instead concentrated on other mental abilities such as attention and memory. The scale they
developed became known as the Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale.

The test was later revised by psychologist Lewis Terman and became known as the
Stanford-Binet. While Binet's original intent was to use the test to identify children who
needed additional academic assistance, the test soon became a means to identify those
deemed "feeble-minded" by the eugenics movement. Eugenics was the belief that the human
population could be genetically improved by controlling who was allowed to have children.
By doing this, the eugenicists believed they could produce more desirable inherited
characteristics.

This shift in how the test was used is notable since Binet himself believed that the
intelligence test he had designed had limitations. He believed that intelligence was complex
and could not be fully captured by a single quantitative measure. He also believed that
intelligence was not fixed. Perhaps most importantly, Binet also felt that such measures of
 intelligence were not always generalizable and could only apply to children with similar
backgrounds and experiences.

Today, Alfred Binet is often cited as one of the most influential psychologists in
history. While his intelligence scale serves as the basis for modern intelligence tests, Binet
himself did not believe that his test measured a permanent or inborn degree of intelligence.
According to Binet, an individual's score can vary. He also suggested that factors such
as motivation and other variables can play a role in test scores.
Spearman and the Theory of General Intelligence

“As regards the delicate matter of

estimating ‘Intelligence,’ the guiding
principle has been not to make any a priori
assumptions as to what kind of mental activity
may be thus termed with greatest propriety.
Provisionally, at any rate, the aim was
empirically to examine all the various
abilities having any prima facie claims to
such title, ascertaining their relations to one
another and to other functions” (Spearman,
1904, p. 249-250).”
General intelligence, also known as g factor, refers to the existence of a broad mental
capacity that influences performance on cognitive ability measures. Charles Spearman first
described the existence of general intelligence in 1904. According to Spearman, this g factor
was responsible for overall performance on mental ability tests.

Spearman noted that while a child or an adolescent certainly could and often did excel
in certain areas, the ones who did well in one area tended also to do well in other areas. For
example, a child or an adolescent who does well on a verbal test would probably also do well
on other tests.

Those who hold this view believe that intelligence can be measured and expressed by
a single number, such as an IQ score. The idea is that this underlying general intelligence
influences performance on all cognitive tasks.
General intelligence can be compared to athleticism. One might be a very skilled
runner, but this does not necessarily mean that they will also be excellent figure skaters.
However, because this person is athletic and fit, they will probably perform much better on
other physical tasks than an individual who is less coordinated and more sedentary.
Charles Spearman was one of the researchers who helped develop a statistical technique known as
factor analysis. Factor analysis allows researchers to use a number of different test items to measure
common abilities. For example, researchers might find that people who score well on questions that
measure vocabulary also perform better on questions related to reading comprehension.

Spearman believed that general intelligence represented an intelligence factor

underlying specific mental abilities. All tasks on intelligence tests, whether they related to
verbal or mathematical abilities, were influenced by this underlying g-factor.

Many modern intelligence tests, including the Stanford-Binet, measure some of the
cognitive factors that are thought to make up general intelligence.

• Visual-spatial processing: Abilities such as putting together puzzles and copying

complex shapes
• Quantitative reasoning: The capacity to solve problems that involve numbers
• Knowledge: A person's understanding of a wide range of topics
• Fluid Reasoning: The ability to think flexibly and solve problems
• Working memory: The use of short-term memory (such as being able to repeat a list
of items)

Thurstone’s Primary Mental Abilities

“Intelligence, considered as a mental trait,

is the capacity to make impulses focal at
their early, unfinished stage of formation.
Intelligence is therefore the capacity for
abstraction, which is an inhibitory process
(Thurstone, 1924/1973 p. 159).”

Psychologist Louis L.Thurstone (1887–1955) offered a differing theory of intelligence.

Instead of viewing intelligence as a single, general ability, Thurstone's theory focused on
seven different primary mental abilities.

• Associative memory: The ability to memorize and recall

• Numerical ability: The ability to solve arithmetic problems
• Perceptual speed: The ability to see differences and similarities among objects
• Reasoning: The ability to find rules
• Spatial visualization: The ability to visualize relationships
• Verbal comprehension: The ability to define and understand words
• Word fluency: The ability to produce words rapidly.
Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences

"An intelligence is the ability to

solve problems, or to create products, that
are valued within one or more cultural
settings ( Gardner, 1983/2003, p. x)"

This theory was proposed by Howard Gardner in 1983 as a model of intelligence that
differentiates intelligence into various specific (primarily sensory) modalities rather than
seeing it as dominated by a single general ability.

According to MI Theory, identifying each student’s intelligence has strong ramifications

in the classroom. If a child's intelligence can be identified, then teachers can accommodate
different children more successfully according to their orientation to learning. Teachers in
traditional classrooms primarily teach verbal/linguistic and mathematical/logical
intelligences. The nine intelligences are:
 ▪ VISUAL/SPATIAL - children who learn best visually and organizing things spatially.
They like to see what you are talking about in order to understand. They enjoy charts,
graphs, maps, tables, illustrations, art, puzzles, costumes - anything eye catching.

▪ VERBAL/LINGUISTIC - children who demonstrate strength in the language arts:

speaking, writing, reading, listening. These students have always been successful in
traditional classrooms because their intelligence lends itself to traditional teaching.

▪ MATHEMATICAL/LOGICAL - children who display an aptitude for numbers,

reasoning and problem solving. This is the other half of the children who typically do
well in traditional classrooms where teaching is logically sequenced and students are
asked to conform.

▪ BODILY/KINESTHETIC - children who experience learning best through activity:

games, movement, hands-on tasks, building. These children were often labeled
"overly active" in traditional classrooms where they were told to sit and be still!

