KAGUMO TEACHERS’ TRAINING COLLEGE

EDUCATION DEPARTMENT

UNIT: PSYCHOLOGY OF HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

BY: J.THEURI

DURATION: 2 TERMS

COURSE OUTLINE

INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

-Definition of Psychology, human growth, development, maturation, Educational Psychology,
–Branches of Psychology
-Principles of human growth and development
-Importance of educational psychology to teachers
-Factors that influence human growth and development.

AREAS OF DEVELOPMENT

• PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
• EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
• SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
• MORAL DEVELOPMENT
• COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
-Theories of cognitive development by J. Piaget, J. Bruner and others.
-Implication of theories of cognitive development to learning.
-Concept of intelligence and creativity.
• LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
• PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT
-Definition of personality.
-Theories of personality development by S. Freud, E. Erickson and others
-Implication of the theories to education.
-Factors that influence personality development.

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 ADOLESCENCE
-Meaning of adolescence.
-Changes during adolescence.
-Adolescent needs, problems and challenges.
-Helping the adolescent cope with challenges.
LEARNERS WITH SPECIAL NEEDS
-Categories of learners with special needs giving their characteristics
-Mentally gifted and talented child
-Visually impaired
-Hearing impaired
-Physically challenged
-Mentally challenged
-Children with emotional behavioural problems
-Multiple handicapped
-Children with communication difficulties
-Children with special learning difficulties
- Children with chronic health problems such as asthma
-Children living under difficult circumstances and others.
-Causes of special needs: Environmental causes, Genetic factors, Medical factors.
–Intervention measures and referrals

INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

Definition of terminologies

Psychology
The word Psychology comes from two Greek words "psyche" which means mind or soul and
"logos" which means to study. According to one of the latest views psychology is defined as
the scientific study of human and animal behavior and mental processes.(Santrock,2000)

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Scientific Study: Systematic collection and examination of data (empirical evidence) to support
or disprove hypotheses (predictions) rather than depending on common sense.

Behavior can be either overt (observable eg talking, blinking, crying) or covert (unobservable eg
thinking, reasoning, dreaming, remembering LEARNING etc).
Mental Processes on the other hand are the activities happening in the brain, the internal,
covert activities.e.g. thinking, feeling, remembering, learning, dreaming, reasoning. These are
internal mental activities which are not directly observed but inferred from the behavioural
activities of the person.

Branches of Psychology
(a) Developmental Psychology
(b) Social Psychology Personality Psychology
(c) Clinical Psychology
(d) Counseling Psychology
(e) Educational Psychology
(f) Industrial/Organizational Psychology.
(g) Environmental Psychology
(h) Experimental Psychology.
(i) Forensic Psychology
(j) Sports Psychology.
(k) Health Psychology
(l) Cross-Cultural Psychology

What is
(i) General psychology
(ii) Abnormal psychology

IMPORTANCE OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY TO A TEACHER

1) The teacher must know the basic principles of growth and development and characteristics

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that emerge at different age levels in order to provide effective guidance for harmonious
development of children
2) To give the teacher an appreciation of learner individual differences.
3) To ensure continuity from the past to the present, the teacher needs to understand
past aspects of development. What students are is as a result of what they have been through.
4) The teacher is an agent of socialization and there is need to know those whom he
will socialize in order to facilitate their development as good citizens.
5) The teacher needs to know and understand the basis of development and what is
abnormal so as to improve the quality of learning and teaching .
7) The teacher will be able to understand himself/herself better.

Growth
Refers to a series of changes in the physical structure of an organism. Growth is any quantitative
change in an individual.
Development
Refers to qualitative changes in an individual leading to maturity of improvement in functioning.
e.g. arms grow large (growth) but also they develop by undergoing certain changes which equip
them for better work

Maturation

Maturation refers to readiness or the point at which a child is biologically prepared to undertake
a specific task. The timing and the sequence of the unfolding of these biological potentials are
pre-wired genetically.

General principles of growth and development

➢ The process of development follows a definite orderly sequential and predictable pattern
in all individuals.
➢ Development proceeds from general to specific responses.
➢ There are individual differences and variations in development

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 ➢ Growth and development are continuous.
➢ Developmental changes are inter-related and proceed at different rates.
➢ Development follows two directional trends:
a)Proximodistal trend-here development starts from the centreline of the body to outer
parts more distant from it.
b) Cephalocaudal trend-develoment starts from the head and proceeds towards the heel.

➢ Development is cumulative
➢ All development changes are a product of two basic processes- maturation and
learning(Environmental influence)
➢ Development is shaped by historical/cultural context

Factors that influence Human Growth and development

They are divided into two:
I. Hereditary factors
➢ Rate of maturation: Growth and development have to wait for their time
➢ Rhesus incompatibility: when mothers blood and that of the foetus are not compatible
➢ Chromosomal disorders: Accidents that may happen during cell division leading to
disorders such as: Down Syndrome, Turner Syndrome, Klinefelter Syndrome
➢ Genes: e.g genes of tallness, IQ etc
II. Environmental factors
• Expectant Mother’s diet.
• Maternal age
Maternal use of drugs and medication
• Maternal diseases
• Mother’s emotional state

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 • Radiation: may lead to malformation and cancer
• Anoxia-lack of enough oxygen during delivery.
• Chemicals: dyes, food additives, paints and pollutants.
• Use of instruments e.g. forceps and vacuum extraction
• Deprived/ stimulating environment
An enriched/stimulating environment that facilitates exploration, curiosity, and self-
reliance accelerates cognitive development, while impoverished environment produces
just the opposite effect.
• Psychological factors
• Child rearing practices.

PHYSICAL AND MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

Physical development includes the increase in size of the body ,It also includes increase in
muscle strength and size, lengthening and strengthening of bones, also the gradual development
of control of the body. As children grow and mature they develop physical skills such as bladder
and bowel control and gross and fine motor skills.
Gross motor skills are the skills that involve the use of a child ‘s big muscles for example use of
the whole body. Activities like jumping, walking, rolling, running, crawling are controlled by
the gross motor skills .
Fine motor skills- are skills that involve a refined use of the small muscles controlling the
hands, wrists,fingers, feet, toes, lips, and tongue. The development of these skills allows one to
be able to complete tasks such as writing, blinking, licking, drawing, buttoning, turning pages of
a book etc.

Factors Affecting Physical Growth

• Heredity
• Nutrition
• Disease
• Emotional Well-Being
• Physical exercise/ activity

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EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Emotional Attachment
- This is a deep and enduring emotional bond that connects one person to ano ther across
time and space. Bowlby (1969) defined attachment as a “lasting psychological
connectedness between human beings”.
Children come into the world biologically pre-programmed to form attachments with others,
because this will help them to survive. The infant produces innate ‘social releaser’
behaviours such as crying and smiling that stimulate innate caregiving responses from
adults. The determinant of attachment is not food but care and responsiveness.
The attachment relationship between the child and the caregiver acted as a prototype for all
future social relationships, so disrupting it would result to severe
consequences. There is a critical period for
attachment development at (about 0 -5 years). If an attachment would have not developed
during this period then the child would suffer from irreversible developmental
consequences, such as reduced intelligence and increased aggression.

Qualities of attachment
(a) Secure attachment
• Securely attached babies use the caregiver as a secure base from which to explore
the environment.
• When in the presence of their caregiver, securely attached infants explore the room
and examine the objects placed in it.
• When the caregiver departs, securely attached infants might mildly protest
• When the caregiver returns these infants reestablish positive interaction with her
• The child is outgoing with strangers when the mother is present.
b) Insecure attachment(avoidant)
• Uninterested in exploring when alone with their mothers/caregivers.
• Shows little distress when separated from their mother
• Avoids contact when the mothers returns, and may even turn their back on her at this
point. If contact is established, the infant usually leans away or looks away.

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c) Insecure attachment(resistant)
• Anxious and does not venture off to play even when his mother is present thus the
mother does not serve as a secure base for exploration.
• Ironically the infant becomes distressed when the mother departs.
• When reunited with the mother the infant is ambivalent (he may try to remain near
his mother, and at the same time may resist if she makes a physical contact) and may
even hit kick her in anger.

d) Disorganized disoriented Attachment

• Reflects confusion on the side of the infant about whether to approach or avoid the
mother.
• Reunited with their mothers after a separation, these infants may act dazed and
freeze or lie on the floor or they may seek contact, but, then abruptly move away as
their mothers approaches them, only to seek contact again.
Effects of attachment on later development
a) Securely attached
-Become curious
-Interested in learning
-Cooperative
-Friendlier toward adult
-Independent
- Better at problem solving
-Likely to become leaders in school
- Show initiative
-Are sensitive to needs and feelings of others
Insecurely attached
-Show anxiety
-Too dependent
- May show aggression
-Are emotionally withdrawn

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-Less forceful in pursuing their goals
-Hostile and may be rejected by their peers
-Socially withdrawn
-Poor in decision making

Factors Affecting Emotional Expression

➢ Informal teaching
e.g. when boys cry, they are scolded and told that men don’t cry but girls are
tolerated even encouraged to cry.
➢ Personality:For instance, people that are known to be extraverted express emotions
more easily than introverted people.
➢ Culture: For instance, Americans are known to be over-enthusiastic while English
people are known as being reserved
➢ Gender/sex
Women are more attuned, have better memories of emotional images, more intense
reactions to emotions and larger range of emotions as opposed to men
➢ Emotional contagion
Definition: When one becomes influenced by the emotions of others around them.
E.g. crying at a funeral, ecstasy at a religious meeting.
➢ Position in society
Example: It’s hard for a boss to admit when he/she is wrong.Those that disclose can
be misunderstood as weak, honesty can cause discomfort to the boss. There is also
the fear that it can be used against one.
Questions
Explain ways in which the teacher may help adolescents develop healthy emotional
expressions
Outline characteristics of an emotionally healthy learner in a class

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SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
Social processes focus themselves on the whole concept of an individual’s relationship with
others and are reflected in behaviours such as an infant’s smile to the mother’s touch,
adolescents’ attraction to the opposite sex, affections of elderly couples, learning of gender roles
and formation of gender identity, understanding of others’ feelings etc.

