U.S.

ARMY MEDICAL DEPARTMENT CENTER AND SCHOOL

FORT SAM HOUSTON, TEXAS 78234-6100

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND

INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE

SUBCOURSE MD0165 EDITION 100

 DEVELOPMENT

This subcourse is approved for resident and correspondence course instruction. It

reflects the current thought of the U.S. Army Medical Department Center and School
(AMEDDC&S) and conforms to printed Department of the Army doctrine as closely as
currently possible. Development and progress render such doctrine continuously
subject to change.

ADMINISTRATION

For comments or questions regarding enrollment, student records, or shipments,

contact the Nonresident Instruction Branch at
DSN 471-5877
Commercial (210) 221-5877
Toll-free 1-800-344-2380
E-mail [email protected],

or write to:

COMMANDER
AMEDDC&S
ATTN MCCS HSN
2105 11TH STREET SUITE 4191
FORT SAM HOUSTON TX 78234-5064

Approved students whose enrollments remain in good standing may apply to the
Nonresident Instruction Branch for subsequent courses by telephone, letter, or e-mail.

Be sure your name, rank, and social security number are on all correspondence sent to
the Academy of Health Sciences.

CLARIFICATION OF TRAINING LITERATURE TERMINOLOGY

When used in this publication, words such as "he," "him," "his," and "men" are intended
to include both the masculine and feminine genders, unless specifically stated otherwise
or when obvious in context.

USE OF PROPRIETARY NAMES

The initial letters of the names of some products are capitalized in this subcourse. Such
names are proprietary names, that is, brand names or trademarks. Proprietary names
have been used in this subcourse only to make it a more effective learning aid. The use
of any name, proprietary or otherwise, should not be interpreted as endorsement,
deprecation, or criticism of a product. Nor should such use be considered to interpret
the validity of proprietary rights in a name, whether it is registered or not.

MD0165
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Lesson Paragraphs

INTRODUCTION

1 INTRODUCTION TO OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH 1-1--1-15

Exercises

2 CONTROL OF TOXIC SUBSTANCES

Section I. The Nature of Contaminants 2-1--2-6

Section II. Atmospheric Hazards 2-7--2-9
Section III. Organic Solvent Hazards 2-10--2-16
Section IV. Respiratory Protective Devices 2-17--2-30
Exercises

3 NOISE AND THE CONSERVATION OF HEARING

Section I. Introduction 3-1--3-2

Section II. The Army Hearing Conservation Program 3-3--3-16
Section III. Sound Measuring Equipment 3-17--3-20
Exercises

4 VENTILATION.

Section I. Ventilation Systems 4-1--4-2

Section II. Ventilation Selection Criteria 4-3--4-12
Exercises

APPENDIXES

A References
B Typical Operations Found at Military Installation: Their
Exposures and Controls
C Common Industrial Hazards found in the Army
D Industrial Hygiene Sampling Guide Instruction for Submission
of Industrial Hygiene Air Samples
E Threshold Limit Values for Selected Substances 1990-1991
F Guide for Selection of Respirators
G Use of GR 1566, Sound Level Meters
H Completion of DD Form 2214, Noise Survey
I Industrial Hygiene Field Notes
J Example of an Evaluation of Potential Health Hazards
K Instructions for Completing AEHA Form 8-R, Bulk Sample Data

MD0165 i
 CORRESPONDENCE COURSE OF THE
U.S. ARMY MEDICAL DEPARTMENT CENTER AND SCHOOL

SUBCOURSE MD0165

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE

INTRODUCTION

For centuries, practitioners of medicine were concerned primarily with the

treatment of illness and injuries. Only in the 19th century did we begin to recognize the
importance of preventing illness and injury. Even so, emphasis on the effects that
people's working environments have on their health has played a secondary role in the
medical field until quite recently.

While medical science was in its infancy, the pioneering Hippocrates recognized
and described the toxic effects of lead on those who worked with the metal. In our own
country, not until the mid-1900's was anything substantially done to protect the health of
working men. In the United States, over 100,000 persons still die annually from job-
related causes.

Occupational health encompasses many programs of inspection, medical

surveillance, and education. One of the major elements of occupational health is
industrial hygiene, which is concerned with the identification, evaluation, and elimination
or reduction of health hazards associated with the work environment. The major health
hazards with which we are concerned are noise and toxic substances. As a preventive
medicine specialist, you will be involved in the identification and evaluation of health
hazards and in the evaluation of measures designed to control them.

Subcourse Components:

This subcourse consists of four lessons as follows:

Lesson l. Introduction to Occupational Health.

Lesson 2. Control of Toxic Substances.

Lesson 3. Noise and the Conservation of Hearing.

Lesson 4. Ventilation.

MD0165 ii
Credit Awarded:

Upon successful completion of this subcourse, you will be awarded 19 credit

hours.

Materials Furnished:

Materials provided include this booklet, an examination answer sheet, and an

envelope. Exercises and solutions for all lessons are contained in this booklet. You
must furnish a #2 pencil for marking the examination answer sheet.

Procedures for Subcourse Completion:

You are encouraged to complete the subcourse lesson by lesson. When you have
completed all of the lessons to your satisfaction, fill out the examination answer sheet
and mail it to the U.S. Army Medical Department Center and School in the envelope
provided. Be sure that your name, rank, social security number, and return address are
on all correspondence sent to the U.S. Army Medical Department Center and School.
You will be notified by return mail of the examination results. Your grade on the
examination will be your rating for the subcourse.

Study Suggestions:

Here are some suggestions that may be helpful to you in completing this
subcourse:

--Read and study each lesson carefully.

--Complete the subcourse lesson by lesson. After completing each lesson, work
the exercises at the end of the lesson, marking your answers in this booklet.

--After completing each set of lesson exercises, compare your answers with those
on the solution sheet that follows the exercises. If you have answered an exercise
incorrectly, check the reference cited after the answer on the solution sheet to
determine why your response was not the correct one.

--As you successfully complete each lesson, go on to the next. When you have
completed all of the lessons, complete the examination. Mark your answers in this
booklet; then transfer your responses to the examination answer sheet using a #2
pencil.

Student Comment Sheet:

You can provide us with your suggestions and criticisms by filling out the Student
Comment Sheet at the back of this booklet and returning it to us with your examination
answer sheet. In this way, you will help us to improve the quality of this subcourse.

MD0165 iii
 LESSON ASSIGNMENT

LESSON 1 Introduction to Occupational Health.

TEXT ASSIGNMENT Paragraphs 1-1 through 1-15.

LESSON OBJECTIVES After completing this lesson, you should be able to:

1-1. List the three objectives of the Army

Occupational Health Program.

1-2. Select the three most serious health hazards

found on Army installations.

1-3. Select the statement which best describes the

responsibilities of managers and supervisors.

1-4. List the subprograms that comprise the ram.

Army Occupational Health Program.

1-5. Select the statement, which correctly describes

the procedures involved with health hazard
information module.

1-6. Identify the three phases of an industrial

hygiene program.

1-7. Select the statement that best describes the

environmental factors that are measured, the
types of injuries that may occur when preventive
measures are not followed, and what managers
and supervisors should do to help prevent them.

1-8. Select the statement which best describes the

three types of surveys and types of safety
markings and signs.

SUGGESTION After reading this lesson, complete the lesson

exercises before proceeding to lesson 2. These
exercises will help you to achieve the objectives.

MD0165 1-1
 LESSON 1

INTRODUCTION TO OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH

1-1. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

a. Occupational health is the science of fostering health and diminishing illness

arising from the individual job relationship. Put another way, it might be thought of as
the science of protecting the health of workers through the control of the work
environment. A worker and his environment are inseparable; they react with each other
in the form of a give and take relationship. Ideally, the worker would move through his
environment, molding it to his desires. In actual practice, of course, this is not possible.
It is more realistic to visualize both the worker and his environment as being mutually
interdependent, each affecting, and being affected by the other.

b. Prior to the turn of the present century, there was little concern for the health
and well being of the worker. At the dawn of civilization, life was largely a struggle for
existence; merely being alive was an "occupational hazard." The passage of time, with
the attendant stratification of social classes, saw the slave class performing all the
common labor. This practice continued until relatively recent times. Mankind's natural
inclination towards war provided a steady supply of slave labor. The idea of actually
doing manual labor was so disdainful to many people that at one period in their culture
law prohibited Egyptians from performing such work. Considering this attitude on the
part of society, it is not surprising that no efforts were made to control the working
environment in order to provide a healthful, safe, comfortable place in which to work.

c. As early as the fourth century B.C., Hippo crates recognized and recorded the
effects of lead toxicity in mining operations. It appears to have been a purely academic
interest because there was no concern shown for workers in the mines then and
afterwards. However, some 500 years later, Pliny the Elder, a Roman scholar, referred
to the dangers inherent in working with zinc and sulfur; he also described a protective
mask made from an animal bladder to be used by laborers subjected to large quantities
of dust or lead fumes.

d. As centuries went by, only lip service was given to reducing the
environmental hazards associated with certain occupations throughout the world. In the
second century A.D., Galen, the famous Greek physician who lived in Rome,
recognized the threat posed to copper miners by acid mists. However, nothing concrete
was done to alleviate the hazardous conditions until 1473 when Ulrich Ellen bog
published his landmark pamphlet on occupational diseases and hygiene. In 1556
Georgius Agricola, a German scholar, described the hazards associated with the mining
industry and suggested mine ventilation and protective masks for miners. In the late
18th century, Percival Pott's recognition of soot as one of the major causes of scrotal
cancer provided a major impetus to the passage of the Chimney-Sweepers Act of 1788.
However, in spite of these isolated instances, very few truly significant safeguards for
workers had been developed.

MD0165 1-2
 e. It was not until the English Factory Acts of 1833 were passed that
government showed any real interest in the health of workers. Following England's
lead, several other European countries instituted worker's compensation acts; these
laws tended to stimulate the adoption of increased factory safety precautions and the
inauguration of medical services in industrial plants. The adoption of worker's
compensation acts in Europe was an important factor in the development of
occupational health and industrial hygiene programs in the United States. After
adopting similar laws in this country, it became apparent that it was more profitable to
prevent accidents through enhancement of the working environment than to pay
compensation to accident victims.

f. As the United States grew into one of the world's leading industrial powers,
the US Public Health Service assumed a position of leadership in the evaluation of
diseases encountered by workers and in developing measures to control these
diseases, as well as fostering an interest in occupational diseases by state agencies,
universities, industry, and unions. Our country passed and enacted on many Federal,
state, and local environmental laws and regulations to protect people.

g. Today the objectives of the Department of the Army (DA) Occupational

Safety and Health (OSH) Program are to:

(1) Ensure that workers are suited for their jobs physically, mentally, and
Psychologically.