▪ MUSICAL/RHYTHMIC - children who learn well through songs, patterns, rhythms,

instruments and musical expression. It is easy to overlook children with this
intelligence in traditional education.

▪ INTRAPERSONAL - children who are especially in touch with their own feelings,
values and ideas. They may tend to be more reserved, but they are actually quite
intuitive about what they learn and how it relates to themselves.

▪ INTERPERSONAL - children who are noticeably people oriented and outgoing, and
do their learning cooperatively in groups or with a partner. These children may have
typically been identified as "talkative" or " too concerned about being social" in a
traditional setting.

▪ NATURALIST - children who love the outdoors, animals, field trips. More than this,
though, these students love to pick up on subtle differences in meanings. The
traditional classroom has not been accommodating to these children.

▪ EXISTENTIALIST - children who learn in the context of where humankind stands in

the "big picture" of existence. They ask "Why are we here?" and "What is our role in
the world?" This intelligence is seen in the discipline of philosophy.

Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

your strengths and compensating for, or

correcting, your weaknesses" ( Sternberg,
"I define [intelligence] as your July 29, 2004)."
skill in achieving whatever it is you want
to attain in your life within your
sociocultural context.by capitalizing on
 Psychologist Robert Sternberg defined intelligence as "mental activity directed toward
purposive adaptation to, selection, and shaping of real-world environments relevant to one's
life."
While he agreed with Gardner that intelligence is much broader than a single, general
ability, he suggested that some of Gardner's types of intelligence are better viewed as
individual talents. Sternberg proposed what he referred to as "successful intelligence," which
involves three different factors:

1. Analytical intelligence: Your ability to evaluate information and solve problems

Research on the components of human intelligence has shown that although children
generally become faster in information processing with age, not all components are executed
more rapidly with age. The encoding component first shows a decrease in processing time
with age, and then an increase. Apparently, older children realize that their best strategy is to
spend more time in encoding the terms of a problem so that they later will be able to spend
less time in making sense of these encodings. Similarly, better reasoners tend to spend
relatively more time than do poorer reasoners in global, up-front metacomponential planning
when they solve difficult reasoning problems. Poorer reasoners, on the other hand, tend to
spend relatively more time in detailed planning as they proceed through a problem.
Presumably, the better reasoners recognize that it is better to invest more time up front so as
to be able to process a problem more efficiently later on.
Sternberg noted that students who have high academic abilities might still not have
what is required to be a successful graduate student or a competent professional. To do well
as a graduate student, the person needs to be creative. The second type of intelligence
emphasizes this quality.

2. Creative intelligence: Your ability to come up with new ideas

In work with creative intelligence problems, Robert Sternberg and Todd Lubart asked
sixty-three people to create various kinds of products in the realms of writing, art,
advertising, and science. For example, in writing, they would be asked to write very short
stories, for which the investigators would give them a choice of titles, such as "Beyond the
Edge" or "The Octopus's Sneakers." In art, the participants were asked to produce art
compositions with titles such as "The Beginning of Time" or "Earth from an Insect's Point of
View." Participants created two products in each domain.

Sternberg and Lubart found that creativity is relatively, although not wholly, domain-
specific. In other words, people are frequently creative in some domains, but not in others.
They also found that correlations with conventional ability tests were modest to moderate,
demonstrating that tests of creative intelligence measure skills that are largely different from
those measured by conventional intelligence tests.

A potential graduate student might be strong academically and have creative ideas, but
still be lacking in the social skills required to work effectively with others or to practice good
judgment in a variety of situations. This common sense is the third type of intelligence.

3. Practical intelligence: Your ability to adapt to a changing environment

This type of intelligence helps a person know when problems need to be solved. Practical
intelligence can help a person know how to act and what to wear for job interviews, when to
get out of problematic relationships, how to get along with others at work, and when to make
changes to reduce stress.

In a study in Usenge, Kenya, Sternberg and colleagues were interested in school-age

children's ability to adapt to their indigenous environment. They devised a test of practical
intelligence for adaptation to the environment that measured children's informal tacit
knowledge of natural herbal medicines that the villagers used to fight various types of
infections. The researchers found generally negative correlations between the test of practical
intelligence and tests of academic intelligence and school achievement. In other words,
people in this context often emphasize practical knowledge at the expense of academic skills
in their children's development.

Atkinson and Shiffrin’s Cognitive Information Processing Theory

The theory is generally referred to as the “modal model

of memory” or the “Atkinson-Shiffrin Theory”. Their 1968
article is one of the most highly cited in the behavioral and
cognitive sciences, and the theory continues to shape research
today. In 2019, the journal Memory and Cognition devoted a
special issue in recognition of five decades of research inspired
by the theory.
 The model concerns how information is stored in memory and presents a sequence of
three stages, as follows:
Sensory Memory — sensory memory involves whatever we take in through our senses. This
kind of memory is exceedingly brief, only lasting up to 3 seconds. In order for something to
enter sensory memory, the individual has to pay attention to it. Sensory memory can’t attend to
every piece of information in the environment, so it filters out what it deems irrelevant and only
sends what seems important to the next stage, short-term memory. The information that’s most
likely to reach the next stage is either interesting or familiar.
Stage Model of Information Processing