Young people should be assisted in developing appropriate interpersonal skills to make them
important social beings.
The following are considered essential.
(a) Assertive skills
(b) Negotiation skills
(c) Decision making skills
(d) Problem solving skills
(e) Linguistic skills
(f) Transfer skills
(g) Reflection skills- ability to learn from our mistakes
(h) Politeness and calmness
(i) Self confidence

Factors influencing the learning of social skills

(i) Examples set by adults

(ii )Individual personality.

This is an individual’s normal pattern of reacting in new situations. introverts (reserved) VS
extroverts (outgoing, outwardly warm). .
(iii) Family socio-economic background
(iv) Learner intellectual development
(v) Individual motivation
(vi) Biological or physical state of the individual

Developing Social Skills in Class/School

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(a) Encourage healthy competition among learners

(b) Allow learners to elect their own leaders

(c) Provide opportunities for learners to engage in debates

(d) Encourage learners to participate in manual work

(e) Establish rational rules and regulations

(f) Provide opportunities for field trips

(g) Promote language development

(h) Counselling unsocial learners and those with anti-social behavior.

(i) Teacher acting as good role model
(j) Encourage learners to participate in drama, music clubs and societies and other extra-
curricular activities.
(k) Encourage formation of study groups.
(l) Encourage participation in community service activities e.g. cleaning, planting trees, visiting
the sick, old,etc

(m )Rewards and punishments for appropriate and inappropriate behavior.

(n) Immediate and regular feedback to guide learners’ attempts.

MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Moral development is the process by which individuals acquire a sense of right and wrong, to
use in evaluating their own actions and the actions of others (Turiel, 1998). It is the process
through which an individual acquires the ability to distinguish between bad and good or right and
wrong.
KOHLBERG’S THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Kohlberg’s six stage theory of moral development. He grouped these six stages into three
levels . According to Kohlberg’s theory, moral development proceeds gradually from one
stage to the next, in a predictable, ordered sequence.
Level 1: Preconventional Morality/premoral level.

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Stage 1: Punishment-obedience orientation
– The individual does what is right simply to avoid punishment. This is the most basic level of
moral reasoning. Behaviour is controlled by its consequences.

Stage 2: Instrumental Behaviour/Individualism

An underlying selfishness permeates the moral reasoning of this stage. "What's in it for me?"
People are valued in terms of their utility(usefulness). "you scratch my back, I'll scratch yours".
Concern for others is not based on a deep loyalty to them at this stage, but on an ulterior motive:
if I do something helpful for you then you will do something for me

Level 2: Conventional Morality

Stage 3: Mutual Interpersonal Expectations ( Good Boy Good Girl Morality)
The individual will do what is expected so as to gain approval from others, or so as not to be
disapproved by others. The individual tries to please those around him, seeking to be viewed as
good .
Stage 4: Authority and social order maintaining orientation
– Here the person will act as expected simply because this is the code of law and order i.e., the
rule states thus. Obedience to rules/authority is viewed as a civic duty or obligation. Morality is
based on respect for authority and social order. Confronted by a moral choice the person, may
say “because he is the president; “because the bible says so,’’ or “a rule is a rule.’’
Level 3: Postconventional or Principled Morality
Stage 5: Social Contract or Utility and Individual Rights At this stage, the individual accepts
majority rule but also works to change rules that he/she feels are unfair or unjust. Rules are seen
as social contracts made for a purpose, and the purpose can change if need be.
– laws and rules exist to benefit everyone and to preserve human rights. Laws and rules are
established by mutual agreement..
Stage 6: Universal Ethic Principle
– This is the highest level of moral reasoning. People at this stage have developed their own set
of moral guidelines which may or may not fit the law. The principles apply to everyone. i.e. they
are universal E.g.equality of the human rights, justice , dignity for the human persons. The
person will be prepared to act to defend these principles even if it means going against the rest of
society in the process and having to pay the consequences of disapproval and or imprisonment.

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Very few people reach the last stage. Examples of people who attained this level are people such
as, Martin King Luther Junior, and Mahatma Gandhi, Nelson Mandela Jesus Christ, the prophets
among other heroes.
FACTORS INFLUENCING MORAL DEVELOPMENT
1.Cognitive development
For instance, with the decline of centration in middle childhood, children are able to
consider simultaneously both consequences and intentions when judging morality of an
act.
2. Increased social experience with peers.
3. The family
4.Religious organization

5. Mass media
6. Culture/community
7. Encouraging Independence of adult constraint

How the school can enhance moral development among learners

(a)Implementation of rational rules and regulations to promote discipline.
(b)Provision of leadership positions to learners e.g. through prefects.
(c)Teachers act as perfect role models.
(d)Involving sponsors and other stakeholders in the management of schools.

(e)Establishing and strengthening of guidance and counseling services.

(f)Rewarding and motivating well behaved learners.
(g)Teaching of subjects like Religion and History which promote nationhood and patriotism.
(h)Introduction of lifeskills eduation in the syllabus.
(i)Encouragement of healthy competition among learners.
(j)Punishment meted out to those with deviant behavior.
(k)Establishment of family units in schools where teachers are assigned to a manageable number
of learners for guidance.

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Give five factors that undermine the efforts of the school in training learners in good
morals

➢ Peer influence
➢ Shortage of role models in the society
➢ Influence from mass media
➢ Lack of support/ cooperation from parents
➢ Young people are affected by drugs
➢ Interference by high ranking officials in school disciplinary efforts

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Cognitive Development: Refers to the changes that occur in children’s mental skills and
abilities over time. Cognitive abilities refer to a wide range of mental abilities such as attending
(attention), perceiving, learning, thinking and remembering , reasoning, interpreting information
etc.

Piaget’s theory of Cognitive Development

Piaget’s theory covers how our thinking develops as we move from being a baby to being an
adult. Because it covers the development of thinking, it is called a theory of “cognitive
development

Main Elements of Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory

Schema/ Schemata I Cognitive Structure

A schema is the basic building block of intelligent behaviour, a form of organizing information
that a person uses to interpret the things he or she sees, hears, smell, and touches. We use
schemas to understand and to respond to situations.

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Adaptation: One’s inborn tendency to adjust to the demands of the environment.
The two processes involved in adaptation are assimilation and accommodation.
Assimilation: This is when an individual uses their existing schemes to make sense of a new
event. This process involves trying to understand something new by fitting it into what we
already know.

Accommodation involves changing pre-existing schemata to adapt to a new situation. It occurs

when existing schemas or operations must be modified or new schemas are created to account
for a new experience.

Disequilibrium: a state of confusion, dissonance, or discomfort when new information does not
integrate within existing structures (schemas). This confusion motivates us to achieve the new
challenge and to restore balance between assimilation and accommodation, which when
achieved, is equilibration.

Equilibration It is the force that drives the learning process to restore balance by mastering the
new challenge (information) presented.

PIAGET’S STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

The sensorimotor stage (0- 2 years)

The sensorimotor stage is as a series of six substages:

Substage 1: Reflexes (Birth to 1 Month)

Infants’ behaviors reflect innate reflexes—automatic responses to particular stimuli. For
instance, if you put a nipple near a newborn’s mouth, she will automatically suck on it. If you put
something against the palm of a newborn’s hand, his fingers will automatically close around it.

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Reflexive Behaviours of a newborn
1.Rooting reflex
This reflex begins when the corner of the baby's mouth is stroked or touched. The baby will turn
his/her head and open his/her mouth to follow and "root" in the direction of the stroking.
2.Sucking reflex
The baby shows rhythmic sucking when anything e.g. a finger or nipple is inserted in the mouth.
3.Grasping reflex
-If the baby is touched across the foot or palm, the fingers or toes close tightly over the object in
a very firm grip such that the baby can hang on it.
4.Babinski reflex
-If the baby is stroked on the bottom of the foot, it will first spread out the toes, then curl them in.
5.Stepping reflex
-When newborns are held vertically, with their feet against a hard surface, they lift one leg away
from the surface, and if tilted slightly from one side to the other, they appear to be walking.
6.Moro reflex
-The Moro reflex is often called a startle reflex because it usually occurs when a baby is startled
by a loud sound or movement. In response to the sound, the baby throws back his/her head,
extends out the arms and legs, cries, then pulls the arms and legs back in. A baby's own cry can
startle him/her and begin this reflex.
NB/ Reflexive behaviours taught out of a need but are not part of Piaget’t work

Substage 2: Primary Circular Reactions (1–4 Months)

Infants’ behaviors focused almost exclusively on their own bodies (in Piaget’s terminology, the
behaviors are primary) and are repeated over and over again (i.e., they are circular).
Substage 3: Secondary Circular Reactions (4–8 Months)
Infants become more aware of and more responsive to the outside world (their behaviors become
secondary), and intentionally repeat an action in order to trigger a response in the environment.
Substage 4: Coordination of Secondary Circular Reactions (8–12 Months)
After repeatedly observing that certain actions lead to certain consequences, infants gradually
acquire knowledge of cause-effect relationships. Accordingly, they begin to engage in goal
directed behavior: They behave in ways that they know will bring about desired results

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Substage 5: Tertiary Circular Reactions (12–18 Months)
Children begin a period of trial-and-error experimentation during the fifth substage. They show
increasing flexibility and creativity in their behaviors, and their experimentation with objects
often leads to new outcomes .
Substage 6: Mental Representation (18–24 Months)
Children begin to develop symbols (symbolic thought) to represent events or objects in the
world in the final sensorimotor substage. During this time, children begin to move towards
understanding the world through mental operations rather than purely through actions.
One of the more notable achievements of the sensori motor period is the development of object
permanence- the idea that people, places and things continue to exist when they are no longer
visible or detectable through our senses. By 18-24 months object permanence is complete.

Pre -Operational Stage (2-7 YEARS)

Mental operations is Piaget’s term for actions that take place in the mind rather than in the
physical environment. Piaget named this stage of development the preoperational stage because
children are not able to perform mental operations, or mental problem-solving activities.

Sub- stages of the preoperational stage

➢ Symbolic Function/Pre-conceptual sub-stage (2-4 years)

-The young child gains the ability to represent an object that is not present. This is done
by scribbling designs to represent people, houses, cars, clouds etc.