(2) Ensure that workers are provided a safe, healthful work environment,
free from recognized health hazards.

(3) Reduce economic loss to the government and the worker caused by
compensation claims due to physical deficiency, sickness, and injury.

(4) Ensure proper medical care and rehabilitation of the occupationally ill
and injured.

(5) Prevent decreased combat readiness caused by occupational illness

and injury of military personnel. This is the most important of the program objectives.

1-2. GENERAL ORGANIZATION FOR PROGRAMS, THEIR REGULATIONS AND

BACKGROUNDS

a. President of the United States. The President of the United States signed
Executive Order 12196 establishing Occupational Health (OH) Programs for all Federal
employees, to include active duty military personnel. This order is the basis for the
Department of Defense (DOD) policy and guidance to DA. Our Congress passed and
enacted Public Law 91-596, The Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA) of 1970.

MD0165 1-3
 b. Department of Defense. Department of Defense Instructions (DODI) have
provided definitive policy for implementation of OSH programs. DODI 6050.5, 6055.1,
6055.5, and 6055.12 are key documents that establish program organization,
responsibilities, and staff relationships.

c. Secretary of the Army (Installations, Logistics, and Environment).

Overall, the Assistant Secretary of the Army (SA) (Installations, Logistics, and
Environment) (ASAIL&E)) through the Deputy Assistant Secretary of the Army (DASA)
(Environmental, Safety, and Occupational Health (ESOH) has the ultimate responsibility
for the Army's environmental programs, and overall policy and guidance authority
concerning all Army environmental matters. Industrial hygiene is an integral part of the
DA OSH programs. Some new and stricter enforcement of existing safety and
occupational health standards require greater understanding and clarification of
command and individual responsibilities. These responsibilities require personnel to
take essential preventive measures to combat and eliminate industrial hygiene
problems or hazards. For example, OSHA may request that the Corps of Engineers
(COE) or Director of Engineering and Housing (DEH) (depending on the organizational
structure for that location) construct an enclosure for a machine to reduce the noise.

d. Department of the Army. The DA programs are specified in Army

Regulations. (AR) 40-5, Preventive Medicine, and 385-10, Army Safety Program.
Department of the Army is responsible for the policies and procedures to preserve,
protect, and restore the quality of the workplace environment and the people working
there.

e. Installation Occupational Safety and Health Program. Personnel and

activities responsible for supporting and monitoring the OSH Program include the
following:

(1) Installation level.

(a) Post preventive medicine (PVNTMED) service. The post

preventive medicine service is involved in all elements of the program and is part of the
installation United States Army Medical Center (MEDCEN) or medical department
activity (MEDDAC).

(b) Post safety officer. The post safety officer is the installation
coordinator of the entire safety program. Usually, the installation OSH manager serves
on the installation Commander's staff.

(c) Audiologist. The audiologist is a consultant for the Hearing

Conservation Program personnel.

(d) Director of Engineering and Housing. The DEH provides

manpower and resources to eliminate health hazards through engineering construction,
additions, and/or changes.

MD0165 1-4
 (e) Hospital Laboratory. The hospital laboratory provides analytical
service for the medical surveillance program.

(f) Optometrist. The optometrist is a consultant to the Occupational

Vision Program personnel.

(g) Alcohol and Drug Abuse Control Office. These office personnel
provide counseling referral of information to other program participants.

(h) Military or Directorate of Civilian Personnel (DCP) Office. The

personnel office schedules medical examinations and educational training and handles
job transfers, compensation claims, and complaints.

(2) Department of the Army staff (Assistant Secretary of the Army for
Installation and Logistics overall program manager).

(a) Office of the Surgeon General (OTSG). The PVNTMED

Consultants Office of the OTSG performs these functions:

1 Serves as the proponent of AR 40-5 and Technical Bulletin (TB)

Medical (MED) 500 series.

2 Establishes policies for the Army Occupational Health Program

(AOHP) and specifically the Industrial Hygiene (IH), Occupational, and Aviation
Medicine.

3 Develops OH standards.

(b) Army Safety Manager. The Army Safety Manager performs these
functions :

1 Serves as the proponent of AR 385-10.

2 Serves as the overall supervisor of the Army Safety Program.

3 Supervises the US Army Safety Center.

(3) Major command staff.

(a) Surgeon's office. The Surgeon's personnel coordinate the major

command (MACOM). Medical Program and perform liaison to supporting organizations.

(b) Safety office. The Safety office coordinates for the MACOM Safety
Program and perform liaison to supporting organizations.

MD0165 1-5
 (4) Health Services Command).

(a) Directs the health aspects of the program in continental United

States (CONUS) through Health Services Command (HSC) Pam 40-2.

(b) Provides resources to operate the program.

(c) Acts as a consultant to MEDDAC and MEDCEN PVNTMED

Service.

(d) Evaluates the program through the Inspector General (IG).

(5) Supporting organizations.

(a) United States Army Environmental Health Agency (USAEHA).

1 Provides field surveys, consultation, and laboratory analysis.

2 Provides services to installations worldwide through three Direct

Support Activities (DSA), which are named: Direct Support Activities South, located at
Fort McPherson, Georgia; DSA West, located at Fitzsimmons Army Medical Center,
Colorado; and DSA North, located at Fort Meade, Maryland.

(b) Tenth Medical Laboratory, Landstuhl, Germany. This laboratory

supports Europe, Near East and Africa.

(c) United States Army Pacific Environmental Health Engineering

Agency, Sagami Japan. This agency provides support to Japan, Korea, Hawaii, and all
of the Far East.

(d) United States Army Safety Center, Fort Rucker, Alabama. This
center provides worldwide accident prevention, safety engineering, and accident
investigation consultation.

(6) Table of organization and equipment units.

(a) Division Preventive Medicine Section. Services provided include:

identification of PVNTMED problems, train unit field sanitation teams (FST), and back
up company-level preventive medicine measures (PMM) which go beyond the capacity
of the unit because of complexity, scope, and/or specialization.

(b) Division safety officer.

1 Performs as the division safety program consultant to organic

and non-organic units.

MD0165 1-6
 2 Coordinates safety matters within the safety chain.

(c) Division commander and IG. The commander is responsible for all
that is done or is not done. The IG serves as the commander's eyes and ears and
seeks to resolve problems.

(7) Corps of table of organization and equipment units resources. Corps

PVNTMED teams (sanitation and entomology) provide the same services to the corps
as division PVNTMED sections do for a division.

f. United States Army Environmental Hygiene Agency. The commander,

United States Army Environmental Hygiene Agency (USAEHA) will provide worldwide
support to PVNTMED programs for the Army through consultation, supportive services,
investigations, and training.

g. Corps of Engineers or Director of Engineering and Housing. The Corps

of Engineers (COE) or Director of Engineering and Housing (DEH) has primary staff
responsibility to the ASA to direct, coordinate, and manage the environmental programs
within the Army. The DEH or COE's main thrust is toward the non-human side such as:
planning, building, restoring, and repairing buildings, land, air, oil as opposed to OSHA
and/or PVNTMED personnel, who are mainly concerned with the human factors such as
how the machine's noise affects the soldier's or Civil Service worker's hearing, what
causes the accident or illness, is there a trend, and how can the problem be alleviated.

h. Installation, Activity, and Unit Commanders. The installation, activity, and

unit commanders are accountable to establish organizational structure to plan, execute,
and monitor workplace environmental health and safety programs. They are to promote
general health and safety and ensure that the workplace occupational and
environmental health programs, within their commands, are followed. Commanders
and their staffs' responsibilities are to ensure that supplies, equipment, facilities, land,
air, water, and substances are not injurious or hazardous to personnel. If illness, injury,
or hazards are noted, then on or offsite surveys and investigations (or whatever is
deemed appropriate for the situation) are to be conducted by trained personnel to find
the cause, trend, or problem. If found unacceptable or inadequate, then action is to be
taken until the problem is corrected and satisfactory standards are once again met.

NOTE: Tenants are considered activity or unit commands. Both Federal and non-
Federal (such as an infantry or medical unit, a directorate or agency) housed on an
installation must comply equally with the requirements of the Federal, state, and local
solid waste and hazardous waste management laws, regulations, and Army policies.
Under new and changing laws, all supervisory and manager personnel are now
responsible, not just the commander.

MD0165 1-7
 i. Chain of Command. Within the chain of command and depending upon the
size of the installation or geographical region, the safety officer or the preventive
medicine officer (usually a physician) carries out the safety and health programs. If the
region or installation is normal size or small but special circumstances exist (which is
normally the case), then both should be present and oversee their responsible areas.
The safety officer usually receives the bulk of the inquiries and complaints plus reports
(accident, illness, and so forth); and, therefore, serves the hub to orchestrate which
action office(s) (for example: COE, DEH, or Preventive Medicine Officer) should
receive the item(s). The preventive medicine officer or preventive medicine specialist
would sample possible substandard water, evaluate, and correct the problem so that it
once again meets requirements. This will be discussed later.

1-3. ARMY OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH PROGRAM

a. One of the programs under the Department of defense (DoD) is the OSH
Program. The Army Occupational Health Program (AOHP) is based on law, policy, and
regulation of the OSHA of 1970, appendix, para 1 of Public Law 91-596 (Appendix A of
this subcourse contains a list of important references that you may wish to review).
(Further referrals to the list will not be made). The program has the same goal,
providing a safe and healthful work place for all workers.

b. The overall AOHP promotes health and reduces risk of illness arising from the
individual's work environment. This includes special preventive measures for both
military and civilian personnel who are exposed or potentially exposed to toxic
materials, infectious agents, or other hazardous influences of the work environment.

c. The Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA) standards are:

(1) Department of Defense and DA OSH standards are to be followed at

military and non-military workplaces whether or not OSHA standards have been issued.

(2) Occupational Safety and Health Act standards, including temporary

emergency medical standards with minor adaptations, need to conform to DA
administrative practices.