One study of sensory memory researched the significance of valuable information on

short-term memory storage. J. R. Stroop discovered a memory phenomenon in the 1930s: you
will name a color more easily if it appears printed in that color, which is called the Stroop effect.
In other words, the word “red” will be named more quickly, regardless of the color the word
appears in, than any word that is colored red. Try an experiment: name the colors of the words
you are given in the image below. Do not read the words, but say the color the word is printed in.
For example, upon seeing the word “yellow” in green print, you should say “green,” not
“yellow.” This experiment is fun, but it’s not as easy as it seems.
Short-Term Memory/Working Memory — Once information reaches short term memory,
which is also called working memory, it is filtered further. Once again, this kind of memory
doesn’t last long, only about 15 to 20 seconds. However, if information is repeated, which is
referred to as maintenance rehearsal, it can be stored for up to 20 minutes.
There are several factors that will impact what and how much information will be
processed in working memory. Cognitive load capacity varies from one child to another child
and from moment to moment based on the child’s cognitive abilities, the amount of information
being processed, and one's ability to focus and pay attention. Also, information that is familiar
and has often been repeated doesn’t require as much cognitive capacity and, therefore, will be
easier to process. Differences in memory span,
Long-Term Memory — Although short-term memory has a limited capacity, the capacity
of long-term memory is thought to be limitless. Several different types of information are
encoded and organized in long-term memory: declarative information, which is information that
can be discussed such as facts, concepts, and ideas (semantic memory) and personal experiences
(episodic memory); procedural information, which is information about how to do something
like drive a car or brush your teeth; and imagery, which are mental pictures.

Implications inside the Classroom

Information Processing Theory outlines a way of learning that can be used by teachers
inside the classroom. Some examples of classroom implications of the Information Processing
Theory include:

USING THE INFORMATION PROCESSING APPROACH IN THE CLASSROOM

Principle Example

• Use cues to signal when you are ready to begin.

1. Gain the students' attention.
• Move around the room and use voice inflections.

2. Bring to mind relevant prior

learning. • Review previous day's lesson.
 • Have a discussion about previously covered content.

3. Point out important • Provide handouts.

information. • Write on the board or use transparencies.

• Show a logical sequence to concepts and skills.

4. Present information in an • Go from simple to complex when presenting new
organized manner. material.

5. Show students how to

• Present information in categories.
categorize (chunk) related
information. • Teach inductive reasoning.

6. Provide opportunities for

• Connect new information to something already known.
students to elaborate on new
information. • Look for similarities and differences among concepts.

• Make up silly sentence with first letter of each word in

7. Show students how to use the list.
coding when memorizing lists. • Use mental imagery techniques such as the keyword
method.

• State important principles several times in different

ways during presentation of information (STM).
8. Provide for repetition of • Have items on each day's lesson from previous lesson
(LTM).
learning. • Schedule periodic reviews of previously learned
concepts and skills (LTM).

9. Provide opportunities for

• Use daily drills for arithmetic facts.
overlearning of fundamental
concepts and skills. • Play form of trivial pursuit with content related to class.

Implementations to Child Care, Education and Parenting

Children have varying intelligence profile. These profiles may be based on influences of
learning and achievement. Parents, child care providers and teachers should be able to recognize
these by:
• Helping children draw on their strengths and promote growth in their weaknesses;
 • Planning lessons that cater to multiple intelligences based on instructional objectives;
• Encouraging children to read more ever day to increase their vocabulary;
• Bringing children to museums, art exhibits and historical landmarks to widen their
perspective about the world and people, and
• Lessening children’s screen time and increasing their personal and face-to-face
interactions
• Activities at home eg. Asking teenage children for suggestions on family matters –house
physical arrangements, things to buy, places to go to for family outing, etc.
• Allowing more independence eg. use of school allowance, choice on what to wear, etc.
• Activities in school that allow participation, such as projects, field trips, joint internet
research, etc., and
• Develop reading skills through magazine articles, Internet blogs

APPLICATION

1. Writing Prompts

Spearman is well-known for proposing the g factor, which refers to general mental
ability. He observed that children's school performance was essentially consistent across all
school subjects, rather than being high in some subjects and low in others. This led him to
believe that there was a predominant general ability factor of intelligence.
What is your personal opinion of intelligence? For example, you may agree with
Spearman's g factor, because you have observed consistency in abilities across domains in your
friends and family. Conversely, you may feel more aligned with Gardner's theory of multiple
intelligences because you feel that you have high intellectual ability in some areas and low
intellectual ability in others. Write two to three paragraphs describing your ideas about
intelligence, citing supporting observations.
2. Create a Concept map or a Graphic Organizer to illustrate the Theories of Intelligence
discussed in this unit
3. What responses can be made by either parents or teachers for varied types of cognitive
achievement patterns?

Types of Achievement Patterns Response either by Teacher or Parent

1. For overachievers and further

inducement to self-value, goal-
orientation, positive interrelations, etc.

2. Underachievers and parental/teacher

encouragement and support

3. Aggressive underachievers who tend

to be disruptive, if not rebellious
 4. Egocentrism and over-sensitivity
to social acceptance

5. Idealism and adolescents being

possibly discouraged by painful
realities of life e.g. conflicts at home,
challenges in school work, etc.

4. Let’s examine a kindergarten class schedule.

10:30 to 11:00 – Snack

Around this time, I usually take the children down to the restroom as a group. All of the children
wash their hands before snack. Then it’s on to snack time together.

If they’re done early, they’re allowed to choose from a few “quiet choices” (reading, writing,
drawing, puzzles, etc.).

11:00 to 11:30 – Playground

The “big” pre-k kids get to use the playground for free play during this time. We do movement
and gross motor play inside if we can’t go outside.

11:30 to 11:50 – Circle Time

This is when we get together as a whole class. We do the calendar, talk about the weather, and
say the Pledge. I usually read a book during this time.