-Pretend play blossoms at this stage e.g. to pretend to be mum, dad, doctor, teacher etc.
Deficiences in pre-conceptual reasoning

• Animism: This is attributing life to inanimate objects

• Children do not separate fantasy from reality e.g. dreams are considered real.

• Transductive reasoning: the child assumes that things are causally related e.g. if a child
hears the dog bark and the balloon burst the child would conclude that because the dog
barked, the balloon popped/ burst.
If a child misses a nap in the afternoon then it’s not afternoon.

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 • Egocentrism: The tendency to view the world from one perspective/ Difficulty in
recognizing another person’s point of view”

➢ Intuitive sub-stage (4-7 years)

Piaget called this period intuitive because on one hand young children seem aware about
their knowledge and understanding yet are unaware of how they know what they know i.e.
they know things without use of rational thinking. They are intuitive rather than logical.

Pre-operational children have the following difficulties in their reasoning:

• Inability to classify: That is putting things together in their correct classes and sub-classes,
including the idea that one set of objects can include another
• Deficiency in Seriation: They lack the ability to put things in order with respect to a
common property.
• Centration: They focus, or center of attention on one characteristic to the exclusion of
others or the tendency to focus on only one aspect of a situation, problem or object.
• Lack of conservation: Centration is most clearly evidenced in young children’s lack of
conservation i.e.They fail to understand that although an objects appearance changes, it still
stays the same in quantity. Redistributing an object does not affect it’s mass, number or
volume.
• Lack of Reversibility: Lack the understanding that numbers or objects can be changed and
then returned to their original state e.g. a ball of clay once flattened can be made into a ball of
clay again.

Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 YEARS)

The various concrete operations that children start to master during this stage of
develoment are:
✓ Classification
✓ Seriation
✓ Decentration
✓ Conservation
✓ Reversibility
Formal Operational Stage (12- 15 years)
Characteristics are:
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➢ Ability to think in an abstract manner i.e. they can manipulate ideas in the head without any
dependence on concete manipulation.
➢ Hypothetical deductive reasoning-the ability to develop hypothesis ( best guesses), about ways to
solve problems e.g. Algebraic equation and then systematically deduce or conclude, which is the
best path to following in solving the problem.
IMPLICATIONS OF PIAGET’S THEORY TO LEARNING
(i) Teaching/learning should be at learners cognitive growth level;
(ii) Avoid teaching children something before they are ready to learn it.
(iii) Teachers should provide an environment rich in physical concrete experiences for the
child’s manipulation.
(iv) Teachers should present the child with those experiences and materials that are
relevant to what the child knows and then expose him gradually to novel or new siruations
i.e. build on schemas or teach from known to unknown.
(v) Provide a stimulating environment that will provide disequilibration thus forcing the
mind to assimilate new information and formulate new skills.
-(vi) Understanding of equilibration process explains to teachers that they should not
provide children with information and expect an immediate change in behaviour.
Factors that influence Cognitive development
➢ Biological maturation: Maturation is the unfolding of the biological changes that are
genetically programmed. To Piaget development follows a predictable pattern of maturation as
determined by biological/hereditary factors.
➢ Activity: activities such as exploration, discovery, observation and organising of information
from the environment stimulate our thinking processes.
➢ Equilibration: Equilibration follows disequilibrium - a state of imbalance that a child
experiences when encountering information that requires him to develop new schema or
modify existing schema (i.e., accommodate). A child will not move to the next stage of
thought until disequilibration is resolved. Equilibrium keeps the infant moving along the
developmental pathway, allowing him or her to make increasingly effective adaptations
which normally occur on a higher thinking level.

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 ➢ Social experiences: According to Piaget cognitive development is influenced by learning from
others, that is social transmission. Social interactions allow for multiple perspectives,
opinions and introduction of new ways to approach a task or event.

THE CONCEPT OF INTELLIGENCE AND CREATIVITY

INTELLIGENCE
Definition of intelligence

The term intelligence can take on many different meanings:

❖ Power of adaptation or adjustment to one’s environment.

❖ The capacity to understand the world, think rationally, and use resources effectively
❖ when faced with challenges.
❖ The ability to solve problems and to adapt to and learn from life’s everyday experiences
❖ Ability to carry on abstract thinking
❖ General mental ability to learn

Intelligence is not merely book learning, a narrow academic skill, or test-taking smarts. Rather it
reflects a broader and deeper capability for comprehending our surroundings/“catching on,”
“making sense” of things, or “figuring out” what to do.

Intelligence and learning

Studies repeatedly show that performance on intelligence tests is correlated with school
achievement. On average, children with higher IQ scores do better on standardized achievement
tests, have higher school grades, and complete more years of education. In other words IQ scores
often do predict school achievement, albeit imprecisely. As a result, intelligence tests are
frequently used by school psychologists and other specialists in their efforts to identify students
with special educational needs.
However, it is important to note that although students with high IQs typically perform well in
school, the role of other factors in a students’ school score cannot be ignored. Such other factors
as motivation, quality of instruction, family resources, parental support, peer group expectations
etc may also be involved.
Having said that, IQ tests are not the sole factor for determining how a person will eventually

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function in society. This is because IQ scores seem to predict performance on academic tasks
better than they predict performance on everyday, real-world tasks or unusual, multifaceted
problems.

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE INTELLIGENCE

i) Heredity
Correlations between IQs of brothers, sisters, children and their parents, and their distant
relatives indicate that intelligence has a strong hereditary component.
Identical twins reared together - .86
Identical twins reared apart - .72
Fraternal twins reared together - .60
The correlation between the IQs of identical twins reared together is substantially higher than
the correlation of fraternal twins reared together (.60)

Environmental Factors such as

Prenatal Environment comprising of such factors as:

(ii) Mother's nutrition: Lack of nutrition or poor nutrition has an adverse impact on the mental
development of the unborn child.
(iii) Illness of the mother- Maternal diseases like rubella, syphilis, AIDS, diabetes, and high
blood pressure may adversely affect the brain of the baby leading to the brain being damaged or
not grow properly.
(iv) Mother's use of drugs e.g. Alcohol which may cause fetal alcohol syndrome which is a
condition of retarded physical and mental growth.
(v) Birth complications e.g. lack of oxygen at the time of birth may cause permanent brain
damage.
Postnatal Environment
vi) Enriched environment
An enriched/stimulating environment accelerates cognitive development, while impoverished
environment produces poor cognitive performance.
vii) Home environment
A home environment that encourages exploration, curiosity, and self-reliance leads to higher
intellectual competence in children. The home environment also influences child's emotions,

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motivations and beliefs, which are closely linked with intellectual competence.
viii) Socioeconomic status (SES)
Children of the upper socioeconomic strata of the society are exposed to more intellectual
stimulation, get better social opportunities, and are nurtured with better nutrition.
ix) Personality dispositions
Children with Personality traits of assertiveness, independence and competitiveness score high
on IQ.

NB
Intelligence and Sex differences
The overall IQ scores of boys and girls are very similar. There is some evidence that sex
differences exist for particular kinds of cognitive abilities. Review of a number of studies has
shown that females are superior in language skills, verbal fluency, and reading, while males are
superior in mathematical reasoning and spatial abilities.
Intelligence and Race/ Nationality:
There is no prominent evidence to show that race in a factor for determining intellectual level.
Difference exist between families are due to environment. The differences in races are also due
to opportunity for training in early years.
All evidence indicates that there is little or no difference in inherited intellectual capacity due to
race. There are differences, mostly due to opportunities for training and learning. The idea of
inferior races due to heredity is not true.

LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

Functions of language
1. Informative function; to communicate information
2.Expressive function; to report feelings, attitudes etc
3. The phatic function; language for the sake of interaction as observed in greetings and casual
discussions of the weather particularly with strangers
4. Translation of experiences into symbols so that one is able to remember the experience better

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5. To increase understanding
6. Transmit culture

STAGES OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

1.Pre-speech communication (birth-12 months):

Characterized by the birth cry for attention, need, comfort.

The cooing stage: end of first month- Cooing refers to repeated vowel-like sounds e.g ooh,ah
Babbling: the babbling stage begins at about the 5-6th month, consists of consonant- vowel
combinations e.g.ma-ma, pa-pa.
From 10 months- Language development is accompanied by gestures, pointing, reaching,
touching. Babies’ interaction with adults already displays cultural features.
2.Holophrastic stage:
The holophrastic stage begins at about a year of age. Holophrastic- communication using one-
word utterances. One-word utterances may represent an entire thought/ idea. The utterance may
be used to declare, demand, question, describe

In the Holophrastic stage Words are frequently overextended to other categories

Telegraphic speech stage: 18 months to 2 years old.
This is a stage characterized by the production of telegraphic speech which means putting two
words together using the simplest combination of words that convey the intended meaning

- This stage is also characterized by echoing and imitation

3. Pre-adolescence stage
-language acquisition becomes slow but vocabulary continues to grow.
-overgeneralization of rules- this refers to situations when children learn a certain language rule
and they apply it inappropriately.

Theories of Language Development

Behaviourist Theory
- Among the Proponents- B.F. Skinner
- believed that children learn language through operant conditioning; "rewards" for using

23
language in a functional manner.
- also through imitation of others, prompting, and shaping.
Biological theory
- Among the Proponents-Noam Chomsky
-Believed that children have innate abilities to learn language.
- (LAD) language acquisition device which is used as a mechanism for working out the rules of
language.
-He observed that all children make the same type of language errors, regardless of the language
they are taught.
Cognitive Theory
- Proponent-Jean Piaget's
- suggests that children use both assimilation and accommodation to learn language.
- Children need to first develop mentally before language acquisition could occur.
-Children first create mental structures within the mind (schemas) and from these schemas,
language development occurs.
Social Interaction Theory
- Among the Proponents- Lev Vygotsky's
-Argued that children can be influenced by their environment as well as the language input they
receive from their care-givers.
- Private speech which is when children must speak to themselves in a self guiding and directing
way
-Also the concept of zone of proximal development (ZPD)- difference between what a child can
achieve independently and what a child can achieve with guidance and encouragement from a
skilled partner.