(3) Alternate workplace standards, based on publications relating to

workplace exposure criteria, may be used in lieu of existing OSHA standards or when
no OSHA standards exist. All work place standards used by the Army must be equal to
or more stringent than those of OSHA in 29 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) 1910,
1917, and 1926 and include consensus standards such as the threshold limit values
published by the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists.

(4) Follow any other statutory regulatory workplace standards issued by

Federal agencies.

MD0165 1-8
 (5) Special DA OSH standards developed for military-unique equipment,
systems, and operations are to remain in effect.

d. As a minimum, the OHP will include the following elements:

(1) Inventory of chemical, biological, and physical hazards in the work

environment of all installation activities, including medical treatment facilities (MTF) and
research and development activities.

(2) Job related medical surveillance.

(3) Administrative medical examination.

(4) Employee education job-related health hazards.

(5) Treatment of occupational illness and injury and emergency treatment of

non-occupational illness and injury.

(6) Hearing conservation.

(7) Occupational vision.

(8) Pregnancy surveillance.

(9) Job related immunizations.

(10) Illness absence monitoring.

(11) Chronic disease surveillance.

(12) Epidemiologic investigation of occupational illness and injury and illness

absence monitoring.

(13) Maintenance of occupational health (OH) medical and administrative

records and reports.

(14) Industrial hygiene surveys and safety and health inspections.

(15) Other services include: group counseling on specific problems or habits

affecting health; disease screening; and voluntary periodic health examinations on an
age-related basis.

MD0165 1-9
 e. The specific objectives of the AOHP are to:

(1) Ensure that all eligible personnel, both military and civilian, are
physically, mentally, and psychologically suited to their work.

(2) Ensure that physical and mental health is maintained during the period
of their service or employment.

(3) Reduce economic loss caused by physical deficiency, sickness, and

injury of military personnel and civilian employees.

(4) Ensure proper medical care and rehabilitation of the occupationally

diseased and injured.

(5) Prevent decreased combat readiness caused by occupational illness

and injury to military personnel.

f. While the emphasis seems to be placed on the economic gain to the

Government, it is important to note that the worker who sustains an injury or develops
an illness, whether job related or not, suffers an economic loss due to non-employment,
which impacts on his family and perhaps even on his community as well. The
elimination or reduction of job related injuries and illness might be thought of as the end
goal of the AOHP.

1-4. RESPONSIBILITIES

a. Managers and supervisors at all levels are responsible for:

1) Keeping informed of occupational health hazards and requirements in

activities under their control.

(2) Training employees in appropriate safety practices.

(3) Enforcing the use of protective clothing and equipment, and other
workplace procedures and practices.

(4) Providing the Directorate of Civilian Personnel (DCP) officer with health
and safety information necessary for effective job classification and placement actions.

b. Safety personnel at all echelons of command have the overall staff

responsibility for OSHA compliance (AR 385-10) and maintain expertise relative to the
safety aspects.

c. The installation or activity commander is responsible for the health aspects of

OSHA on the installation and must provide the services to maintain them.

MD0165 1-10
 d. The appropriate DCP is responsible for establishing a system for identifying
individual civilian employees who are recipients of any particular occupational health
service and for notifying them when they are scheduled to receive it; for example:
periodic job related health examination. The system will include identifying new
employees as well as those changing jobs into and out of the program. This may be
accomplished by annotating manual records or coding automatic records. Because the
DCP, the safety officer, and the medical treatment facility (MTF) are all involved, it may
be necessary to establish a written standing operating procedures (SOP) to delineate
respective responsibilities. Coordination with the military unit of assignment is required
to ensure scheduling of active duty personnel for job-related examinations.

e. Installation labor relations advisors are responsible for ensuring that

occupational health service specified in labor agreements are within the capabilities and
resources of the health care provider. Provisions of existing agreements need to be
considered when changes in services are deemed necessary.

f. The Surgeon General (TSG), through the preventive medicine professionals

on his staff, provides technical guidance and assistance Army-wide. In addition, he is
responsible for accomplishing the following:

(1) Initiating policies, preparing directives, and providing technical advice on

matters pertaining to occupational health hazards and practices.

(2) Making inspections, analyzing reports, and maintaining records

necessary to ensure the effectiveness of occupational health programs.

(3) Maintaining liaison with the US Public Health Service and other
governmental and/or private agencies concerned with occupational health.

1-5. SOURCES OF SUPPORT

a. Technical surveys and consultant assistance are available from the US Army
Environmental Hygiene Agency (USAEHA), upon request through command channels.

b. In emergencies, information concerning the composition of the solvents may

be obtained from the nearest Poison Information Center. The telephone number
nearest Poison Information Center should be prominently posted so as to be readily
available at all facilities that might receive cases for emergency care.

c. National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) provides

training in OH and IH subjects as well as authorizing studies and recommended
procedures addressing OH and IH issues.

MD0165 1-11
1-6. SCOPE OF THE ASSOCIATION OF OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH
PROFESSIONALS

The Association of Occupational Health Professionals (AOHP) is comprised of a

group of preventive measures or subprograms. These preventive measures and
elements are described in succeeding paragraphs; they should be thought of as the
minimum essential elements of a comprehensive occupational health program.

a. Inventory of Health Hazards.

(1) An inventory of health hazards is the basis for any OHP. Without
knowledge of potential exposures, a sound medical monitoring program cannot be
accomplished. The inventory must be updated periodically and include:

(a) Location. Exact information depicting the site (division, branch,

building number, room number, and so forth).

(b) Operation. Description of the operation and the number of

employees involved.

(c) Exposure. Occupational health hazards (chemical, biological, and

physical, including radiological), both potential and actual, and positions with medical
fitness requirements.

(d) Controls. The type of control measures in use and the adequacy of
these measures.

(e) Identification. Identification of personnel at risk to health hazards.

(2) The physician responsible for the OHP will review the inventory of health
hazards to determine the specific pre-placement and/or periodic medical monitoring
examination requirements for each exposure.

(3) A supplemental job category inventory will be maintained for positions

requiring a level of physical fitness for the employee to perform effectively and with
safety to himself/herself and others; that is., firemen and mobile equipment operators.

(4) Health personnel, to include physicians and nurses, must visit work
areas on a regular basis to obtain first hand information concerning the nature of the
various work operations and to maintain liaison with personnel and safety officials,
supervisors, and workers.

(5) Typically, the industrial hygiene personnel who work for the Installation
Medical Authority (IMA) assemble this inventory. They can be augmented or completely
substituted by the Preventive Medicine Specialist (MOS 91S).

MD0165 1-12
 b. Industrial Hygiene Surveys. Industrial hygiene surveys will be conducted
by industrial hygiene personnel to evaluate operations or practices involving actual or
potential health hazards US Army Environmental Hygiene Agency (USAEHA) may
provide assistance in the form of special studies, consultations, or comprehensive
surveys. This corresponds to the second phase of classic industrial hygiene evaluation.
Quantification is essential. The current American Conference of Government Industrial
Hygienists (ACGIH) threshold limit values (TLV)’s will be used whenever they impose a
more stringent limit than OSHA or when OSHA has not promulgated a standard for a
particular substance under 29 CFR 1910.1000. The evaluation of exposures will
include operations that have:

(1) Chemicals

(2) Pesticides

(3) Radiation, (ionizing and non-ionizing).

(4) Noise hazards.

(5) Eye hazards.

(6) Biological hazards.

(7) Ergonomic hazards (human/operation interface).

(8) Other environmental conditions.

c. Health Examinations. Health examinations constitute the second basic

element of an occupational health program. Such examinations include pre-placement,
periodic job related, and administrative examinations together with voluntary health
maintenance examinations, as personnel and other resources permit. Priorities of care
within Army MTF, as defined in AR 40-3, place job-related health examinations within
category 1, and voluntary health examinations in category five. In many instances, the
health examinations may not require extensive physical examination by a physician and
may be accomplished most expeditiously by the occupational health nurse with
appropriate minimal input from the occupational health physician. Such delegation of
functions facilitates optimal use of the professional skills of both physician and nurse.

(1) Pre-placement examinations. Pre-placement examinations will be

provided in accordance with Federal Personnel Manual (FPM) Chapter 339, 24 Mar 69,
and whenever medical evaluation is necessary for work assignment. Pre-placement
examinations may be required for new hires, job transfers, oversea assignments, or
promotions. The new employee should be referred to the occupational health services
for in processing and initiation of the medical record. At this time, the employee should
be provided, or scheduled for a baseline health screening to include a health history,
audiogram, vision screening, and blood pressure reading.

MD0165 1-13
 (2) Periodic job-related examinations. These examinations are an essential
component of the health examination program. The inventory of health hazard
assessments is the basis for this program because the examination will be specific to
the exposure, operation, or physical fitness requirements involved.

(3) Administrative examinations. Fitness for duty, disability retirements, and

other administrative health examinations will be provided as needed and will include
those items depicted in Appendix A.

(4) Voluntary health maintenance examinations. The majority of man-day

losses are attributable to non-occupational illnesses and injuries. Accordingly, any
examination, which can reduce absenteeism and promote health is cost effective.
Health maintenance examinations are of value for the early detection of disease and
consequent reduction in disability. Such examination may be provided when resources
permit and may be accomplished in a number of ways, including the use of the nursing
health appraisals.

(5) Physical examination coordination. All occupational related

examinations for active duty (AD) military and civilian employees should be coordinated
through the occupational health service to ensure performance of all required tests and
review of results with referral to the occupational health physician as indicated.

(6) Follow-up. A follow-up system should be developed and maintained for

all health examination and screening programs to identify and report on their
effectiveness and ensure indicated counseling and referral support.

d. Treatment of Illness and Injuries. The care of the acutely ill and injured is
the third principal element of an occupational health program. Civilian employees on
TDY as well as personnel assigned to the local installation are eligible for such
treatment.

(1) Job-related illnesses and injuries. Employees with job-related illnesses

and injuries are provided emergency and follow-up care in accordance with AR 40-3
and AR 40-5. In cases of traumatic injury, a specific determination will be made and
noted on appropriate U.S. Department of Labor Compensation (USDLC) forms as to the
degree and probable duration of disability.

(2) Non-occupational illnesses and injuries. Emergency treatment or limited

palliative treatment of non-occupational conditions is authorized by AR 40-5 and will be
provided to prevent loss of life, relieve suffering, or reduce absenteeism. Employees
requiring definitive treatment of non-occupational health problems should be referred to
their personal physician or other appropriate health resources.