We also do literacy and math games, songs, etc. during circle time. It’s a great time to connect
and talk about how the day’s gone.

11:50 to 12:10 – Resource

The kiddos get music or more outside time, while I get a quick break.

12:10 to 12:50 – Lunch

We all sit down for lunch, chatting and eating together. If the kids are done early, they can
choose some quiet choices. They clean up after themselves and get their backpacks ready to go
home after lunch.
12:50 to 1:00 – Story Time
We make sure everyone’s packed up and ready to go home. Then it’s time for one more read
aloud before the end of the day.

a. To what extent do you think that preschoolers are being prepared for their
future student role? What are the pros and cons of such preparation? Give bullet
point answers.

References
A. Books
Acero, Victorina D. et.al (2008). Child and Adolescent Development (1st Edition). Ex Book
Store, Inc.
Corpuz, Brenda B. et.al (2018). The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles.
Lorimar Publishing, Inc.

B. Internet
https://fun-a-day.com/preschool-schedule/
https://www.intelltheory.com/binet.shtml
https://www.verywellmind.com/theories-of-intelligence-2795035
https://www.intelltheory.com/spearman.shtml
https://www.intelltheory.com/lthurstone.shtml
https://www.intelltheory.com/sternberg.shtml
 C. Factors Affective Cognitive Development
Loraine S. Tattao, RGC, RPsy, LPT, PhD

“Humans create their cognitive powers by creating the environments

in which they exercise those powers”
-Edwin Hutchins

The development of cognition is affected by different factors. As a parent, child care

provider, or educator, it is important to foster one’s child's cognitive development as soon as
he/she is born because doing so provides the foundation for your child's success in school and
later in life.
Now that you are an adolescent, you have learned a few things about how the world
works. You know, for instance, that you can’t walk through walls or leap into the tops of trees.
You know that although you cannot see your car keys they’ve got to be around here someplace.
What’s more, you know that if you want to communicate complex ideas like ordering a triple-
shot soy vanilla latte with chocolate sprinkles it’s better to use words with meanings attached to
them rather than simply gesturing and grunting. People accumulate all this useful knowledge
through the process of cognitive development, which involves a multitude of factors, both
inherent and learned. (https://nobaproject.com/modules/cognitive-development-in-childhood)

Learning Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, you are expected to:
1. Explain the different factors affecting cognitive development.
2. Reflect on the variations in cognitive development.
3. Summarize research on factors affecting cognitive development.

LET’S START
Try This!
Read the following result from a study titled, “Determinants of Cognitive Development in the
Early Life of Children in Bhaktapur, Nepal”.
Determinants of the Cognitive Composite Score
 The cognitive composite score was positively associated with the length-for-age
z-score. Children who were born with low birth weight (<2500 gm) had 5 points lower
cognitive composite scores compared to children with birth weight in the normal range.
Those who had been hospitalized during the first month of life had an average 4.7 points
lower scores compared to those with no such history. A history of alcohol consumption in
the father and reports of physical punishment during the past week were also predictors
for the cognitive score.
Think Pair Share: Explain the differences in the composite scores of the respondents in the study.

LET’S LEARN
Nature and Nurture
The most basic question about child development is how nature and nurture together
shape development. Nature refers to our biological endowment; the genes we receive from our
parents. Nurture refers to the environments, social as well as physical, that influence our
development, everything from the womb in which we develop before birth to the homes in which
we grow up, the schools we attend, and the many people with whom we interact.
(https://nobaproject.com/modules/cognitive-development-in-childhood)
Why do people differ so dramatically in the scores that they make on IQ tests? In
addressing this issue, we will briefly review the evidence for hereditary and environmental
influences and then take a closer look at several important social and cultural correlates of
intellectual performance.
The Evidence for Heredity
Twin Studies
The intellectual resemblance between pairs of individuals living in the same home
increases as a function of their kinship (that is, genetic similarity). For example, the IQ
correlation for identical twins, who inherit identical genes, is substantially higher than the IQ
correlations for fraternal twins and non-twin siblings, who have only half of their genes in
common (Bower, 2003).
Adoption Studies
Adopted children’s IQs are more highly correlated with the IQs of their biological parents
than with those of their adoptive parents. This finding can be interpreted as evidence for a
genetic influence on IQ, for adoptees share genes with their biological parents but not with their
adoptive caregiver. A person’s genotype may influence the type of environment that he or she is
likely to experience. Indeed, Scarr and McCartney (1983) have proposed that people seek out
environments that are compatible with their genetic predispositions, so that identical twins (who
share identical genes) select and experience more similar environments than fraternal twins or
non-twin siblings do. This is a major reason that identical twins resemble each other
intellectually throughout life, whereas the intellectual resemblances between fraternal twins or
non-twin siblings become progressively smaller over time (McCartney, Harris, & Bernieri,
1990).
The Evidence for Environment
The evidence for environmental effects on intelligence comes from a variety of sources.
For example, there is a small to moderate intellectual resemblance between pairs of genetically
unrelated children who live in the same household— a resemblance that can only be attributable
to their common rearing environment because they share no genes. Children who remain in
impoverished rearing environments show a progressive decline (or cumulative-deficit) in IQ,
thus implying that economic disadvantage inhibits intellectual growth.
The Flynn Effect
People have been getting smarter throughout the 20th century. Average IQs in all
countries studied have increased about 3 points per decade since 1940, a phenomenon called the
Flynn effect after its discoverer, James Flynn (1987, 1996; Howard, 2005; Teasdale & Owen,
2005). An increase this large that occurs this quickly cannot be due to evolution and must
therefore have environmental causes. So what might be responsible for improving IQ scores?
Worldwide improvements in education could increase IQs in three ways: helping people
to become more test-wise, more knowledgeable in general, and more likely to rely on
sophisticated problem-solving strategies (Flieller, 1999; Flynn, 1996). Yet, improved education
is probably not the sole contributor because the Flynn effect is much clearer on measures of fluid
intelligence, even though one might expect crystallized intelligence to benefit most from
educational enrichment. Twentieth-century improvements in nutrition and health care are two
other potent environmental factors that many believe to have contributed to improved intellectual
performance by helping to optimize the development of growing brains and nervous systems.
(Shaffer and Kipp, Katherine, 2007).