24
Factors that affect language development
1. Inadequate stimulation (talking and playing with the child).
2. Delayed general development; physical development (‘motor skills’), cognitive development
etc.
3. Changes in child’s environment e.g. moving.
4. Poor control and/or co-ordination of the speech muscles: lips, tongue etc.
5.Speech Problems- such as dysarthria stuttering, speaking in low volume or in a slurred manner.
6.Developmental and Medical Issues-Such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD),
autism, cleft lip and palate, and traumatic brain injury.
7.Multilingualism/Bilingualism

8.Education- children who receive individualized attention and education may develop above
average skills.

Ways the teacher can promote language development among learners

a) Ensuring active classrooms/involving learners in learning activities/ use of learner-centred
teaching/ learning approaches
b) Reinforcement
c) Role modeling; teacher using language appropriately
d) Ensuring that learners are not subjected to ridicule by their peers for language errors
e) Giving tasks of reasonable linguistic challenge to learners in the teacher’s subject area
f) Correcting poor language use by learners in a friendly manner

CREATIVITY
Borrow from ideas taught in other units for example Philosophy of Education, Psychology of
Learning.

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PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT
Definition of personality
A pattern of relatively permanent traits, disposition, or characteristics that give some measure of
consistency to a person’s behavior.
Types/Classification of personality
Carl Jung classified personality into two:
a) Extrovert
b) Introvert

Extrovert Introvert
– cheerful and jovial – Accept and obey rules without
– Optimistic questioning
– Social /outgoing – Tender hearted/sympathetic
– – Conservative
– Informal/flexible – pessimistic
– Quick thinkers & act fast – enjoy solitude.
– Disobey rules & want to make their – are good listeners.
own rules – prefer to study alone
– Open minded and adaptable to change – prefer one-on-one conversations to
– prefer to study in a group. group activities.
– Energized by being around other people – seem to care about wealth, fame, and
– Tend to think as they talk status less than their peers.
– Acts and then (maybe) reflects – dislike small talk, but enjoy talking in-
– Often friendly depth about topics that matter to me.
– Prefers talking to listening – are not big risk-takers.
– don't like to be alone. – enjoy work that allows them to “dive
– Impulsive in” with few interruptions.
– talkative and easy to know – described as “soft-spoken” or
– bored easily “mellow.”
– hates routine – dislike conflict.

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 – Expresses Thoughts and Emotions – tend to think before they speak.
Freely (May be at Risk of Saying too – feel drained after being out and about,
much) even if they’ve enjoyed themselves.
– Lives in the Present Enjoying What’s – often let calls go through to voice-mail.
There – If they had to choose,would prefer a
– Meets Deadlines By a Last Minute weekend with absolutely nothing to do
Rush to one with too many things scheduled.
– extroverts May Seem Disorganized, – don’t enjoy multi-tasking.
Messy, Irresponsible to introverts – Keeps thoughts & emotions private
– event planner, registered nurse, – Reserved, quiet & internally focused
advertising sales agent, police officer, – May be experiencing unhappiness with
hospitality related fields, pharmacist, an (extrovert) roommate
therapist( occupational, speech, – Prefers to avoid a lot of partying, loud
physical), customer service boisterous events
representative, entertainer /performer – Handles Deadlines, Plans in Advance
– Introverts May Seem Demanding,
Rigid, Uptight to extroverts
– Graphic designer, engineer, software
developer, editor, information research
scientist, veterinarian, artist, teacher

H. J. Eysenck supported Carl Jung but further subdivided Extrovert and introvert categories into
two:

1.The stable extrovert which he called Sanguine

2.The unstable extrovert-The Choleric
3. the stable introvert- thePhlegmatic
4.The unstable introvert-The Melancholic

How teachers should deal with the two types

27
 Extroverts
➢ Assign them leadership roles
➢ Compliment them in the company of others
➢ Accept and encourage their enthusiasm
➢ Allow them to explore
➢ Let them shine
➢ Understand when they want to be independent

Introverts
➢ Respect their need for privacy
➢ Never embarrass them in public/Reprimand them privately
➢ Let them observe first in new situations
➢ Give them time to think/don’t demand instant answers
➢ Give them advance notice of expected changes in their lives
➢ Don’t push them to make lots of friends

THEORIES OF PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT

THE PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY by SIGMUND FREUD

The Mind According to Freud

Before we can understand Freud's theory of personality, we must first understand his view of
how the mind is organized.
According to Freud, the mind can be divided into three main parts:

1. The conscious mind includes everything that we are aware of.

2. The preconscious mind consisting of memories that are not presently conscious but can
be retrieved easily at any time and brought into our awareness. It is thus a storehouse of
easily accessible memories.
3. The unconscious mind is a reservoir of feelings, thoughts, urges, and memories that are
outside of our conscious awareness..
According to Freud personality has three structures: the id, the ego and the superego.
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The id

The Ego

The superego

CONFLICTS
Normally there exists conflict between the demands ( wishes) of the id and the constraints of the
superego.This produces anxiety ( mental diccomfort or tension). The ego mediates between the
two structures of personality so that the anxiety level can be reduced or eliminated. It does this
through techniques called defense mechanisms. ( defense mechanisms to be learnt later in
another unit).
Defense mechanisms are a means to provide relief from emotional conflict and anxiety.
Freud’s stages of personality development (Psychosexual stages)

Freud believed that our personalities are formed as the individual passes through a series of
developmental stages from infancy to adulthood. At each stage Freud said we experience
pleasure in one part of the body more than in other parts. Erogenous zones are, in Freud’s theory
the parts of the body that have especially strong pleasure giving qualities at each stage of
development.

He went ahead to say that conflicts arise at each of these stages and if the person is not helped to
overcome the conflict fixation occurs. Fixation occurs when an individual remains locked up in
an earlier stage because his needs at that time were either not adequately met or were
overgratified. Fixation may eventually leave a lifelong mark on the personality of the individual

Stage 1

Oral stage(0-18 months)

The erogenous zone the mouth. Chewing, sucking and biting are the chief sources of pleasure.
These actions reduce tension in the infant. If fixation occurs at this stage –smoking, excessive
drinking, nail biting, kissing ,chewing gum, excessive dependency on others, Sarcasm ("the
biting personality") and verbal hostility, blind trust and naivety in relationships result.

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Stage 2
Anal stage (18 months-3 years)
-The erogenous zone is the anus. Pleasure sensations may result from either withholding or
expelling faeces. If fixation occurs at the anal stage :
-The individual may become too outgoing or overgenerous
–May also become the stingy and miserable type .
– Or the rigid and uncompromising type because they had strict and demanding toilet training. -
-Such adults are also obsessed with cleanliness and orderliness.
-If parents took an approach that is too lenient, the child develops into an individual who is
disorganized, messy, and even destructive of orderly institutions.

Stage 3
Phallic stage (3-6 years)

The focus of sexual gratification shifts to the genital area. The child finds pleasure in touching
the genitals. During this period the child unconsciously desires the parent of the opposite sex and
this desire is accompanied by fear and jealousy. Freud calls the attraction of the male child to the
mother Oedipus Complex- wanting to possess the mother and the desire to replace the father.
However, the child also fears that he will be punished by the father for these feelings, a fear
Freud termed castration anxiety. The female counterpart of the Oedipus Complex is called
Electra Complex and it is based on the little girl’s attraction to her father. How is the Oedipus
complex resolved? At about 5 to 6 years of age, the child identifies with the same-sex parent,
striving to be like him or her. Unresolved Phallic stage conlict (sexual competition for the
opposite-sex parent) might lead to a phallic-stage fixation characterized in men by a difficulty in
dealing with authority figures, tendency to have trouble with loving relationships, or becoming a
vain, over-ambitious man. Freud also believed that fixation in this stage sometimes resulted in
homosexuality due to the child’s inability to identify properly with a rival parent (gender identity
problems).
Unresolved Electra Complex results in a girl becoming a woman who continually strives to
dominate men either through a high self-esteem or as an unusually submissive woman (low self-
esteem).

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Stage 4
Latency Stage (6-13 years )

Latency –dormant. Freud saw latency as a period of repression of sexual desires and erogenous
impulses. During the latency period, children pour this repressed libidal energy into asexual
pursuits such as school, athletics, and same-sex friendships.

Stage 5

The Genital Stage

In the genital stage, as the child's energy once again focuses on his genitals, interest turns to
heterosexual relationships. The less energy the child has left invested in unresolved psychosexual
developments, the greater his capacity will be to develop normal relationships with the opposite
sex. If, however, he remains fixated, particularly on the phallic stage, his development will be
troubled as he struggles with further repression and defenses.
According to Psychoanalysis:
1.Our behavior is influenced by our unconscious mind
2.Our personality is determined by past and present experiences.
3. Freud also Puts emphasis on conflict resolution this implies the need for people to examine
their own dark side and trying to adjust.
4.Freud emphasizes the importance of early experiences in influencing behavior in later years.

PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY OF PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT by ERIC ERIKSON

In Erikson’s theory, eight stages of development unfold as we go through the lifespan. Each
stage was seen to present a developmental task which confronted an individual with a crisis
which has to be faced.

If an individual is able to overcome the crisis well, the development will be healthy. If not the
development will be impaired.

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Stage 1 (Trust vs mistrust) Birth to 18 Months

This stage has to do with development of trust. This trust comes through the attention given to
the child by the mother trhough having his infacy needs met. If this attention is given in a warm
loving and consistent manner, the child learns to trust the mother and later generalizes the same
to other people and the world in general.

2. Stage 2: 18 Months to 3 Years

Autonomy vs. Shame

Children begin to experiment with their new abilities. If this is not restrained, children develop
autonomy. If parents inhibit such autonomy perhaps by being strict, restrictive or punishing
when the child is independent, then the child may feel shame and doubt.

3. Stage 3: 3 to 5 Years

Initiative vs. Guilt

Children copy the adults around them, create play situations, they make up stories, play with
toys, play out roles in a trial universe experimenting with what they believe it means to be an
adult. This fosters initiative in the child. When encouraged, they feel able and engage in more
initiatives. If it is frustrated they may easily experience guilt.
4. Stage 4: 6 to 12 Years

Industry vs. Inferiority

During this stage, children direct a lot of energy towards mastering knowledge and intellectual
skills. The child feels competent when she achieves success. Competence in one’s abilities
promotes a sense of industry. The danger of this elementary school period is the development of
sense of inferiority ( incompetence and unproductivity). The child may lose interest and
motivation to want to achieve in academic and social life.This is because he believes that he will
fail in whatever he tries to do.