MD0165 1-14
 (3) Emergency care after duty hours. Provisions will be made for medical
care of emergencies during non-duty hours of the MTF, if individuals are employed on
other than normal day shifts.

(4) First aid. Utilization of first aid kits when professionally staffed and
appropriately equipped health care facilities are readily available is not in the best
interest of the employee. This practice also results in failure to report occupational
injuries and loss of epidemiological data. If local medical personnel determine that first
aid kits are needed at certain work areas, injuries incurred and treatments given will be
reported to health clinic personnel for recording in the employee's medical record.

e. Illness Absence Monitoring.

(1) A policy of encouraging referral of employees to the occupational health

clinic prior to leaving work because of illness will be considered. Benefits to be derived
from such a policy include appropriate disposition of ill employees, opportunities for
health education, and increased awareness on the part of occupational health
personnel of the types of health problems employees are having. Additionally, man-
hours can be conserved if palliative treatment is given for an acute minor illness before
it becomes serious so that the employee is able to remain on the job.

(2) Policies related to health clearance of employees prior to returning to

work after illness or injury should be determined by the nature of the work performed,
the individual health needs of the employee, the supervisor's recommendations, and the
capabilities of the occupational health staff. Interviewing employees following a
significant illness or injury helps to bring employees with special health problems to the
attention of occupational health personnel and ensures that employees do not return to
work before they are able. As a rule, having employees clear through the health clinic
after illness absence in excess of five working days will meet this health support
objective without unnecessarily burdening the occupational health staff. Special
requirements for clearance will be instituted for employees engaged in patient care and
food service activities to ensure that these individuals do not return to work when
capable of transmitting a communicable illness.

f. Chronic Disease or Disability Surveillance. Employees with chronic

disease or disability should be identified through such procedures as a review of
Standard Form (SF) 177, routing medical examination, or mass screening programs.
The OH staff will maintain a list of all chronically ill or disabled persons that could affect
or be affected by their work assignments. Medical records of such personnel should be
coded and include relevant clinical information regarding the patient's condition and the
name of his/her private physician.

g. Immunization Program. Appropriate immunizations should be provided to

employees potentially exposed to infectious disease because of the work environment
or required foreign travel.

MD0165 1-15
 h. Pregnancy Surveillance Program. Leave policies for the pregnant worker
will be consistent with legal and regulatory provisions which prohibit placing a pregnant
employee on mandatory leave at an arbitrary or specified time because of pregnancy.
Policies should be adopted encouraging pregnant workers to report to the health clinic
as soon as the pregnancy is determined. At that time, the impact of employment upon
the pregnancy will be evaluated. Employees not under the care of a physician will be
encouraged to seek medical supervision and arrangements for follow-up should be
made if indicated.

i. Epidemiological Investigations. Epidemiological investigations will be

conducted when situations develop suggesting the possibility of an increased disease or
injury rate attributable to occupational hazards.

j. Alcohol and Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Program. A program for
evaluation, diagnosis, counseling, and referral of civilian employees will be established
in accordance with AR 600-85, 1 December 1981. Where applicable, the occupational
health physician or the designated military physician will evaluate and, if appropriate,
refer individuals to the civilian program coordinator (CPC) and the Alcohol and Drug
Abuse Prevention and Control Program (ADAPCP) in accordance with local guidelines.

k. Employees Health Education. Factors such as the type of work performed,

the nature of hazards found in the work environment, and distinctive characteristics of
the work force should form the basis of health education programs.

(1) Educational activities may be divided into two categories:

(a) Those concerned with health implications of the job.

(b) Those related to general health maintenance and health promotion.

(2) The OSH Act and the DOD OSHA criteria require that employees be
apprised of identified health hazards to which they are exposed, relevant symptoms,
appropriate emergency treatment, and responsibility for using protective clothing or
equipment. Additionally, provisions should be made for providing employees
information concerning occupational health services. Supervisors should be provided
initial and periodic orientation and guidance regarding their responsibilities for the health
of employees and areas for coordination with the OH staff.

l. Radiation Protection Program. There are ionizing and non-ionizing

radiation sources of potential occupational exposure. An occupational radiation area is
any area (accessible to personnel) that contains sources of ionizing or non-ionizing
radiation that could deliver a significant dose to at least a major portion of the body. An
ionizing radiation source is particles, gamma rays, x-rays, or neutrons; any natural or
artificial isotope or device capable of producing alpha particles, beta Non-ionizing
radiation sources include microwave radiation and laser radiation. Sources of non-
ionizing radiation include lasers, microwaves, radars, and lasers. A separate inventory

MD0165 1-16
is maintained and a surveillance program will reflect the occupational exposures within
the command. There are other sources of non-ionizing radiation, which include:
microwave oven, leakage, high intensity ultraviolet, infrared, visible, ultrasound, and
radio frequency.

(1) An inventory of radiation sources and dosimeters used for monitoring will
be maintained as appropriate. Radiation exposure records for Department of the Army
personnel are maintained at the US Army Ionizing Radiation Dosimetry Center at
Lexington Bluegrass Army Depot (LBAD). Reports of monthly or quarterly Dosimetry
results are mailed to the users with updates on a quarterly and annual basis. Locator
cards are placed in the health record to indicate that the Dosimetry records are
maintained at either location. Usually, these current records of exposure are located at
preventive medicine. Civilian employees and military personnel will receive appropriate
periodic medical surveillance (AR 40-14).

(2) Laser radiation refers to light amplification by stimulated emission of

radiation. A laser creates an intense beam of optical radiation that can be hazardous
for considerable distances. Employees, with occupational exposure to laser radiation
sources will be appropriately identified and included in the pertinent medical
surveillance program as stated in Technical Bulletin (TB) MED 279.

(3) Microwave radiation are varying electromagnetic fields in the frequency

range of 10 KHz to 300,000 MHZ with corresponding wavelengths of 30 KM to 1
millimeter (ml). Employees with occupational exposure to microwave radiation sources
will be identified and provided appropriate medical surveillance as in TB MED 523.

m. Occupational Vision Program. An occupational vision program is an

essential part of the periodic health examination program as outlined in TB MED 506.

n. Hearing Conservation Program. The prevention of hearing loss from

exposure to noise requires identification and evaluation of noise-hazardous areas
and/or equipment. Posting of these same noises hazardous areas with appropriate
caution signs, installing engineering control measures, and using hearing protection
devices may be necessary. Pre-placement and periodic monitoring the audiometer of
personnel identified as working in noise hazardous areas supplemented by health
education and supervision and discipline of personnel may be in order. The hearing
conservation program is outlined in TB-MED 501 and DA Pam 40-501.

o. Inspections. All workplaces, including offices, will be inspected at least once

annually to determine if any unsafe or unhealthy conditions exist. In depth surveys
performed by USAEHA will complement the inspections and provide an excellent health
hazard data base for follow-up surveys and inspections. If a condition exists that cannot
be evaluated by medical personnel, a request for support should be submitted through
the established support channels. Every effort should be made to coordinate all
occupational health and/or industrial hygiene surveys and inspections with the
respective safety offices.

MD0165 1-17
 p. Occupational Safety and Health Committees or Council. An effective
OHP is an interdisciplinary effort and requires the support and cooperation of both the
providers and users of OHS. Participation by OH and industrial hygiene personnel is
essential to the full utilization and success of both the hospital and installation safety
and health committee or council. In addition to key providers of services, the committee
or council will include management and employee representation from organizations
being served to include representatives of recognized employee unions, as appropriate.
The installation safety and health committee or council offers an effective means of
ensuring coordination between the various staff elements. It is recommended that the
committee or council meet on a regular basis either monthly or quarterly.

1-7. INTRODUCTION TO INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE

a. Defining Industrial Hygiene. Industrial hygiene (IH) is that science and art
devoted to the recognition, evaluation, and control of those environmental factors or
stress, arising in or from the work place, which may cause sickness, impair health and
well being, or cause significant discomfort and inefficiency among workers or among the
citizens of the community. Industrial hygiene primarily involves:

(1) The recognition of environmental hazards and stresses associated with

work and work operations, and the understanding of their effects on man and his well
being in the work place and the community.

(2) The quantitative evaluation, through training and experience, of the

magnitude of these hazards and stresses is to determine the actual potential for harm to
man's health and well being.

(3) The prescription of methods to control or reduce such factors and

stresses when necessary to alleviate their effects.

b. Recognition. Recognition of environmental hazards and stresses that

influence health requires a familiarity with work operations and processes. The
categories of hazards most frequently of interest are:

(1) Chemical in the form of liquid, dust, fumes, mist, vapor, or gas.

(2) Physical energy, such as electromagnetic and ionizing radiation, noise

and vibration, and extremes of temperature and pressure.

(3) Biological, such as insects and mites, molds, yeasts, fungi, bacteria, and
viruses. (Infectious agents presenting a risk or potential risk to our well-being.)

(4) Ergonomic, such as body position in relation to task, monotony,

boredom, repetitive motion, worry, work pressure, and fatigue. The effect of these four
areas of stress on man's health and well being must be recognized. It is important to
know whether such stresses are dangerous to life and health, whether they produce an

MD0165 1-18
acceleration of the aging process, or whether they will cause only significant discomfort
and inefficiency.

c. Evaluation. Evaluation of the magnitude of the environmental factors or

stresses arising in or from the work place is essential in order to predict the probable
effect on health and well being. The industrial hygienist, by virtue of training and
experience and aided by quantitative measurements of the chemical, physical energy,
biological, or ergonomic stresses, can render an expert opinion as to the "healthfulness"
of the environment, either for short periods or for lifetime exposure.

d. Prescription of Corrective Procedures. When necessary to protect health,

control measures are based on a good evaluation of the environmental factors of
stresses. Among control measures most frequently used are:

(1) Isolation of a process or work operation to reduce the number of persons

exposed.

(2) Substitution of a less harmful material for one that is more dangerous to
health.

(3) Alteration of a process to minimize human contact..

(4) Ventilation and air cleaning to provide an atmosphere safe for human
occupancy.

(5) Reduction of exposure to radiant energy by shielding, increasing

distance, and limiting time.

(6) Wet methods to reduce emission of dusts to the atmosphere such as in

abrasive blasting, lathing, and grinding operations.