LET’S PRACTICE
Try This!
Read the following findings in a research conducted and come up with your own synthesis and
analysis.
Ten Environmental Risk Factors Associated with Low IQ and Mean IQs at Age 4 of Children
Who Did or Did Not Experience Each Risk Factor
Mean IQ at age 4
Risk factor Child Child did not
Experienced experience risk
Risk Factor factor
Child is member of minority group 90 110
Head of household is unemployed or low-skilled 90 108
worker
Mother did not complete high school 92 109
Family has four or more children 94 105
Father is absent from family 95 106
Family experienced many stressful life events 97 105
Parents have rigid child-rearing values 92 107
Mother is highly anxious/distressed 97 107
Mother has poor mental health/diagnosed disorder 99 107
Mother shows little positive affect toward child 88 107
Source: Data and descriptions compiled from “Stability of intelligence from Preschool to Adolescence:
The Influence of Social and Family Risk Factors,” by A.J. Sameroff, R. Seifer, A. Bladwin, and C.
Baldwin, 1993, Child Development, 64, 80–97

LET’S ASSESS
Check This
Answer in not more than 250 words the following questions:
1. Explain what is meant by the Flynn effect and discuss some potential reasons for this effect.

2. Do socioeconomic differences explain ethnic differences in IQ? Justify your answer.

3. Tutors and tutorial centers proliferate for children nowadays to assist them in their
studies. When children have tutors or are enrolled in tutorial centers, which contributes to
their high performance, nature or nurture? Justify your answer.

References:
Shaffer, David and Kipp, Katherine (2007). Developmental Psychology: Childhood and
Adolescence, Seventh Edition. https://www.Ebook777.com
Sameroff, A.J., et.al. (1993). “Stability of intelligence from Preschool to Adolescence: The
Influence of Social and Family Risk Factors,” Child Development, 64, 80–97
https://nobaproject.com/modules/cognitive-development-in-childhood

D. Language Development and Factors Affecting Language

Development Language Development
“The child begins to perceive the world not only through his eyes
but also through his speech”.
- Lev Vygotsky
The use of language sets humans apart from the rest of the animal kingdom. Animals can
communicate through limited number of calls and signals that convey messages. In contrast,
human languages are amazingly flexible and productive. Language is also an inventive tool with
which we express our thoughts and interpretations of what we have seen, heard, or otherwise
experienced.
Although language is one of the most complex and abstract bodies of knowledge we
ever acquire, children in all cultures come to understand and use this intricate form of
communication very early in life. In fact, some infants are talking before they can walk. How is
this possible? Are infants biologically programmed to acquire language? What kinds of linguistic
input must they receive in order to become language users? Is there any relation between a
child’s cooing, gesturing, or babbling and his or her later production of meaningful words? How
do infants and toddlers come to attach meaning to words? Do all children pass through the same
steps or stages as they acquire their native language? And what practical lessons must children
learn to become truly effective communicators? These are but a few of the issues we will
consider as we trace the development of children’s linguistic skills and try to determine how
youngsters become so proficient in using language at such an early age. (Shaffer and Kipp, 2007)

At the end of this lesson, you are expected to:

1. Explain the concept of language development;

2. Discuss the theories of language development;
3. Identify factors influencing language development;
4. Critique researches on language development.

LET’S START

Try This!
Walking Through
 Interview your parents or any significant others in your life about how you learned to
talk. What were the word/word you uttered first? How did you communicate your needs? At
what age did you started uttering single words/phrases/sentences? Summarize your interview by
creating a story, spoken poetry, or painting about the information you gathered.

LET’S LEARN
The Concept of Language Development
According to Bell (1981), language refers to sounds, letters, their combinations into
larger units such as words, sentences and so forth. Such a set of forms would also be expected to
have meaning and the elements and sequences, by virtue of having meaning, would naturally be
expected to be used for communication between individuals who shared the same rules. (p. 19)
Therefore, language has meaning to individuals who share the same understanding and language
helps people to communicate. (http://oasis.col.org/bitstream/handle/11599/725/Module09.pdf?
sequence=12&isAllowed=y)
Five Components of Language
Perhaps the most basic question that psycholinguists have tried to answer is the “what”
question: What must children learn in order to master their native language? After many years
and literally thousands of studies, researchers have concluded that five kinds of knowledge
underlie the growth of linguistic proficiency: phonology, morphology, semantics, syntax, and
pragmatics.

Phonology
Phonology refers to the basic units of sound, or phonemes, that are used in a language
and the rules for combining these sounds. Each language uses only a subset of the sounds that
humans are capable of generating, and no two languages have precisely the same phonologies—a
fact that explains why foreign languages may sound rather strange to us. Clearly, children must
learn how to discriminate, produce, and combine the speech like sounds of their native language
in order to make sense of the speech they hear and to be understood when they try to speak
(Kelley, Jones, & Fein, 2004).