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Identity vs. Role Confusion
Adolescence: 12 to 18 Years
Identity - a sense of knowing who one is as a person and as a contributor to society.
Failing to master this stage of psychosocial development results in role confusion. Role
confusion/ Identity crisis implies the individual not being sure about themselves or their place in
society.
Identity formation is a very difficult task and many people do not fully succeed in it today until
they are well beyond their teen years!
Some of the coping mechanisms for the teen who is confronting his or her identity that Erikson
discusses (also see Kroger, 2000) are:
Foreclosure: a premature identity is formed where adolescent entirely accepts parental values
and never explores alternatives. It involves stopping the search before identity is developed. It is
also referred to as a premature identity. The adolescent accepts parental roles without actually
establishing his or her own.
Moratorium: a time of experiment with alternative identities without having to choose one
specific identity. The adolescent tries different identities.
Adolescents in moratorium are actively exploring different occupational plans, ideological
stances, and personal relationships, but they are not ready to make any choices or commitments.
Although necessary, moratorium is close to identity crisis.
Identity diffusion: This essentially represents a kind of apathy in which the youth lacks any kind
of passion or commitment. Example: “I don’t really feel committed to anything – I don’t know
what I can do to get by in school.” “I just can’t take hold of some kind of a life”
Negative role identity: This refers to the rebellious denial of the expectations of parents or
society; the opposite is instead chosen.

6. Young adulthood: 18 to 35

Intimacy vs. Isolation

Intimacy means the process of achieving relationships with family and/or marital partner; the
giving and receiving of physical and emotional connection, support, love, comfort, trust, and all
the other elements that we would typically associate with healthy adult relationships. For

33
individuals who are not successful to form intimacy, isolation may occur. Isolation- exclusion
from the usual life experiences..

7. Middle Adulthood: 35 to 60 years

Generativity vs. Stagnation
Generativity- productive work geared towards caring for the next generation characterized by
acts and works that will survive the individual. It is a sense of caring for the future. Giving back
or contributing to society and future generations.
If we don't get through this stage successfully, we fall into the opposing concept to generativity ,
stagnation- self-interest and self-absorption. It's the disposition that represents feelings of
selfishness, self-indulgence, greed, lack of interest in young people and future generations, and
the wider world.
8. Late Adulthood: 60 years to Death
Integrity vs. Despair

Integrity means feeling at peace with oneself and the world. No regrets or recriminations. It
implies acceptance of a life that was well-lived.

Despair represent the opposite disposition: feelings of wasted opportunities, regrets, wishing to
be able to turn back the clock and have a second chance. It implies a lack of further hope.

FACTORS INFLUENCING PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT

1.Heredity- This is inborn. Studies have shown that twins have more or less similar temperament
and personal traits hence genetic factors contribute to personality formation.

2.Environment- Those children brought up by their biological parents and those under foster
parents were different, the study shows that there is an inter relationship between the
environment and the genetic in shaping personality.

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Children brought up by biological parents have more similarities in personality than those under
foster parents.

Other people in the child’s environment e.g siblings and the extended family also influence a
child’s personality. Also included are teachers and peers.

3.Emotional factors- When a child receives love he learns to trust ,if deprived he lacks trust and
will be withdrawn, may also become an attention seeker and fail to establish meaningful
relationships. Also selfish and dependent.

4.Cultural factors-Norms, values, beliefs of society shape a child’s personality as a child

internalizes the expectations of society.

5.Religion- Influences one’s personality because it has its own norms that members adhere to.

6.Individual physique- e.g. appearance, body shape, the way we look influence the way we
perceive ourselves and this in turn affects our personality. Those with physique defects may have
low self esteem. They receive overprotection from caregivers and parents and this leads to
dependency.

7.Health-poor health leads to moodiness and makes one withdrawn.

8.Intelligence-persons who are very intelligent can make better adjustment in home, school and
society than those persons who are less intelligent. Also:

High IQ- high self esteem

Low IQ-low self esteem

Role of the school in healthy personality development

1.Modelling

2.Direct teaching and training 3.Interaction and observation

4 School rules 5.Reward and punishment

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THE CONCEPT OF ADOLESCENCE
Who is an adolescent
Generally children from the age of thirteen to nineteen are called adolescents. Or the period
between childhood and adulthood is called adolescence.
It is considered to begin around age 12 and to end sometime around age 20. It is a time of worry
and problems especially in today’s world. Adolescents worry about appearance, relationships,
career, education etc. The onset of adolescence corresponds with the appearance of biological
changes in puberty. Puberty refers to a rapid physical growth, coupled with hormonal changes
that bring about sexual maturity. The peak growth spurt for girls occurs between 11 and 14 years
and for boys it occurs between 13 and 16 years. Growth spurt:
This is an accelerated rate of increase in weight and height.

Adolescence can be defined biologically, as the physical transition marked by the onset of
puberty and the termination of physical growth; cognitively, as changes in the ability to think
abstractly and multi-dimensionally; or socially, as a period of preparation for adult role.

The adolescence period is divided into three sub-stages:

➢ Early adolescence-10-12 years for girls, 12-13 years for boys.

➢ Mid adolescence -13-16 years for girls, 14-17 years for boys.
➢ Late adolescence 16-18 years for girls, 18-21 years for boys.

Changes that take place during adolescence

• Physical development

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The physical changes in both boys and girls are related to sexual functioning
during puberty. Puberty refers to that point in life when girls and boys reach
sexual maturity and become capable of producing a child. For girls 10-12 years
and 12-13 years for boys.
There are changes in the reproductive organs of both sexes. The marked changes
are divided into two
1.Primary sexual characteristics
2.Secondary sexual characteristics

Primary sexual characteristics

These refer to the changes related to the maturation of external and internal sex
organs e.g. in males

-the penis increases in size

-scrotum and testes enlarge

-seminal vesicles-increase in sperm production, and prostrate glands

all mature

In females
- Fallopian tubes enlarge
-uterus increases in size
-vagina increases in size
-breasts enlarge
-clitoris increase in size
Girls also begin their menstrual periods.

Secondary sexual characteristics

These refer to the visible changes on the outside of the body that serve as signs of
sexual maturity e.g.

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 Boys Girls
-deepening of the voice -development of breasts
-appearance of facial and underarm hair -widening of hips
-broadening of shoulders -growth of pubic hair
-increase in height -increase in weight
-growth of pubic hair -skin becomes oilier
-skin becomes oilier
-wet dreams

Psychological effects of these changes

Adolescence can be a very embarrassing time. Young people are convinced that everyone is
watching their every move and their bodies are constantly betraying them.
These changes have the following impact:
1.If they are not informed of the changes in advance it can lead to extreme anxiety, withdrawal
and depression.
2.They become very sensitive about their appearance, e.g. fat, acne, big breasts etc.
3. They worry a lot e.g. girls worry about menstrual accidents, are embarrassed about their
enlarging breasts and hips and are vulnerable to males staring at them while boys worry about
uncontrolled erections. They are also ashamed to speak out in class and to sing in public.
4.They become very self-consious and worry that everybody is watching their every move.
5.Early and late maturation. Those boys who mature early are likely to hold leadership positions
in school. However they may have problems in meeting the expectations of society on how a
mature person ought to behave.
Girls who mature early tend to be self conscious about their physical changes and are likely to
experience discomfort and may isolate themselves.

Early and Late Maturation

Some adolescents mature early while others mature late due to
individual differences. For example, at fifteen
years, a girl may still be flat chested and very small while another at the same age may be

38
fully developed and able to reproduce.
These variations are normal and do not either help or interfere with the eventual achievement of
full physical and sexual
maturity. However, they can affect the way adolescents’ view themselves and the way
they are viewed by others. The following are some possible effects of either early or late
maturation.
Effects of early and late maturation.
BOYS
Early maturing boys are more poised, relaxed, good natured,
popular with peers, likely to be leaders and less impulsive than late maturers. They also
have a high self-esteem.
Adults and peers rate early maturers as physically more attractive, more composed, and
more socially sophisticated than late maturers. They are independent, self-controlled and
dominant.
Early maturing boys may have problems in living up to others’ expectations. They are
expected to act mature than they are capable of.
Research has found that late maturers feel more inadequate, rejected, dependent, more
aggressive, and insecure. They are more likely to rebel against parents and think less of
themselves. They may feel and act more childishly.
Late maturers have the advantage of having a longer childhood whereby, they don’t have
to deal with the new and difficult demands of adolescence.
GIRLS
Early maturing girls have been found to be less sociable, expressive, poised and more
introverted and shy.
Early maturing girls make better adjustments in adulthood.

Late maturing girls are initially more gregarious, socially poised, assertive, active, more
popular with peers, and more satisfied with their body image. However, at late
adolescence, the early maturing girl becomes more popular with both sexes, more self-
poised, better at coping, more self-directed cognitively, socially and emotionally.
OTHER DEVELOPMENTAL CONCEPTS RELATED TO ADOLESCENCE

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Adolescent Egocentrism
In spite of the tremendous development in their cognitive ability, adolescent thought is
limited by adolescent egocentrism. There are three forms of this egocentrism.

Personal Fable.
Adolescents see themselves as much more central and significant on the social stage than
they actually are. For example, they believe that no one else has ever had the particular
emotional experiences they themselves are having, e.g. so angry, so much in love etc. An
example is a teen telling the mother “ you don’t know how it feels to be in love”. They
also see themselves destined for great fame and fortune e.g. discovering a cure for cancer
or being a great philosopher.
Imaginary Audience.
They agonize over the fact that others are constantly watching and making comments
about them. They fantasize how others will react to their appearance and behavior. For
instance, they will spend hours before a mirror thinking others will judge the final result.
They will enter a room regarding themselves as the most attractive and admired human
being alive. If they have a slight blemish, they will not want to go to school, or they will
wish they were invisible. They keep seeing disapproval everywhere.
Invincibility Fable.
The feeling that they are somehow immune to the laws of mortality and probability. They
believe they have a mission in life and problems cannot befall them yet. They feel
magically protected from harm such as death, accidents, pregnancies etc. This leads to
risk taking behaviors e.g. drunken driving, promiscuity etc.
Naive Idealism.
Inability to differentiate the ideal from the practical. They imagine an ideal world and
they feel compelled to try and bring reality closer to the ideal. For example, they have
perfect answers to social problems. They point out all the shortcomings in people and
things and finds fault with almost everybody especially those in authority.