(7) Good housekeeping, including cleanliness of the work place, proper

waste disposal, adequate washing, toilet and restroom facilities, healthful drinking water
and eating facilities, and control of insects and rodents.

(8) Personal protective devices to be worn, such as special clothing, eye,

hearing, and respiratory protective equipment.

1-8. ESSENTIAL INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE PROGRAM ELEMENTS

The items listed in this paragraph are the minimum essential elements required
for an installation IH program. The elements listed are required by Federal law, AR, and
policy or are based upon consensus standard and good IH practice. Figure 1-1 is a
possible IH health hazard.

MD0165 1-19
 Figure 1-1. Possible IH Health Hazards

a. Implementation Plan. A plan must be developed that lists IH functions,

resources available, and a prioritized schedule for accomplishing the required tasks.
Implementation plans should include the following:

(1) List of prioritized program activity requirements such as sampling,

ventilation monitoring, and surveys.

(2) Quarterly or monthly schedule of activities to accomplish requirements.

(3) List of activities that cannot be accomplished with available resources.

(4) Additional support needed from other sources such as USAEHA.

b. Health Hazard Information Module.

(1) Establishing and maintaining a current inventory of OH hazards is the

key element of the Occupational Hazards Program. Inventories contain detailed
information on operations, exposures, and controls. The maintenance of Health Hazard
Information Module (HHIM) should be the first priority in the implementation plan. The
information obtained from the HHIM should be used to establish air-sampling
schedules, determine ventilation measurement requirements, request assistance from
USAEHA, plan medical monitoring, and prioritize actions. The inventory process is
used to recognize OH hazards prior to their evaluation and control. Figure 1-2 shows
the flow of the Industrial Hygiene Program.

MD0165 1-20
 Figure 1-2. Flow of the Industrial Hygiene Program.

(2) A toxic chemical inspection and inventory should be part of the HHIM for
each operation. Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDSS) must be kept for all toxic
chemicals used in the work place.

(3) Data retrieval programs have been developed (for use by installation IH
personnel) which allow retrieval based on: operation, existing hazards, worker's social
security number (SSN) and name, and Risk Assessment Code (RACs). Additionally,
output programs have been developed which detail comprehensive exposure data and
information on OSHA regulated substances and operations. Equipment training and
calibration information is also available.

c. Hazard Evaluation. Potential occupational hazards identified during the

inventory process will require evaluation to determine degree of hazard severity. Air
sampling and ventilation measurements are the most common means of evaluation.
The suspected chemical, physical, or biological agent should be studied with respect to

MD0165 1-21
the operation process, and workers to determine the evaluation procedure necessary.
USAEHA, Industrial Hygiene Division, may be contacted for information concerning
hazard evaluation or detailed sampling instructions.

d. Medical Risk Assessment Code and Occupational Health Hazard

Abatement. Risk assessment codes must be assigned to every hazard evaluated in
accordance with DODI 6055.1 and AR 385-10. Risk assessment codes(s) are used to
prioritize funding for corrective action at all levels. Hazards with a RAC of 1 or 2 must
be controlled before funding lesser hazards. Risk assessment codes generated by the
industrial hygienist must reflect a comprehensive evaluation of the particular health
hazard to include sampling (if warranted). Identified health hazards (which have been
sufficiently assessed) will be entered into the installation abatement plan by written
report to the local DA OSH manager. AR 385-10 contains detailed information on
hazard abatement procedures.

e. Record Keeping.

(1) A record must be kept on all IH activities, to include health hazard

inventories, evaluations of hazards, existing health hazard control measures, and
recommendations for improvements. Records should be maintained in bound
notebooks or other permanent documents. All records must comply with DOD and
OSHA standard requirements. Department of Defense policy is to maintain all records
for 40 years. Records of worker exposures must be maintained in such form that they
can be included in the worker medical record and used to apprise the worker of
exposures. Data, which show no worker exposure, are as important, if not more so,
than exposure data and the relationship of the period sampled to the employee's
exposure for the shift(s) sampled must also be documented. Full shift samples are the
best way to accomplish this.

(2) Records of toxic chemicals used and records of hazardous devices or

processes should be kept so those potential problems may be identified. These records
should be kept as part of HHIM. Ventilation flow rates, noise levels, and process
variables should also be maintained to show effects of control measures.

f. Design Review. A thorough review of the plant, process and operational

changes, and new design can prevent many potential OSH problems. The local IH staff
should be in the design review process for all installation activities. In areas of highly
technical or unusual designs, USAEHA can be requested to provide assistance.
AR 420-10 is the authority for medical review.

g. Respiratory Protection. An ongoing Respiratory Protection Program must

meet all the OSHA standards. Supervisory, safety, and preventive medicine personnel
should jointly develop an installation program that meets legal requirements. Detailed
program information can be found in OSHA standards, AR 11-34, USAEHA Technical
Guide (TG) 171, and the NIOSH Guide to Respiratory Protection. Respiratory
Protection will be discussed in detail in another lesson.

MD0165 1-22
 h. Hearing Conservation. Hearing conservation program requirements are
detailed in DODI 6055.3, AR 40-5, TB MED 50l, and USAEHA TG 170. The IH
personnel will conduct annual noise surveys, assign RAC's to noise hazardous areas,
keep noise survey data, identify exposed personnel, and recommend noise control
measures. The OH clinic or audiologist is responsible for audio-metric examinations
and evaluation of effects on exposed personnel.

i. Occupational Vision. Industrial hygiene personnel should define eye hazard

areas during the annual HHIM update, ensure areas are posted with warning signs and
provide the OH clinic with a list of eye hazard locations and personnel working in the
areas. Program responsibilities are AR 40-5, AR 385-32, TB MED 506, and
29 CFR 1910.133.

1-9. WORKER EDUCATION/TRAINING

A program of education and orientation of new employees to acquaint them with

the potential hazards in the work place is a joint IH, safety, and supervisory
responsibility. Close coordination between responsible personnel, employee
representatives, and employees is necessary to ensure employees are specifically
informed about potential hazards, preventive measures, and proper cooperation of
process and control equipment. Local health and safety committee should meet and
regular on the job training should be used to educate workers. Safety personnel have
access to numerous publications on worker training and should be asked for help in
establishing a safety program.

1-10 RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE INDUSTRIAL HYGIENIST

a. Develop and keep current annual industrial hygiene (IH) input for the OHP
document to clearly define goals and objectives in the IH area.

b. Establish and maintain the Health Hazard Information Module (HHIM)

Database of the Occupational Health Management Information System (OHMIS).

c. Develop an IH implementation plan for the allocation and application in IH

resources.

d. Perform IH evaluations of industrial workplace hazards, provide technical

guidance and support for the hazard communication, asbestos abatement, installation
OSH programs, and perform other responsibilities as stated in TB MED 503.

1-11. ENVIRONMENTAL PHYSIOLOGY

a. Army personnel are subject to exposure to extremes of climate and altitude,

which can have serious effects on their health, well being, and efficiency. Virtually
nothing can be done to control the climate, the weather, or the altitude at which soldiers

MD0165 1-23
must function. However, much can be done to prevent harmful effects on personnel
from exposure to these extremes and subsequent deterioration of performance.

b. Heat injuries are the result of excessive elevation of body temperature and/or
water electrolyte imbalance due to inadequate replacement of fluid lost through
perspiration. The danger of heat injuries is much greater for freshly exposed
unacclimatized personnel than it is for seasoned troops. In normal individuals, a
physiologic adjustment occurs over a prevention and treatment of heat injuries period of
2 to 3 weeks. Careful attention to heat indices is one of the most effective ways of
preventing heat injuries. FM 21-10 and TB MED 507 provide valuable guidance on the
prevention and treatment of heat injuries.

c. The wet-bulb globe temperature (WBGT) index is a single numeral by which

the effects of air temperature, air movement, relative humidity, and radiant heat can be
expressed for certain types of activities. This index of environmental factors is obtained
by: (1) measuring the air temperature, the air movement and relative humidity, and the
radiant heat; (2) multiplying the air temperature reading by 0.1, the air movement and
relative humidity reading by 0.7, and the radiant heat reading by 0.2; and then (3)
adding the three resulting numerals. For example, if the air temperature is 90ºF, the air
movement and relative humidity reading is 80ºF, and the radiant heat reading is 100ºF,
the WBGT index would be 85 for Fahrenheit readings and 29.7 for Celcius readings:
(ºF-32 = ºC).

90ºF (32ºC) x 0.1 = 9.0 32oC x 0.1 = 3.2

80ºF (27ºC) x 0.7 = 56.0 27oC x 0.7 = 18.9
100ºF (38ºC) x 0.2 = 20.0 38oC x 0.2 = 7.6
WBGT Index = 85.0 29.7

The several environmental factors are measured with the illustrated devices set up in
the area where exposure is to take place (see Figure 1-3 to view equipment needed to
perform the WBGT index).

(1) Air temperature (dry-bulb temperature) is measured with a dry-bulb

thermometer shielded from the direct rays of the sun.

(2) Air movement and relative humidity (wet-bulb temperature) are

measured with a wet-bulb thermometer. (See the WBGT kit at Figure 1-4.) A wet-bulb
thermometer is a regular thermometer which has a mercury bulb covered by a wet wick.
The mouth of a water bottle, in which the wick is placed, should be about three-fourths
of an inch below the tip of the thermometer bulb. The higher the relative humidity and
the slower the air movement, the closer the wet-bulb reading will be to the dry-bulb
reading.

(3) Radiant heat (globe temperature) is measured with a thermometer

inserted into the center of a hollow, flat black, 6-inch copper globe exposed to the full
effects of the sun and wind.

MD0165 1-24
 Figure 1-3. Equipment for determining the WBGT index
(RSS-214 Micro-Wibget heat Stress Monitor).

Figure 1-4. WBGT kit.

MD0165 1-25
 d. When using the WBGT index in control of a physical activity, the proponents
of the WBGT index have proposed the following as a standard for application of the
index. IT SHOULD BE EMPHASIZED that the measurements must be taken in a
location, which is the same as, or closely approximates, the environment to which
personnel are exposed.

(1) When the WBGT index reaches 78ºF or 26 ºC (Heat Category 1), (see
Table 1-1) extremely intense physical exertion may precipitate heat exhaustion or heat
stroke; therefore, caution should be taken.

(2) When the WBGT index reaches 82 ºF or 28 ºC (Heat Category 2),

discretion should be used in planning heavy exercise for unseasoned personnel.