Morphology
Rules of morphology specify how words are formed from sounds (Kelley, Jones, & Fein,
2004). In English, these rules include the rule for forming past tenses of verbs by adding –ed and
the rule for forming plurals by adding -s, as well as rules for using other prefixes and suffixes,
and rules that specify proper combinations of sounds to form meaningful words. We learn, for
example, that flow (not vlow) is how to describe what the river is doing.

Semantics
 Semantics refers to the meanings expressed in words and sentences (Kelley, Jones, &
Fein, 2004). The smallest meaningful units of language are morphemes, and there are two types.
Free morphemes can stand alone as words (for example, dog), whereas bound morphemes cannot
stand alone but change meaning when attached to a free morpheme (for example, adding the
bound morpheme -s to the word dog means that the speaker is talking about more than one
pooch). Children must recognize that words and bound grammatical morphemes convey meaning
—that they symbolize particular objects, actions, and relations and can be combined to form
larger and more complex meanings (sentences)—before they can comprehend others’ speech and
be understood when they speak.

Syntax
Language also involves syntax, or the rules that specify how words are to be combined to
form meaningful phrases and sentences (Kelley, Jones, & Fein, 2004). Consider these three
sentences:
1. Garfield Odie bit.
2. Garfield bit Odie.
3. Odie bit Garfield.

Even very young speakers of English recognize that the first sentence violates the rules of
English sentence structure, although this word order would be perfectly acceptable in languages
with a different syntax, such as French. The second and third sentences are grammatical English
sentences that contain the same words but convey very different meanings. They also illustrate
how word meanings (semantics) interact with sentence structure (word order) to give the entire
sentence a meaning. Children must master rules of syntax before they can become proficient at
speaking or understanding a language.

Pragmatics
Children must also master the pragmatics of language—knowledge of how language
might be used to communicate effectively (Diesendruck & Markson, 2001; Kelley, Jones, &
Fein, 2004). Imagine a 6-year-old who is trying to explain a new game to her 2-year-old brother.
She cannot speak to the toddler as if he were an adult or an age-mate; she will have to adjust her
speech to his linguistic capabilities if she hopes to be understood.

Pragmatics also involves sociolinguistic knowledge—culturally specified rules that

dictate how language should be used in particular social contexts. A 3-year-old may not yet
realize that the best way of obtaining a cookie from Grandma is to say “Grandma, may I please
have a cookie?” rather than demanding “Gimme a cookie, Grandma!” In order to communicate
most effectively, children must become “social editors” and take into account where they are,
with whom they are speaking, and what the listener already knows, needs, and wants to hear.
(Shaffer and Kipp, 2007)

Theories of Language Development

1. The Learning (or Empiricist) Perspective

 B. F. Skinner argued that children learn to speak appropriately because they are
reinforced for grammatically correct speech. According to Skinner, “language is learned through
imitation and reward”. For Skinner, language development follows the following process:
• Children listen to adults speak.
• They imitate the sounds they hear.
• Adults reward them by smiling, nodding their heads or asking them to repeat the words.
This reinforcement encourages children to imitate them. So according to the learning
perspective, caregivers “teach” language by modeling and by reinforcing grammatical speech.
(http://oasis.col.org/bitstream/handle/11599/725/Module09.pdf?sequence=12&isAllowed=y)

2. The Nativist Perspective

According to the nativists, human beings are biologically programmed to acquire
language.
Linguist Noam Chomsky proposed that we humans (and only humans) come equipped with a
language acquisition device (LAD)—an inborn linguistic processor that is activated by verbal
input which contains a universal grammar, or knowledge of rules that are common to all
languages.

The Sensitive-Period Hypothesis

Erik Lenneberg proposed that languages should be most easily acquired between birth
and puberty, the period when the lateralized human brain is becoming increasingly specialized
for linguistic functions. If language really is most easily acquired before puberty, then children
who were largely deprived of a normal linguistic environment should find it difficult to
acquire language later in life. (Shaffer and Kipp, 2007)

4. The Interactionist Perspective

According to the interactionist viewpoint, young children the world over talk alike and
display other linguistic universals because they are all members of the same species who share
many common experiences. What is innate is not any specialized linguistic knowledge or
processing skills but a sophisticated brain that matures very slowly and predisposes children to
develop similar ideas at about the same age—ideas that they are then motivated to express in
their own speech.
From an interactionist perspective, then, language development is the product of a
complex transaction between nature and nurture. Children are born with a powerful human brain
that develops slowly and predisposes them to acquire new understandings, which they are then
motivated to share with others.

Jerome Bruner argues that parents provide their children a language acquisition support
system or LASS. The LASS is a collection of strategies that parents employ to facilitate their
children’s acquisition of language.