Emotional Development during the Adolescent stage.

The adolescent experiences similar emotions as the young child, but there are differences

40
in the amount, intensity, types of responses and types of stimuli that creates the emotions
of the adolescent. The physical changes at puberty make their emotions change so
frequently that they have been described as ambivalent, or vacillations. Adolescent
emotions have also been described as heightened. This can be explained by the following
factors:

Causes of Heightened Emotions

Parent - adolescent relations
Excessive parental domination; unreasonable restrictions; sibling rivalry etc. Feels
parents are unreasonable and old fashioned. Leads to friction. They feel like children in
decision-making, and when they become emotionally volatile, parents reprimand them
for being childish. This makes the adolescent confused.

Adjustment at home and at school

The changeover to new patterns of habits creates emotional tensions. The process of
changing from total dependence to independence roles with greater responsibility disturbs
the adolescent.

Unfavorable relations in the home

Lack of proper guidance in preparation for the problems of adolescence; lack of
understanding their interests and points of view.
Social Expectations
They are expected to think and act like an adult for whom he is not physically and
intellectually ready.

Adjustment to members of the opposite sex

There is attraction towards the members of the opposite sex but the adolescent is not able
to understand the correct social behavior
Religious conflicts
He critically examines his parent’s beliefs and begins to criticize them.
School failure

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Failure in school causes heightened emotionality so much so that a number of adolescents
commit suicide leave home or withdraws from school.
Vocational problems
They develop anxiety when they see many unemployed. They worry about their future
occupation.

Common Adolescent Emotions

Anger-moodiness
Is the most disruptive while moodiness is least disruptive. Caused by restraints and
disruptions. Manifested verbally and through name-calling.
Jealousy
Occurs when the adolescent feels threatened or insecure because his relationship with
another is threatened in some way. Is expressed through verbal sarcasm, ridicule,
derogatory comments and making another person look bad.
Envy
May be envious of persons who have material possessions and social status. May be the
cause of juvenile delinquency.

Fear, worry and anxiety

Fear is less recognized than before. The adolescent may plan to avoid embarrassing
situations. Worry and anxiety are imaginary fears which may include feelings of
inadequacy, problems related to school performance, physical appearance, social
acceptability, sex, marriage, home situation etc.
Affection
Common in early adolescence although it is usually flirtations. Later, affection develops
by concentrating on one member or a small group.
Happiness
Feels happy when at ease, achieves a sense of superiority over others and when releases
stored up emotional energy.

Toleration of loneliness - Sometimes they like to be left alone

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CHALLENGES/PROBLEMS OF ADOLESCENCE
a)Sexual Risk, Unintended Pregnancy, and Sexually Transmitted Diseases

Sex related behaviour problems include unwanted pregnancies, abortions, promiscuous

sex/multiple partners, rape, incest, dating, date rape, STIs, HIV/AIDS, trial marriages etc. These
problems come as a result of experimentation, ignorance on sexuality, acceptance of sexual
activity in today’s culture as compared to traditional societies and the upsurge of sex hormones.
As a consequence of popular culture and society’s relaxed attitude about sexuality, many
researchers believe that young people are dealing with sexual issues at a young age than ever
before.
The consequences of adolescence sexuality include:
• Risk for acquiring STDs (Chlamydia, gonorrhea, herpes simplex, HIV/AIDS)
• Pregnancy

b)Juvenile Delinquency
Delinquency refers to behaviour patterns that are contrary to certain laws enacted by constituted
authority. These include violation of disciplinary measures of parents, truancy, stealing, robbery,
violence, student unrest, student protests and vandalism. Delinquency can be caused by
discrepancy of values in society, frustrations, unmet needs, strained relationship between
parents/teachers and adolescents due to extreme authoritarian ideas at home, school or society.

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c)Poor Communication with Parents and Other Adults

Modern society changes so rapidly there is an inevitable generation gap between adolescents and
parents/adults that results into Intergenerational Conflict due to differences in attitudes, beliefs
etc. Conflict and poor communication occur when parents and adults impose their values and
beliefs on the adolescent. Adolescents have values and interests that are different and in conflict
with those of parents and authority. Since the young people see parents as old-fashioned, they
may avoid communicating with them which in turn may create feelings of guilt and anxiety or
lack of respect for those in authorities and even for parents.

d)Emotional Problems

Adolescents have fears, anxiety, and worry due to body appearance, performance in school,
social acceptance, sex etc. Anxiety and worry among adolescents can also emanate from
physical, biological and psychological changes, increasing demands and uncertainty about their
abilities and future.

e)Choice of Friends
The adolescent is faced with questions such as who to associate with, whether or not to engage in
premarital sex, whether or not to get married and whom to marry etc. If the adolescent associates
with a deviant group of friends, it is very easy for him to be swayed to the same kind of
behaviour.

f)Education, School, and Career-Related Problems

Adolescents have problems in the choice of career, subjects, schools, and colleges because they
do not know their potentials. They have little knowledge about career options that are open to
them. There is also fear that they may fail to get employment since they see many unemployed
school leavers. There are also adjustment problems that occur due to the transition from primary
to secondary school and finally to college or university levels. There is pressure of work and
examinations. Lack of proper adjustment to these school challenges may lead to disturbances,
such as poor study habits, lack of concentration and anxiety. They need proper guidance and
counselling on these matters.

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g)Adolescent Use of Drugs
Substance abuse is defined as the frequent or excessive use of a drug (Meece, 2002). The most
commonly abused substances are cigarettes, alcohol and marijuana. Research evidence suggests
that those individuals who initiate smoking in adolescence have a high likelihood of continuing
to smoke in adulthood (US Department of Health & Human Services, 1999). Youths who smoke
are more likely to abuse alcohol and use illicit drugs. Marijuana is one of the most commonly
used illicit drugs. 31% of high school youths have been reported to be involved in binge drinking
(drinking five or more alcoholic drinks in a row) (Johnstone et al., 2000).

Psychologists are aware of the many reasons why adolescents use drugs. They use them to:

1. Relax and cope with tension especially on social occasions.

2. Appear more adult especially when they are with their peers.
3. Rebel against a society that prohibits their use among the adolescents, while allowing
their use among adults.
4. Boost their low self-esteem
All of those uses are understandable and to some psychologists permissible as long as the drugs
are not overused. On the other hand, many psychologists agree that most adolescents are not yet
wise enough to assess the possible long-range consequences of drug use. Many students show a
correlation between adolescent use of marijuana and alcohol, and a lack of ambition, poor
attitude towards school, and social problems with family and friends. Drugs may not only
impede the development of cognitive processes and of studying habits, but can also impair the
psychological maturation of the young person’s brain. Drug use is implicated in at least half of
all the fatal accidents in the western countries.

h)Adolescent Suicide
Researchers have found that a precipitating event that is usually taken as the cause of suicide is
actually the last incidence in a long chain of difficulties. They have also found that suicidal
adolescents mostly come from broken families where they feel unwanted by one or both parents.
Some believe that many suicidal adolescents have for a long time felt unwanted by the
community. In a careful study of suicide adolescents, it was found that many of them had a long
history of family problems which became worse at puberty. Another study found that suicidal
young people make little or no communication with their fathers, either because he is absent

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altogether, or he always played the role of a disciplinarian and never the role of a friend. Experts
have found a number of warning signs that should alert a family and friends that a young person
may be becoming dangerously overwhelmed with emotional difficulties:

1. A decline in school attendance and achievement especially for students of above average
ability.
2. A break in sexual relationships, which is a precipitating event for many adolescent suicides.
3. Withdrawal from social relationships. Adolescents, who decide to take their lives, sometimes
seem less stressed or anxious than previously and may cheerfully say something to the effect
that they need to be alone.
4. An attempted suicide however weak it might seem, is the final effort to communicate and has
to be taken seriously. If nothing changes in the adolescent’s social world, an attempted
suicide will probably turn out to have been trial for the real thing. Almost all adolescent
suicides follow failed attempts. In addition to defeat that leads to the adolescent
contemplating suicide, the important factor in converting this consideration into action is
precisely the sense that nothing can change; a sense of optimism.

Other risk factors:

• Depression
• Substance abuse
• Family stress
• Parental rejection
• Family disruption
• Family history that includes psychiatric and depressive disorders
• Access to firearms
• Previous suicide attempts
• Poor performance in school
• Poor coping skills and deficits in personal skills
• History of sexual abuse
• Exposure to suicidal behavior
• Feelings of hopelessness and preoccupation with death

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 • Discipline problems
• Affective disorders
• A humiliating or shameful event, such as arrest, breakup of romantic relationship, or
school or work failure
Symptoms and signs:
• Appeals for support from friends
• Giving away prized possessions
• Saying good bye to fiends
• Disregard for personal safety
• Preoccupation with death
• Absenteeism from school
i)Lack of identity

Many adolescents lack the ability to consistently define themselves as unique individuals in
terms of roles, attitudes, beliefs, interests, aspirations etc. They are unable to discover an identity.
They don’t know what is expected of them. They worry and observe themselves on mirrors in
search of an identity. They experiment on various things and delay in making serious
commitments and therefore, experience a prolonged adolescence period. Many adolescents
experience identity crisis (uncertainty about themselves) because they are not sure of their
abilities and lack self awareness. When they get overwhelmed by the identity crisis, they may
give up the struggle to discover themselves, become withdrawn, apathetic, and aimless. They
may have very low ambitions and doubt whether they will ever make it in life. The identity
diffusion/confusion may result to prolonged adolescence in which uncertainty and lack of
commitment persist into adulthood. This may be reflected in people who move from one job to
another or inability to establish enduring relationships.

j)Eating disorders

Anorexia nervosa

Referred to as the self starvation or slimming disease, an eating disorder common in girls and a
manifestation of their personality problems.