(3) When the WBGT index reaches 85 ºF or 29 ºC (Heat Category 3),

strenuous exercise such as marching at standard cadence should be suspended in
unseasoned personnel during their first three weeks of training. At this temperature,
training activities may be continued on a reduced scale after the second week of
training.

*Criteria Controls

Heat WBGT Water Intake **Acclimatized

Condition/ Index ºF Quart/Hour Work/Rest

Category
1 78-81.9 At least ½ Continuous
2 82-84.9 At least ½ 50/10 minutes
3 85-87.9 At least 1 45/15 minutes
4 88-89.9 At least 1 1/2 30/30 minutes
5 90 and up More than 2 20/40 minutes

* MOPP gear or body armor adds 10ºF to the WBGT index.

** An acclimatized soldier is one who had worked that condition

(temperature) for 14 days.

CAUTION: Due to high salt concentration in field rations, caution must be

taken to maintain a high water intake.

NOTE: "Rest" means minimal physical activity. Rest should be accomplished in the
shade if possible. Any activity requiring only minimal physical activity can be performed
during "rest" periods. EXAMPLES: Training by lecture or demonstration, minor
maintenance procedures on vehicles or weapons, personal hygiene activities, such as
shin and foot care.

Table 1-1. Heat injury prevention.

MD0165 1-26
 (4) Outdoor classes in the sun should be avoided when the WBGT exceeds
85ºF or 29ºC (Heat Category 4).

(5) When the WBGT reaches 88ºF or 31ºC (Heat Category 4), strenuous
exercise should be curtailed for all recruits and other trainees with less than 12 weeks
training in hot weather. Hardened personnel, after having been acclimatized each
season, can carry on limited activity at WBGT of 88ºF to 90ºF (31ºC-32ºC) for periods
not exceeding six hours a day.

(6) When the WBGT index is 90ºF or 32ºC (Heat Category 5) and above,
physical training and strenuous exercise should be suspended for all personnel
(excluding essential operational commitments not for training purposes, where the risk
of heat casualties may be warranted).

(7) Wearing of body armor or necessary warfare protective uniforms (for

example mission-oriented protection posture (MOPP) clothing), in effect adds 10ºF or
6ºC to the measured WBGT. Limits should be adjusted appropriately.

(8) The optimal doctrine for preventing dehydration and heat illness during
hot weather operation requires three guidelines:

(a) Command drinking of water in the absence of thirst.

(b) Adequate rest and allowing the body to cool itself.

(c) Water cooled to 60-70ºF and flavored, if necessary, to improve

palatability and acceptance

e. Solar radiation injuries may occur in hot, arid climates; on high mountain
slopes, where intense ultraviolet radiation may be combined with windburn; or in the
Arctic, where snow blindness may result from reflected light glare. Preventive
measures include the wearing of broad-brimmed hats, sunglasses, and lightweight,
loose-fitting, light colored clothing. Moderate tanning is desirable to increase sunburn
resistance, but the exposure time should initially be limited to 5-15 minutes per day and
gradually increased. Dark, intense, long-term tanning should be avoided as a possible
contributing factor to skin cancers.

f. Cold injuries are also a cause of reduced effectiveness and potentially

permanent damage to health. Low temperatures are necessary for the production of
cold injuries; however, freezing temperatures and temperature alone are not required,
nor is a reliable guide for cold injury occurrence. Factors that, in various combinations,
are involved in cold injury include temperature, humidity, wind-speed, and length of
exposure, activity, type and condition of clothing, previous cold injury, race, and
nutritional state. For example, the combined effect of wind and temperature has been
determined and is expressed as an equivalent temperature in the wind chill chart (see
Figure 1-5). This expresses the effective temperature acting upon exposed flesh.

MD0165 1-27
Acclimatization to cold is difficult to measure and is relatively slight. Careful planning
and adequate training of both commanders and individual soldiers are essential in the
prevention of cold injuries. Specific guidelines can be found in USAEHA TG 172. Each
major unit is required to publish a directive that details responsibilities for cold injury
prevention and control.

g. The importance attached to the prevention and control of heat, cold, and solar
injuries is illustrated by the fact that, whenever a heat injury, a cold injury, or a case of
solar radiation injury occurs which requires hospitalization, the commander of the MTF
is required to immediately inform the installation or organization commander of the fact.
In addition, AR 40-418 requires that he also report this information by telegraph or other
expeditious means to TSG, the major Army commander, and in the CONUS, the
Commander, Health Services Command. In overseas areas, including Alaska and
Hawaii, the report is made only to the major Army commander, who in turn notifies TSG.

h. One other environmental hazard sometimes encountered by Army personnel

is the effect of high altitudes. Millions of people live and work at altitudes above 12,000
feet. However, when unacclimatized personnel are quickly moved from altitudes lower
than 5,000 feet to altitudes above 10,000 feet, their combat effectiveness is reduced.
This loss of effectiveness increases dramatically above 14,000 feet. Typical effects of
high altitudes may include giddiness, lightheaded, insomnia, headache, and loss of
appetite, elevated pulse rate, and pulmonary edema. Symptoms are usually most
severe 12 to 36 hours after arrival and may be persistent and incapacitating. Although
the ability to work improves rapidly after the first 2 or 3 days at high altitudes, even after
months an individual's maximum work capacity is unlikely to equal that of physically fit
highlanders. FM 31-71 contains detailed information on the problems encountered at
high altitudes.

i. Measures to reduce non-effectiveness at high altitudes include medical

screening to remove those personnel with severe obesity, sickle cell anemia, heart
and/or lung disorders, or a history of spontaneous pneumothorax prior to the ascent;
providing prior high altitude experience; and staging ascent with several days' stay at an
intermediate altitude and drug therapy using aspirin or stronger analgesics such as
codeine (when prescribed by competent medical authority).

MD0165 1-28
 Figure 1-5. Wind chill chart.

MD0165 1-29
1-12. THE PHASES OF INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE

The industrial hygiene programs, with which you will come into contact, will
normally consist of three phases previously mentioned: recognition, evaluation, and
control. These phases will assist you to reduce those environment factors that detract
from employee well being and to create a better work environment or physical and
physiological work environment.

a. Recognition. Health hazards in the work area must first be recognized. This
will usually be the result of the various surveys, inspections, and inventories, which you
will make. It can also result from listening to complaints received from workers or by
noting trends reflected in written reports.

b. Evaluation. The hazards present in the work environment must be evaluated

in terms of their long term, as well as their short term, effects on employees' health.
This evaluation will be based on all data available, from inspections and surveys, as
well as from experience and your technical knowledge.

c. Control. The last phase is the development, implementation, and follow- up

on corrective measures that will reduce or eliminate the existing health hazards.
Control measures may include:

(1) Replacement. Replacement of toxic or harmful substances with less

dangerous ones.

(2) Modification. Modification of work processes or procedures to minimize

or eliminate worker exposure.

(3) Ventilation. Utilization of ventilation to reduce the concentration of

harmful substances to safe levels.

(4) Distance. Increasing the distance between the worker and the source of
the harmful substance or the noise.

(5) Protection. Requiring the use of personal protective equipment or

clothing.

(6) Isolation. Isolation of a process of work operation to reduce the number

of persons exposed.

(7) Wet methods. Using wet methods to reduce emission of dusts to the
atmosphere such as in the case of abrasive blasting, lathing, and grinding operations.

(8) Housekeeping and cleanliness. Good housekeeping, including

cleanliness of the work place; proper waste disposal; adequate washing, toilet, and rest
room facilities; healthful drinking water and eating facilities; and control of insects and
rodents.

MD0165 1-30
1-13. DIRECTIVES AND REFERENCES

As a PVNTMED specialist involved in Army OH and IH programs, you will require

authoritative information on a variety of technical and policy matters. These directives
and publications will be useful to you.

a. AR 11-34, The Army Respiratory Protection Program. This regulation

implements the provisions of DOD Instruction 6055.1; the legal requirements of Section
134, 29 CFR, Part 1910; and the good practice recommendations of the American
National Standards Institute (ANSI) Standard 788.2. It also establishes responsibilities
and outlines the essential elements for the Department of the Army Respiratory
Protection Program and establishes the installation respiratory program director and the
installation respiratory specialist positions.

b. AR 40-5, Health and Environment. This regulation describes the Army

program for health and environment and assigns responsibilities for the various
elements of that program. It specifically provides detailed information on the AOHP.

c. AR 385-10, The Army Safety Program. This regulation outlines the Army
Safety Program and assigns responsibilities for carrying out the various provisions of
the program. It also describes the Army protocol for record keeping and employee
notification required under Public Law 91-598, the Occupational Safety and Health Act.

d. AR 385-30, Safety Signs and Specifications. This regulation provides

detailed information on the safety signs that are to be used in areas where hazards are
found.

e. AR 385-32, Protective Clothing and Equipment. This regulation assigns

commanders of Army installations the responsibility for implementing the use of
protective clothing and equipment as a means of preventing or minimizing personal
hazards to workers. It also provides authority for the procurement, at no cost to the
individual, of such items.

f. TB MED 35, Health Hazards from Solvents. This technical bulletin

discusses the solvents used in certain Army industrial workplaces, guides for the proper
use of the solvents, measures for the protection of workers exposed to the solvents, and
less toxic substances which can be substituted.

g. TB MED 501, Noise and Conservation of Hearing. This technical bulletin

summarizes some important facts relating to noise and its effects on the human ear and
outlines the essential features of a preventive program that has as its aim the
conservation of hearing.

MD0165 1-31
 h. DA Pam 40-501, Hearing Conservation. This pamphlet augments
information contained in TB MED 501 and provides guidance for implementing the
hearing conservation program at all facilities controlled by the DA as established in AR
40-5 and AR 385-10. It specifies audiometer testing, and so forth.

i. TB MED 502, Respiratory Protection Program. Although respiratory

protection was addressed by AR 11-34, this technical bulletin contains information
useful in the design and operation of a respiratory protection program.

j. TB MED 503, The Army Industrial Hygiene Program. This technical

bulletin describes the responsibilities and relationships of the components of an
Installation Occupational Safety and Health Program.

k. TB MED 506, Occupational Vision. This technical bulletin defines the

occupational vision hazards and describes the components of the program designed to
counter them.

l. TB MED 507, Prevention, Treatment, and Control of Heat Injury.