Language Development
Communication in Infancy
Do newborns communicate? Certainly, they do. They do not, however, communicate with the
use of language. Instead, they communicate their thoughts and needs with body posture (being
relaxed or still), gestures, cries, and facial expressions. A person who spends adequate time with
an infant can learn which cries indicate pain and which ones indicate hunger, discomfort, or
frustration.
Intentional Vocalizations
Cooing and taking turns: Infants begin to vocalize and repeat vocalizations within the first
couple of months of life. That gurgling, musical vocalization called cooing can serve as a source
of entertainment to an infant who has been laid down for a nap or seated in a carrier on a car ride.
Cooing serves as practice for vocalization as well as the infant hears the sound of his or her own
voice and tries to repeat sounds that are entertaining. Infants also begin to learn the pace and
pause of conversation as they alternate their vocalization with that of someone else and then take
their turn again when the other person’s vocalization has stopped. Cooing initially involves
making vowel sounds like “oooo.” Later, consonants are added to vocalizations such as
“nananananana.”
Babbling and Gesturing
At about four to six months of age, infants begin making even more elaborate
vocalizations that include the sounds required for any language. Guttural sounds, clicks,
consonants, and vowel sounds stand ready to equip the child with the ability to repeat whatever
sounds are characteristic of the language heard. Eventually, these sounds will no longer be used
as the infant grow more accustomed to a particular language. Deaf babies also use gestures to
communicate wants, reactions, and feelings. Because gesturing seems to be easier than
vocalization for some toddlers, sign language is sometimes taught to enhance one’s ability to
communicate by making use of the ease of gesturing. The rhythm and pattern of language is used
when deaf babies sign just as it is when hearing babies babble.
Understanding
At around ten months of age, the infant can understand more than he or she can say. You
may have experienced this phenomenon as well if you have ever tried to learn a second
language. You may have been able to follow a conversation more easily than to contribute to it.
Holophrasic Speech
Children begin using their first words at about 12 or 13 months of age and may use
partial words to convey thoughts at even younger ages. These one-word expressions are referred
to as holophrasic speech. For example, the child may say “ju” for the word “juice” and use this
sound when referring to a bottle. The listener must interpret the meaning of the holophrase and
when this is someone who has spent time with the child, interpretation is not too difficult. They
know that “ju” means “juice” which means the baby wants some milk! But, someone who has
not been around the child will have trouble knowing what is meant. Imagine the parent who to a
friend exclaims, “Ezra’s talking all the time now!” The friend hears only “ju da ga” which, the
parent explains, means “I want some milk when I go with Daddy.”
Under-extension
A child who learns that a word stands for an object may initially think that the word can
be used for only that particular object. Only the family’s Irish Setter is a “doggie”. This is
referred to as under-extension. More often, however, a child may think that a label applies to all
objects that are similar to the original object. In over-extension all animals become “doggies”,
for example.
First Words and Cultural Influences
First words if the child is using English tend to be nouns. The child labels objects such as
cup or ball. In a verb-friendly language such as Chinese, however, children may learn more
verbs. This may also be due to the different emphasis given to objects based on culture. Chinese
children may be taught to notice action and relationship between objects while children from the
United States may be taught to name an object and its qualities (color, texture, size, etc.). These
differences can be seen when comparing interpretations of art by older students from China and
the United States.

Vocabulary Growth Spurt

One year olds typically have a vocabulary of about 50 words. But by the time they
become toddlers, they have a vocabulary of about 200 words and begin putting those words
together in telegraphic speech (I think of it now as ‘text message’ speech because texting is more
common and is similar in that text messages typically only include the minimal amount of words
to convey the message).
Two Word Sentences and Telegraphic (text message?) Speech
Words are soon combined and 18 month old toddlers can express themselves further by
using expressions such as “baby bye-bye” or “doggie pretty”. Words needed to convey messages
are used, but the articles and other parts of speech necessary for grammatical correctness are not
yet used. These expressions sound like a telegraph (or perhaps a better analogy today would be
that they read like a text message) where unnecessary words are not used. “Give baby ball” is
used rather than “Give the baby the ball.” Or a text message of “Send money now!” rather than
“Dear Mother. I really need some money to take care of my expenses“ You get the idea.
Child-Directed Speech
Why is a horse a “horsie”? Have you ever wondered why adults tend to use “baby talk”
or that sing-song type of intonation and exaggeration used when talking to children? This
represents a universal tendency and is known as child-directed speech or motherese or parentese.
‘Motherese’ is a word coined by Snow and Ferguson which refers to the simple language
used by mothers when talking to infants. Features of motherese (adapted from Bee, 1989: 299)
include:
• high-pitched voice, slower pace and long pauses at the end of each sentence;
• short sentences;
• simply structured sentences;
• repeated sentences or variations of the same sentence spoken several times;
• vocabulary based on tangible objects within the environment of the child; and
• slower pace as sentences become longer and more complex.

Communication in Early Childhood

Vocabulary Growth
A child’s vocabulary expands between the ages of 2 to 6 from about 200 words to over
10,000 words through a process called fast-mapping. Words are easily learned by making
connections between new words and concepts already known. The parts of speech that are
learned depend on the language and what is emphasized. Children speaking verb-friendly
languages such as Chinese and Japanese as well as those speaking English tend to learn nouns
more readily. But those learning less verb-friendly languages such as English seem to need
assistance in grammar to master the use of verbs (Imai, et als, 2008). Children are also very
creative in creating their own words to use as labels such as a “take-care-of” when referring to
John, the character on the cartoon, Garfield, who takes care of the cat.
Literal Meanings
Children can repeat words and phrases after having heard them only once or twice. But
they do not always understand the meaning of the words or phrases. This is especially true of
expressions or figures of speech, which are taken literally. For example, two preschool aged girls
began to laugh loudly while listening to a tape-recording of Disney’s “Sleeping Beauty” when
the narrator reports, “Prince Phillip lost his head!” They image his head popping off and rolling
down the hill as he runs and searches for it. Or a classroom full of preschoolers hears the teacher
say, “Wow! That was a piece of cake!” The children began asking “Cake? Where is my cake? I
want cake!”
Overregularization
Children learn rules of grammar as they learn language but may apply these rules
inappropriately at first. For instance, a child learns to ad “ed” to the end of a word to indicate
past tense. Then form a sentence such as “I goed there. I doed that.” This is typical at ages 2 and
3. They will soon learn new words such as went and did to be used in those situations.
The Impact of Training
Children can be helped in learning language by others who listen attentively, model more
accurate pronunciations and encourage elaboration. The child exclaims, “I’m goed there!” and
the adult responds, “You went there? Say, ‘I went there.’ Where did you go?” Children may be
ripe for language as Chomsky suggests, but active participation in helping them learn is
important for language development as well. The process of scaffolding is one in which the
guide provides needed assistance to the child as a new skill is learned.
Private Speech
 Do you ever talk to yourself? Why? Chances are, this occurs when you are struggling
with a problem, trying to remember something, or feel very emotional about a situation. Children
talk to themselves too. Piaget interpreted this as egocentric speech or a practice engaged in
because of a child’s inability to seeing things from others points of views. Vygotsky, however,
believed that children talk to themselves in order to solve problems or clarify thoughts. As
children learn to think in words, they do so aloud before eventually closing their lips and
engaging in private speech or inner speech. Thinking out loud eventually becomes thought
accompanied by internal speech and talking to oneself becomes a practice only engaged in when
we are trying to learn something or remember something, etc. This inner speech is not as
elaborate as the speech we use when communicating with others (Vygotsky, 1962). (53)