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Characteristics

i)persistent lack of appetite, disgust for food the smell of which irritates and leads to vomiting.

ii)Severe weight loss and feeling fat even when dangerously thin.

iii)discontinuation of menstruation

iv)poor sleeping habits

v)LLow body temperature

Causes of anorexia

a)Mental depression involving the belief and sense of loss of control especially when one leaves
home to study or when they experience death or a broken love relationship.

b)Peer pressure to lose weight especially when one acquires a new boyfriend.

c)The effects of discontinuation of oral contraceptives.

d)Disorder in the hypothalamus responsible for sleep, menstruation eating, body temperature.

Explanations by researchers

i) It is a puzzling problem. The patient has a distorted perception of her body /image. She
believes she is not attractive and there is an urge to remain as slim as a boy.

ii)Individual fighting against parental control because she believes they prevented her from
forming the self identity she wished. She therefore becomes obsessed in contrplling every aspect
of her life starting with her body.

iii)There is strong evidence that anorexia patients had dispositions of obedience and eagerness to
please that they had experienced firm and regulated parental control during childhood.

Measures to handle adolescence problems

a)The need to appreciate the difficulties of this period. The need to provide love and
understanding.

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b)Involve the adolescent in decision making. There is need to tone down parental domination.
Identity cannot be achieved if parents are too domineering.
d)School to provide opportunities to foster social relationships and development.e.g social
functions such as games, debates, seminars, ecursions and trips.
e) Parents and teachers to be warm towards adolescents so as to foster trust in order for the
adolescents to accept their decisions as wise and just.

f)Help the adolescents to develop life skills e.g. self-control, assertiveness, conflict resolution etc
g)Be good role models.
h)Adults are to give recognition to all that is good and positive in adolescents. This enhances self
confidence which is so vital during this stage.
i)Parents are to be more approachable, up to date, prepared to discuss and advise on sensitive
isues e.g. sex, reproduction and love relationships.

j) Provide nutritional education i.e. need for balanced diet.

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LEARNERS WITH SPECIAL NEEDS
CATEGORIES OF LEARNERS WITH SPECIAL NEEDS

The gifted or talented child

This category comprises children who are very superior in mental functioning/ possess
outstanding mental abilities and are capable of high performance.
Characteristics of gifted children

➢ Are advanced in language and thought: learn to speak early and the fluency improves
rapidly. Piaget and Inhelder (1969) advocate that a child will verbalise only what it can
deal with conceptually).This means that the accelerated improvement in speech reflects
not only a growing vocabulary but also a rapidly improving and abstract thinking ability.
➢ Early reading and advanced comprehension: by age 3 or 4 they are able to recognize
letters, relate letters to sounds, recognize and pronounce words and associate words with
meanings. Their superior comprehension ability is noted in their ability to retell a story
without missing any bit of it. This ability to comprehend is very good in subjects in
which previously learnt material has an influence on new material because the child will
perceive relationships very clearly and this will enable him to advance very fast.
➢ Thinking logically/ superior in reasoning
➢ Early writing, maths, music and art: can shape letters properly at the age of 4-5 years,
shows very fast ability to grasp mathematical concepts, ability to reproduce objects in
pictures and artistic work.
➢ Motivation, persistence and advanced interests: gifted children have high motivation, a
compulsion to be productive, are hardworking, enthusiastic, and persist at a task.

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 ➢ Low anxiety, depression and better self-concept: Generally gifted and talented children
are better adjusted, have better self-concepts and lead comparatively happier lives.Some
however, do have social problems while others are anxious and depressed.
➢ High moral thinking, empathy and perceptive taking: gifted children and youthare likely
to develop, refine and internalise a system of values and a keen sense of fairplay and
justice at a relatively early age. This will make the child fair, empathetic and honest and
will evaluate others according to the same standards. This reasoning ability may be a
source of rebellion in form of delinquency, and even crime. This is because these children
will not see the need to do as expected when the proponents of the rules go ahead and
break them. Gifted children are also able to to rule out rules that do not make sense to
them.
➢ Independence, self-confidence and internal control: gifted children tend to accept
responsibility for their success and failure. They are different from the less gifted children
children who attribute failure to external causes like unfair teachers, sickness and lack of
sleep among others.
➢ Show leadership characteristics: they are able to influence others’ behavior, are good at
social interactions, dominate others and direct activities for the group.

How the teacher can manage the gifted/talented children

❖ The teacher should be able to understand the pupils and put them in their group for
special instruction.
❖ Provide additional reading and extra but challenging assignments
❖ Should be an open minded person, resourceful and adaptable to the new changing times.
❖ Should be knowledgeable and with thorough command of subject matter.
❖ Should be focused with desire to increase knowledge
❖ Should have a positive attitude towards the pupils and try to accommodate their views.
❖ Should show interest and have a desire for their intellectual growth.

The Mentally Handicapped children

Mental retardation definition
Significant limitations in general intellectual functioning existing concurrently with deficits in
two or more of the following adaptive skill areas: communication, self care, home living, social

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skills, community use, self direction, health safety, functional academics, leisure and work.
In this definition it means that a child may score low on a standardized intelligence test but have
adequate adaptive skills; he may do poorly in school but still be able to cope with doing things in
the house or even cope with peers.

• Individuals with mental retardation IQ score =70-75 or lower. They score 97-98% lower
than people in the same age on an intelligence test.

Causes of mental retardation

a) Genetic disorders: e.g

➢ Phenylketonuria(PKU)- a genetic defect which interferes with the ability to metabolise

protein. Accumulation of protein in the child’s body results in severe damage to the
central nervous system causing severe retardation.
➢ Hydrocephalus-characterised by an enlarged head caused by an increased volume of
cerebral spinal fluid accompanied by paralysis, visual defects and mental retardation
which may be associated with poor motor development. Hydrocephalus has other causes
which include prenatal infections and birth injury.
➢ Microcephaly-a condition characterized by abnormally small skull circumference.
Inndividuals have moderate to severe mental retardation.
➢ Galactosemia: caused by the failure of the body to metabolise galactose, ( the common
sugar of milk). Afflicted babies tend to do poorly and appear to be lethargic. Many of the
children die during infancy. Those who survive are mentally retarded.

b) Chromosomal disorders e.g.

➢ Down’s Syndrome/ Trisomy 21: Down’s Syndrome is a widely known condition of

mental retardation. It results from an extra copy of chromosome 21. This condition leads
to moderate or mild mental retardation along with a variety of hearing, skeletal and heart
problems.
➢ Turners syndrome: The victims of this condition have a missing sex chromosome, either
an X or a Y thus they are XO. Individuals with condition are usually mildly mentally
retarded.

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 ➢ Klinefelter Syndrome: Klinefelter, working with others identified the existence of an
extra X sex chromosome in some males thus giving the feature XXY. These individuals
have below normal verbal IQ, increased incidents of late speech and delayed emotional
development.

c) Infectious diseases e.g Rubella, Congenital Syphillis, Fetal Alcohol Syndrome,

Toxoplasmosis

d)Environmental factors:

➢ Radiation: The human embryo is particularly susceptible to X-Rays during the first
trimester of pregnancy in which time radiation can cause conditions like spina bifida,
cleft palate, hydrocephalus and microcephally.
➢ Lead poisoning: products that may contain lead include certain paints, gasoline additives
and insecticides. Glazed pots, if improperly fired, may give out lead substances and this
may be more dangerous if the pots are used to store warm or acidic foods or beverages.
Ingesting lead by a child can cause brain damage. Chronic lead poisoning results in
permanent central nervous system injury and kidney damage.
➢ Mercury poisoning: sources include agriculture pesticides, cosmetics, mining and
industrial uses, pulp industry slimicides. Mercury poisoning can occur either prenatally or
postnatally. It results in extensive central nervous defects.

e) Conditions surrounding the birth process e.g. injury to the central nervous system during the
birth process, Anoxia which is deprivation deprivation of oxygen to the baby’s brain during the
birth process or even prematurity.

f) Conditions such as infections like Malaria, Menengitis etc existing after the birth of the baby.

Characteristics of the mentally retarded children

➢ Reduced ability to learn: very short attention spans, are easily distracted, poor in retaining
learnt concepts
➢ Language difficulties: articulation errors, stuttering and stammering

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 ➢ Academic problems: because of their low IQ retarded children lag significantly behind
their chronological age peers in all areas of achievement including reading,
comprehension and arithmetic.
➢ Social adjustment: The mentally retarded have a variety of social and emotional
problems.

Educational adaptations for the mentally retarded

The educable mentally retarded

– These are sound individuals who, because of subnormal mental development, are unable
to profit sufficiently from regular school programmes.
– Have potential for academic subjects at a minimum level.
✓ Emphasize on practical living skills; self help skills, language development, family and
community awareness, home economics, personal finance, health, interpersonal
relationships and safety.
✓ Concerning the learning environment, as long as these children can be made to feel that
they belong to the larger society, they can comfortably learn in a regular school/
classroom( mainstreaming) instead of being isolated in special schools/ classrooms.

The Trainable Mentally retarded/Moderately retarded.

✓ Their education programme is not very much geared towards academic orientation
✓ Need a specially designed school curriculum that deviates from academic orientation and
emphasizes skills such as the following:
-self help skills: toileting, dressing, grooming, feeding
-communication skills: should be helped to develop speech for everyday use.
-social skills: e.g. sharing, waiting for turns, obeying, following directions, sensing the
feelings of others and positively participating in daily activities.
✓ Perceptual / motor activities: these will enable the individual to participate in recreational
activities and art and craft like colouring, drawing, simple woodwork, painting, cutting
and pasting.
-Motor activities: comprise practical arts like cooking, sewing, dishwashing, cleaning,

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 gardening, setting the table and other chores at home and in school.
-They should also be given opportunities to participate in games and sports.
✓ Academic skills
-Should be different from that of the normal child.
-They should be taught functional skills i.e. academics geared towards helping the child
get along in the community e.g. counting, time concepts( by the clock or date on the
calendar), telephone numbers for those who may remember, writing their own names,
addresses, parents names, school and teacher name.
The trainable mentally retarded ability to read is limited to recognizing their own names
and other isolated words for everyday use. Care should therefore be taken not to push
them beyond their capability in reading.
✓ Economic skills:
-e.g. helping with housework, yardwork, garden and even farmwork at home.
–skills in arts and crafts such as sewing, cooking, skin and woodwork among other
activities and the products can be sold to generate money for the child or for the school.
– In sheltered work environment and under supervision the child can do such things as
welding, sewing commercial clothing, picking tea and coffee, harvesting crops etc.
✓ The learning environment for the Trainable Mentally Retarded should be one whose
ultimate goal is to have them in a setting where they will be economically useful.There
should therefore be established workshops.