Equipment and protocols needed to combat heat injuries are described in this technical
bulletin.

1-14. SAFETY SIGNS AND SPECIFICATIONS

AR 385-30, Safety Signs and Specifications, provides detailed information in

safety signs that are to be used in areas where hazards are found. Radiation marking
signs may include a variation to the normally viewed danger and/or caution signs or
labels. The categories of signs are noted below; however, not all of them are explained.
The size of the panels, figures, and letters will vary with the outside dimensions of the
signs. Figures 1-6 through 1-12 and Tables 1-2 through 1-6 illustrate some of the
specifications for signs and labels.

Safety Color Code Markings And Signs **

DANGER Red
CAUTION Yellow
RADIATION Purple
SAFETY INSTRUCTION Green
DIRECTIONAL Black
INFORMATIONAL Vary *

*A variety of colors may be used, except for red, yellow, or purple (magenta)

NOTE: There are some variances in sign colors, shapes, and markings to denote
hazards. These color markings, and so forth, may be placed on danger, caution, or hazard
signs.

Table 1-2. Basic required sign color markings.

MD0165 1-32
 a. Danger Signs. These signs have a red marking as the basic or highlight
color for identifying such items as: fire and laser equipment and other signs or labels
posted to warn of specific dangers. All personnel will be instructed that danger signs
indicate immediate danger and that special precautions are necessary. Danger signs
will have a white background. A black rectangular panel will be placed at the top of the
sign. Within the black rectangular panel will be the word "DANGER" in white letters
surrounded by a red oval. (A white line separating the outside edges of the red oval
from the adjacent edge of the black panel may be used.)

Figure 1-6. Design of danger signs.

Figure 1-7. Hearing protection decal (DA Label 172)

MD0165 1-33
 DANGER High Voltage
DANGER Keep Off, Electric Current
DANGER No Smoking, Matches, or Open Light
DANGER Men Working Above
DANGER Not Room Enough Here to Clear Man on Cars
DANGER Keep Away
DANGER Man in Boiler
DANGER Insufficient Clearance
DANGER 2,300 Volts
DANGER Keep Out
DANGER Crane Overhead
DANGER Keep Off
DANGER Use No Open Light Flammable
DANGER Artillery Firing in Progress
DANGER Small Arms Firing in Progress
DANGER Ammunition Dud Area
DANGER Blasting
DANGER Do Not Operate. Man Working on Repairs
DANGER Hands Off Switch, Man Working on Line

Table 1-3. Examples of wording for danger signs.

b. Caution Signs. These signs are used to warn against potential hazards or to
caution against unsafe practices such as: stopping machinery to clean, oil, or repair. All
personnel will be instructed that a caution sign indicates a possible hazard against
which proper precautions will be taken. Caution signs will have a yellow background. A
black rectangular panel will be placed at the top of the sign and within it will be the word
"CAUTION" in yellow letters. Additional wording will be added below the word
"CAUTION" to warn of specific possible dangers or unsafe practices.

Figure 1-8. Design of caution signs.

MD0165 1-34
 CAUTION Goggles Must Be Worn When Operating Machine
CAUTION This Door Must Be Kept Closed
CAUTION Electric Trucks, Go Slow
CAUTION This Space Must Be Kept Clear At All Times
CAUTION Stop Machinery to Clean, Oil, or Repair
CAUTION Keep Aisles Clear
CAUTION Operator of This Machine Shall Wear Snug Fitting
Clothing, No Gloves
CAUTION Close Clearance
CAUTION Watch Your Step
CAUTION Eye Protection Required In This Area
CAUTION Electric Fence
CAUTION High Intensity, Noise" Hearing Protection Required

Table 1-4. Examples of wording for caution signs.

c. Radiation Symbols and Signs. With the advent of modern technology, the
numbers of radiation equipment and other items are increasing; therefore, safety
concerns for employees are paramount.

(1) The ionizing radiation symbol sign is a three-bladed design bearing the
propeller symbol in magenta (purple) with a yellow background. The wording will vary
depending upon the degree of radiation, type of radiation, or area where the radiation is
located. Conspicuously display the signs with the lettering mentioned below for the
following areas. In addition, post or label with a sign all devices and equipment capable
of producing X-rays when energized, except diagnostic and therapeutic x-ray
equipment. The sign will bear the ionizing radiation symbol and the words "CAUTION-
X-RAYS." Mark all diagnostic and therapeutic x-ray equipment with warning labels as
required by TB MED 521.

MD0165 1-35
 Figure 1-9. Radiation symbol.

(a) In each occupational radiation area (2mR/hr).

CAUTION
RADIATION AREA

(b) In each high-radiation area (100 mR/hr)

CAUTION
HIGH RADIATION AREA

(c) In an area, room, or enclosure containing airborne

radioactive material in such concentrations as to create an airborne radioactivity area.

CAUTION
AIRBORNE RADIOACTIVITY AREA

MD0165 1-36
 (d) In each area or room that contains radioactive materials in excess
of the amount specified by 10 CFR 20.203.

CAUTION
RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL

(2) The laser radiation label and sign formats are for danger and caution
data. In the white area of a danger label is to be a red sunburst for Class 3b and Class
4 lasers. In the yellow area of a caution sign and label only on Class 2 and Class 3a
lasers, the sunburst is to be black. Extending from the center of the sunburst to the
right is a horizontal line. Above the horizontal line of the sunburst, indicate the type of
laser radiation. Below the line, indicate the action to be taken to avoid the hazard.
Along the lower edge of labels, give the laser classification from TB MED 279,
wavelengths, and maximum output power (or energy) of the laser.

Example of label for Example of label for

Class 3b and Class 4. Class 2 and Class 3a.

Figure 1-10. Signs and labels for laser devices.

MD0165 1-37
 (3) For microwave radiation warning and danger signs, use a red isosceles
triangle above an inverted black isosceles triangle. Separate and outline both triangles
with an aluminum color border. Always place the following words in the upper triangle
of either sign:

WARNING DANGER
R.F. RADIATION HAZARD R.F. RADIATION HAZARD

The user decides what information will be inserted in the lower triangle, except for those
systems determined to be potentially hazardous. For these systems, the lower triangle
will say: "This system may produce potentially hazardous power density levels. See
TM (insert TM that applies) and local standard operating procedures before operation."

d. Biological Hazard Signs. The biological hazard sign is used to signify the
actual or potential presence of a biological hazard and to identify any equipment,
containers, rooms, materials, or experimental animals that contain or are contaminated
with hazardous agents. The sign may be any design in a fluorescent orange or
orange-red color. The background color is optional as long as there is sufficient
contrast for the symbol to be clearly defined. These labels or signs are required to be
affixed as close as feasible to the container, on the equipment by string, wire, adhesive,
or other method that prevents their loss or unintentional removal. The signs are to be
also posted at the entrance to the work areas specified (see Figure 1-11).

Figure 1-11. Biological hazard sign.

e. Safety Instruction Signs. These signs are used when there is need for
general instructions and suggestions pertaining to safety measures such as: reporting
of all injuries or no matter how slight. Safety instruction signs will have a white
background. A green panel will be placed at the top of the sign and within it will be the
white letters giving the safety instructions. The sign wording in black letters, giving
details of the safety instructions will be placed below the green panel.

MD0165 1-38
 Figure 1-12. Safety instruction signs.

Report All Injuries to the First Aid Room at Once

Walk, Don’t Run Avoid Injury
Report All Injuries No Matter How Slight
Make Your Workplace Safe Before Starting the Job
Report All Unsafe Conditions to Your Foreman
Help Keep This Plant Safe and Clean
Lock Out Controls Before Making Electrical Repairs
Number of Consecutive Days Without a Disabling Injury ( )

Three Causes of Injuries:

I Didn't Look
I Didn't Ask
I Didn't Listen

Table 1-5. Examples of wording for safety instruction signs.

MD0165 1-39
 f. Directional Signs. These signs in sufficient numbers should be used to
indicate the way to locations such as: stairways, fire escapes, and exits. Directional
signs will have a white background. The arrow pointing the direction will be in white on
a black rectangular panel, located at the top of the sign. Any wording in the arrow or
below the black rectangular panel will be in black (see Figure 1-13).

Figure 1-13. Directional signs.

This Way Out (below arrow panel)

This Way (inside arrow) Out (below arrow panel).
To the (inside arrow) First Aid Station (below panel).
Man way (below arrow panel).
This Way To (inside arrow) First Aid Room (below arrow panel).

Table 1-6. Examples of wording for directional signs.

1-15. APPENDIXES

You will carry out many of your duties as a preventive medicine specialist by
serving as a member of an IH survey team. After you have completed the lessons in
this subcourse, study Appendix H, Appendix I, and Appendix J. They illustrate examples
of a form designed for use during a preliminary survey, a worksheet to be used during the
general survey, and a report submitted following an IH survey, respectively.

Continue with Exercises

MD0165 1-40
EXERCISES, LESSON 1

INSTRUCTIONS: Answer the following exercises by marking the lettered response that
best answers the exercise, by completing the incomplete statement, or by writing the
answer in the space provided at the end of the exercise.

After you have completed all these exercises, turn to "Solutions to Exercises" at
the end of the lesson and check your answers. For each exercise answered incorrectly,
reread the material referenced with the solution.

1. Occupational health is concerned with diminishing illness and injury that results
from the relationship between a (an) ____________ and his _____________.

2. In the very early days of medicine, the toxicity of _________________ had

already been recognized in mining operations.

3. After adopting worker's compensation laws in the United States, it was realized
that prevention of accidents was more ________________ than ________
compensation to accident victims.

4. One of the specific objectives of the Association of Occupational Health

Professionals is to:

a. Ensure that some eligible personnel are physically suited to their work.

b. Increase economic loss caused by physical deficiency, sickness, and injury of

military personnel and civilian employees.

c. Ensure proper medical care and rehabilitation of the occupationally diseased

and injured.

d. Prevent increased combat readiness by allowing occupational illness and

injury to military personnel.

MD0165 1-41
5. Which person is responsible for implementing the occupational health program at
the work site?

a. The installation or activity commander.

b. The Surgeon General.

c. The Commander, Health Services Command.

d. The preventive medicine officer.