Communication in Middle and Late Childhood

Vocabulary
One of the reasons that children can classify objects in so many ways is that they have acquired a
vocabulary to do so. By 5th grade, a child’s vocabulary has grown to 40,000 words. It grows at
the rate of 20 words per day, a rate that exceeds that of preschoolers. This language explosion,
however, differs from that of preschoolers because it is facilitated by being able to associate new
words with those already known and because it is accompanied by a more sophisticated
understanding of the meanings of a word.
New Understanding
The child is also able to think of objects in less literal ways. For example, of asked for the first
word that comes to mind when one hears the word “pizza”, the preschooler is likely to say “eat”
or some word that describes what is done with a pizza. However, the school-aged child is more
likely to place pizza in the appropriate category and say “food” or “carbohydrate.”
This sophistication of vocabulary is also evidenced in the fact that school-aged children are able
to tell jokes and delight in doing do. They may use jokes that involve play on words such as
“knock-knock” jokes or jokes with punch lines. Preschoolers do not understand play on words
and rely on telling “jokes” that are literal or slapstick such as “A man fell down in the mud!
Isn’t that funny?”
Grammar and Flexibility
School-aged children are also able to learn new rules of grammar with more flexibility. While
preschoolers are likely to be reluctant to give up saying “I goed there,” school-aged children will
learn this rather quickly along with other rules of grammar.
While the preschool years might be a good time to learn a second language (being able to
understand and speak the language), the school years may be the best time to be taught a second
language (the rules of grammar). (54)

FACTORS AFFECTİNG LİNGUİSTİC AND LİTERACY DEVELOPMENT

A. BIOLOGICAL FACTORS
1. Child’s Age
2. Cognitive Processing or Intelligence
3. Delayed general development (‘global developmental delay’), physical development (‘motor
skills’), cognitive development etc.
4. Neurological Disorders or medical problems
5. Family history of speech and language delays or difficulties
6. Reduced hearing e.g. ear infection, fluid in ear, impacted earwax etc.

B. PSYCHOSOCİAL FACTORS
1. Early Stimulation
2. Family Structure or Literate Environment
3. Child’s Attitude (i.e. not very interested in language, prefers other modalities like
physical activities.)
4. Economic Status
5. Changes in child’s environment (e.g. moving.)
6. Short attention span.
7. Exposure to too many languages for the child.
8. Inadequate awareness of communication, lacks “communication intent”.
LET’S PRACTICE
Try This!
Answer in not more than 200 words the following questions:
1. If a child uses a word incorrectly, how can you help him or her to use it correctly?
2. How would you help learners in your class who have difficulty in constructing
correct sentences?

3. List points from your study of the concepts and theories of language development that you
consider having been of greatest help. How will these make you a better teacher?
4. Discuss how you should apply the theories in language development to obtain the best results
from your teaching and students.

5. Draw a figure to represent the interactionist view of language acquisition. Explain how this
model incorporates nature and nurture influences and explain the bidirectional aspect of the
model.

LET’S ASSESS
Check This
Matching: Demonstrate your understanding of the five basic components of language by
matching the names of these components with their definitions below.
A. morphology
B. phonology
C. pragmatics
D. semantics
E. syntax

1. The sound system of a language and the rules for combining these sounds to
produce meaningful units of speech.
2. Rules governing the formation of meaningful words from sounds.
3. The expressed meaning of words and sentences.
4. The structure of a language; the rules specifying how words and grammatical markers
are to be combined to produce meaningful sentences.
5. Principles that underlie the effective and appropriate use of language in social contexts.

Read the following cases and apply the different theories in this unit justifying your answer.
 Two excellent case studies reflect nicely on this idea. One is the case of Genie, a child
who was locked away in a back room as an infant and was not discovered by the authorities until
she was nearly 14 years old. While confined, Genie heard very little language; no one was
permitted to talk to her, and she was beaten by an abusive father if she made any noise (Curtiss,
1977). Then there is Chelsea, a deaf woman who—because of her deafness and her family’s
isolation—was 32 years old before she was ever exposed to a formal language system. Extensive
efforts were undertaken to teach these women language, and each made remarkable progress,
learning the meaning of many words and even producing lengthy sentences that were rich in
their semantic content. Yet neither woman has mastered the rules of syntax that virtually all
children acquire without formal instruction (Curtiss, 1977, 1988), thus suggesting that learning a
first language is easier early in life.

References:
Shaffer, David and Kipp, Katherine (2007). Developmental Psychology: Childhood and
Adolescence, Seventh Edition. https://www.Ebook777.com
Module 9: Child Development. The Commonwealth of Learning retrieved from
http://oasis.col.org/bitstream/handle/11599/725/Module09.pdf?sequence=12&isAllowed=y