The Severely/Profoundly Mentally Retarded

-Most profoundly retarded children lack expressive language, cannot care for their personal
hygiene and most of the time exhibit undesirable behavior that makes it very difficult to adopt
learning experiences for this child.
-The learning experiences are, therefore, aimed at dealing with these problems. The programmes
are geared towards training and teaching of functional daily living skills e.g. self-feeding with
spoon, drinking from a cup, behaving appropriately at table, sitting still and looking up,
removing garments, dressing and undressing with supervidion, buttoning, zipping, washing and
drying face, bathing with help, and toilet scheduling.
-These children may require such equipment as wheelchairs, prosthetic devices and specially
designed clothing.

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-In language development they should be helped to recognize names of common objects, family
members, names of body parts, to respond to commands and directions.

Learners with learning disabilities

Definition of learning disability: A retardation, disorder or delayed development in one or more
of the processes of speech, language, reading, spelling, writing or arithmetic resulting from a
possible cerebral dysfunction and or emotional or behavioural disturbance and not from mental
retardation, sensory deprivation or cultural or instructional factors.

Characteristics of learning disabled children

➢ Reading disabilities: which comprise speech irregularities such as mumbling or even

conversely speaking too loudly, mispronouncing words.
➢ Performs poorly in arithmetical expressions
➢ Poor in memory
➢ Poor in thinking
➢ Have difficulty in physical activities involving the use of motor skills.
➢ Visual and auditory perceptual difficulties i.e. problems organizing and interpreting what
they hear and see
➢ Attention problems-cannot focus and be attentive long enough
➢ Are social isolates because they do not seem to have the social skills to play or even
interact with peesr.

Causes of learning disability

In most cases the causes of a child’s learning disability are not known. But the following are the
possible causes:

• Prenatal causes
-poor nutrition
-premature birth
-maternal infection
• Perinatal factors ( during birth)
-prematurity and low birth wwight

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 -Cesarean section
-Anoxia
-Difficult and long delivery
-Induced labour
• Postnatal factors
-direct damage to the brain
-tumours
-diseases
-Anoxia
-malnutrition
-head injuries
• Genetic and biological factors
-Dyslexia( problems in reading, writing, spelling is found to run in families.

THE PHYSICALLY IMPAIRED

Classification
Neurological impairments
These have to do with damage to or deterioration of the central nervous system ( the brain and
the spinal cord) . They include the following:

➢ Cerebral palsy
The symptoms of cerebral palsy may range from barely noticeable to profound multiple
handicaps that severely impair movement and learning. Cerebral palsy is caused by
injury to the brain which affects the control of muscles.
Causes of brain injury
-maternal infection
-chronic disease
-physical trauma
-maternal exposure to toxic substances or x-rays
-hard labour
-the use of artificial instruments to pull the baby during birth
-anoxia

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 ➢ Epilepsy
Epilepsy is characterized by seizures or convulsions usually caused by an abnormal
discharge of electric energy in the brain.
Causes
-Can be caused by any type of brain damage –anoxia, poisoning, birth trauma, injections,
tumors
➢ Spina bifida
Spina bifida is a congenital defect in the bony structure of the spinal column whereby one
or more vertebrae fail to close completely, leaving a defect in the spine. Symptoms
include a disfigured appearance, neulological damage, paralysis of the legs. Spina bifida
is often accompanied by hydrocephalus and mental retardation.
➢ Poliomyelitis
Often called polio, it is a viral infection which attacks the nerve tissue in the spinal cord
and/ or the brain. The end result could be severe muscular weakness, skeletal deformities
or even complete paralysis.

Hearing impairments ( the deaf)

The deaf children are those who are born with little or no hearing or who suffered the loss of
hearing in infancy before speech and language patterns are acquired.

Causes:

• Heredity
• Maternal Rubella/ Measles
• Cerebral Malaria
• Childhood diseases infections and injuries
• Meningitis
• Otitis media (an infection that causes fluid to accumulate in the middle year)
• Rhesus incompatibility (Rh)

Characteristics

• Hearing Impaired children have normal cognitive abilities

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The class teacher should watch for several things among the following

• Does there appear to be a physical problem associated with the ears?

• Is there poor articulation of sounds particularly omission of consonant sounds?

• When listening to radio, TV, does the student run the volume up so that others complain?
• Does the student cock the head or turn towards the speaker in an apparent effort to hear
better?
• Are there frequent requests to repeat what has just been said?
• Is the student unresponsive or inattentive when spoken to in a normal voice?
• Is the student reluctant to participate in oral activities?

The visually impaired

Visual impairment including blindness means an impairment in vision that, even with correction,

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adversely affects a child’s educational performance. This impairment refers to abnormality of the
eyes, the optic nerve or the visual centre for the brain resulting in decreased visual acuity.

Causes:

• Hereditary problems( e.g. cataracts, optic nerve deficiency, albinism, etc)

• Infectious diseases (e.g. venereal diseases, rubella etc)
• Accidents, injuries, poisoning
• Tumors and other diseases
• Prenatal influences

Characteristics

• Appears ‘clumsy’ especially in a new situation

• Constantly asks a neighbor to tell him what is going on
• Less effective use of gestures and bodily action
• Holds head in an awkward position to look at something or holds a book or other objects
in a peculiar position to look at them
• ‘Tunes out’ when information is on the chalkboard or in a book which the student cannot
read
• Has difficulty in reading or in other work requiring close use of the eyes
• Blinks more than usual or is irritable when doing close work
• Holds books close to eyes
• Inflamed or watery eyes
• Eyes itch, burn or feel scratchy
• Diziness, headaches, or nausea following close eye work
• Squints eyelids together or frowns
• Shows signs of fatigue or inattentiveness
• Exhibits poor self-concept and ego development

Children with behavior problems and disorders

• Chronically unhappy children

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 • Driven to be very aggressive
• Non- compliant
• Deviant
• Anti-social behaviour

Children with multiple handicaps

- Include children with intense physical, mental or emotional problems

Children living under difficult circumstances

Include

• Children living in severe poverty

• Children affected by HIV/AIDS including orphaned children
• Children living or working on the streets
• Child labourers
• Children with disabilities and chronic illnesses
• Commercial sexually exploited children
• Slum children
• Children of violent families
• Chilren in ethnic violent areas
• Nomadic/ pastoralist children

INTERVENTION MEASURES FOR LEARNERS WITH SPECIAL NEEDS

For example for the visually impaired intervention measures may include:

➢ Referring them to a special school ( school for the visually impaired)

➢ Positioning them appropriately in class
➢ Using multi-sensory approach to learning
➢ Giving proper mobility training and orientation

NB/ Should be able to highlight intervention measures appropriate for each of the special
needs categories.

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DTE QUESTIONS

2010

• What is human growth ( 2 marks)

• Explain four reasons why it is important for a teacher to have knowledge about growth
and development of learners ( 4 marks)
• Explain four ways in which the teacher may help adolescents develop healthy emotional
expressions ( 4 marks)
• Give five characteristics of learners with learning disabilities ( 5marks)
• Outline five qualities a teacher should have to support learners who are gifted and
talented ( 5 marks)

2011

• State three conditions that can facilitate acquisition of language in a child ( 3marks)
• Give five reasons why it is becoming increasingly difficult to train adolescents in good
morals ( 5 marks)
• Outline five causes of speech retardation among learners ( 5 marks)
• State two physical changes that take place in girls during adolescence ( 2 marks)
• Explain five ways in which a teacher may help a student to adjust in school ( 5 marks)

2012

• List the four stages of moral development according to Jean Piaget ( 4 marks)
• Outline four ways in which the school may promote physical development among
learners ( 4 marks)
• Outline four characteristics of an emotionally healthy learner in a class ( 4 marks)
• State five ways in which the school enhances moral development among learners ( 5
marks)

2013

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 • State three principles of human growth and development ( 3 marks)
• Outline five environmental factors that may lead to special learning needs and disabilities
( 5 marks)
• Explain three ways in which a teacher may help an adolescent cope with growth and
developmental changes ( 6 marks)
• Explain the term “peer pressure ” ( 2 marks)
• Describe two forms of behavior manifestations that depict peer pressure among
adolescents ( 4 marks)

2014

• Describe the main stages of cognitive development according to Jean Piaget (8 marks)
• Outline six educational implications of Sigmund Freud’s Psychoanalytic theory of
personality development to a teacher ( 6 marks)
• Give six reasons why Educational Psychology is important to a teacher ( 6 marks)

2015

• State four factors that influence cognitive behavior among children according to Jean
Piaget ( 4 marks)
• Identify six categories of learners with special needs ( 6 marks)
• Describe language development among infants between birth and three months of age ( 6
marks)
• Explain the Sigmund Freud structure model of personality ( 6 marks)

2016

• Outline four ways in which a teacher may use knowledge gained from psychology to
enhance discipline in class (4 marks)
• State five ways in which a teacher may promote creativity among learners ( 5 marks)
• Describe six environmental factors that may influence the personality development of a
learner ( 6 marks)
• Identify five ways in which a teacher may help learners with emotional and behavioural
difficulties adjust in school ( 5marks)
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2017

• State five factors that influence child growth and development ( 5marks)
• Outline four psychological factors that influence language among children ( 4 marks)
• Identify six developmental needs of adolescents ( 6 marks)
• State five characteristics of a child during the Trust vs Mistrust stage of psychological
development according to Erikson ( 5 marks)

2018

• State seven ways in which the school can promote healthy social development among
learners ( 7 marks)
• Outline three stages of cognitive representation according to Jerome Bruner ( 3 marks)
• Identify six challenges associated with the physical development of adolescent learners (
6 marks)
• State six characteristics of multiple handicapped learners (6 marks)

2019

• Outline six reasons why a teacher would require knowledge on educational psychology
(6 marks)
• List five principles of human growth and development ( 5 marks)
• State five physical growth features in adolescence that a teacher should be aware of in
order to help them ( 5 marks)
• List four basic factors which may influence personality development( 4 marks)

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