6. While the emphasis of the AOHP is placed on the economic gain to the
Government, it is important to note that the worker who sustains an injury or
illness suffers an economic loss due to non-employment.

a. True

b. False

7. The elimination or reduction of job related injuries and illness is the end goal of the
AOHP.

a. True

b. False

8. Which personnel have overall staff responsibility for OSHA compliance as stated
in AR 385-10?

a. US Public Health Service.

b. Safety.

c. The Surgeon General.

d. Managers.

MD0165 1-42
9. What is the basis for any occupational health program?

a. Correcting the exposure to health hazards without inventorying the area first.

b. Identification of personnel not at risk to health hazards.

c. Categorizing jobs.

d. Inventory of health hazards.

10. When performing industrial hygiene surveys, what potential health hazards will be
evaluated?

a. Chemicals, pesticides, radiation (ionizing and non-ionizing), noise, eye, and

biological hazards.

b. Pests, radiation (ionizing and non-ionizing), noise hazards, eye, and biological
hazards.

c. Chemicals, pesticides, microwaves(ionizing and non-ionizing), noise hazards,

eye hazards, and biological hazards.

d. Chemicals, pesticides, radiation, eyes, noise hazards, and biological hazards.

11. What investigations will be conducted when situations develop suggesting the
possibility of an increased disease or injury rate attributable to occupational
hazards?

a. Immunization.

b. Epidemiological.

c. Chronic absence.

d. Non-occupational injuries.

MD0165 1-43
12. The Alcohol & Drug Abuse Prevention & Control Program was established by AR
600-85 to:

a. Evaluate, diagnosis, educate, apprehend, and refer civilian employees as per

local guidelines.

b. Remediate, educate, apprehend, and refer civilian employees as per local

guidelines.

c. Evaluate, diagnose, counsel, and refer civilian employees as per local

guidelines.

d. Evaluate, diagnosis, educate, consider, and refer civilian employees as per

local guidelines.

13. Varying electromagnetic fields in the frequency range of 10 KHz to 300,000 MHz,
with corresponding wavelengths of 30 KM to 1 millimeter, are known as:

a. Occupational hygiene hazards.

b. Microwave radiation.

c. Laser radiation.

d. Pregnancy surveillance.

14. Employees exposed to laser radiation sources are identified and included in
medical surveillance program as per which TB?

a. TB MED 523.

b. TB MED 501.

c. TB MED 35.

d. TB MED 279.

MD0165 1-44
15. What control measure would be performed if an environmental hazard were
found?

a. Use dry methods to reduce emission of dust.

b. Continue to use the same material.

c. Reduce exposure to radiant energy by shielding, increasing distance, and

limiting the time.

d. Use quantitative measurement and render an opinion.

16. Industrial hygiene primarily involves all EXCEPT:

a. The recognition of environmental factors and stresses associated with work

and work operations and how it affects the well being of the work force.

b. Evaluation of quantitative measurements and magnitude of environmental

factors and stresses that impair man's health and well-being.

c. Prescribing methods to control or reduce environmental factors and stresses

when necessary to alleviate their effects.

d. The nature of hazards found in the work environment and distinctive

characteristics of the work force.

17. What are four of the required minimum essential elements that comprise an
installation IH program?

a. Implementation plan, RAC, recording contract, and design review.

b. Occupational Service Health Act standards, implementation plan, occupational

vision, and RAC.

c. Hearing conservation, OSHA standards, RAC, and design review.

d. Record keeping, implementation plan, hearing conservation, and design

review.

MD0165 1-45
18. Under the Respiratory Protection Program for IH, what requirements must
supervisory, safety, and preventive medicine personnel keep in mind when jointly
developing installation program?

a. Legal.

b. Administrative.

c. Logistical.

d. Training.

19. Name the most important principles for acclimatization for the prevention of heat
injuries.

a. _________________________________________

b. _________________________________________

c. __________________________________________

20. Although nothing can be done to control the climate, weather, or altitude at which
soldiers must function, what can the industrial hygienist do to prevent harmful
effects on personnel and subsequent deterioration of performance?

a. Little.

b. Pay attention to heat indices and workplace accomplishments.

c. Develop and keep current defined goals and objectives in the IH area.

d. Give physical examinations to soldiers complaining of certain physical

problems.

MD0165 1-46
21. What type of injuries is the result of excessive elevation of body temperature
and/or water electrolyte imbalance due to inadequate replacement of fluid lost
through perspiration?

a. Cold.

b. Sprain.

c. Heat.

d. Ingrown toenail.

22. What would the WBGT index be for ºF and ºC if the air temperature is 90ºF, the
air movement and relative humidity reading is 80ºF, and the radiant heat reading is
100ºF?

a. 85ºF; 31.9ºC.

b. 64ºF; 28.3ºC.

c. 73ºF; 35.2ºC.

d. 85ºF; 29.7ºC.

23. If the heat condition or category is four, then the WBGT index is_____
and the acclimatized work/rest periods would be _________________.

a. 82.4; 50/10.

b. 88.4; 30/30.

c. 86.1; 45/15.

d. 90.7; 20/40.

MD0165 1-47
24. What are ALL the listed factors that cause cold injuries, in various combinations?

a. Temperature, humidity, wind speed, length of exposure, activity, type and

condition of clothing, previous cold injury, race, and nutritional state.

b. Temperature, humidity, length of exposure, activity, type and condition of

clothing, previous cold injury, race, and nutritional state.

c. Temperature, humidity, wind speed, length of exposure, activity, clothing size

and type of fabric, previous cold injury, race, and nutritional state.

d. Temperature, humidity, wind speed and chill, length of exposure, activity, type
and condition of clothing, amount of snow fallen, race, and nutritional state.

25. Which AR describes the Army program for health and environment and
specifically provides detailed information on the AOHP?

a. AR 11-34.

b. AR 40-5.

c. AR 385-10.

d. AR 385-32.

26. What is the safety color code marking for a safety instruction sign?

a. Red.

b. Yellow.

c. Green.

d. Black.

MD0165 1-48
27. Which hazard sign uses florescent orange or orange-red for its design with an
optional color background?

a. Laser radiation.

b. Biological.

c. Safety instruction.

d. Directional.

28. Which kind of sign would normally have the wording "Electric Fence"?

a. Caution.

b. Danger.

c. Directional.

d. Safety instruction.

29. A three-bladed design bearing the propeller symbol in magenta (purple) with a
yellow background would be used for what sign?

a. Laser radiation.

b. Biological.

c. Ionizing radiation.

d. Microwave radiation.

30. Which TB contains important facts relating to noise and its effects on the human
ear?

a. TB MED 35.

b. TB MED 279.

c. TB MED 501.

d. TB MED 523.
Check Your Answers on Next Page

MD0165 1-49
SOLUTIONS TO EXERCISES, LESSON 1

1. Individual, job (para. 1-1a)

2. Lead. (para 1-1b, c)

3. Profitable; paying. (para. 1-1e)

4. c (para. 1-1g(4))

5. a (para. 1-2h)

6. a (para 1-3f)

7. a (para 1-3f)

8. b (para 1-4b)

9. d (para 1-6a(1))

10. a (para 1-6b)

11. b (para 1-6i)

12. c (para 1-6j)

13. b (para 1-6l(3))

14. d (para 1-6l(2))

15. c (para 1-7d(5))

16. d (para 1-7a)

17. d (para 1-8)

18. a (para 1-8g)

19. Command drinking of water in the absence of thirst.

Adequate rest to allow the body to cool.
Maintain drinking water temperature between 60-70ºF. (par 1-11d (8))

20. c (para. 1-10a)

MD0165 1-50
21. c (para 1-11b)

22. d (para 1-11c)

23. d (para 1-11d(4), Table 1-1)

24. a (para 1-11f)

25. b (para 1-13b)

26. c (para 1-14e), Table 1-2)

27. b (para 1-14d)

28. a (Table 1-4)

29. c (para 1-14c(1))

30. c (para 1-13g)

END OF LESSON 1

MD0165 1-51
 LESSON ASSIGNMENT

LESSON 2 Control of Toxic Substances.

TEXT ASSIGNMENT Paragraphs 2-l through 2-30.

LESSON OBJECTIVES After completing this lesson, you should be able to:

2-l. Define toxicity, micron, vapor, dust, fume,

mist, ceiling value (C), and skin notation.

2-2. List and identify the routes of entry for toxic

contaminants.

2-3. Select the natural body defenses against toxic

contaminants.

2-4. List the five potential effects of chemical

contaminants on the body.

2─5. Determine the threshold limit value (TLV) for

Selected contaminants.

2─6. Identify the various types of sampling.

2─7. List examples of the various items of equipment

used for sampling gaseous or particulate
contaminants.

SUGGESTION Study the appendixes carefully, as they are Important

in the computations. After studying the assignment,
complete the exercises at the end of this lesson.
These exercises will help. You to achieve the lesson
objectives.

MD0165 2-1
 LESSON 2

CONTROL OF TOXIC SUBSTANCES

Section I. THE NATURE OF CONTAMINANTS

2-l. GENERAL

a. Hazards in the work environment can be purely mechanical in nature, or they

may occur in the form of materials or substances, which are capable of causing fire or
explosion, or of producing injury or illness by inhalation, by contact with the skin or eyes,
or by ingestion. Physical forms of energy such as noise, ionizing and non-ionizing
radiation, and heat can also be health hazards. This lesson deals specifically with the
subject of toxic substances in the industrial workplace, the effects of these substances
on the human body, and measures that can be employed to protect workers from them.
As you read this lesson, you should periodically refer to Appendix B, which contains a
list of typical operations found on Army installations, the health hazards associated with
the individual operations, and the control instituted to reduce or eliminate the hazards.

b. Basic to the control of an industrial health hazard is the recognition and

evaluation of the hazard. Once the hazard has been identified, and its severity
determined measures for its control can be developed. Once this is done, it then
becomes a matter of instituting appropriate control measures and monitoring their
effectiveness.

2-2. CLASSIFICATION OF CHEMICAL HAZARDS

a. There are over l00, 000 chemicals used in industrial operations in this country
today. Several of them have been identified as cancer causing agents, or carcinogens.
Hundreds of them are known to destroy body organs, or to cause extreme irritation
leading to reduced or total non-effectiveness of workers. Still others are in use whose
effects on the body are unknown, or about which very little is known. In this lesson we
will concern ourselves with known effects such as toxicity and skin contamination.
Appendix C contains a partial list of potentially hazardous substances found on Army
installations.

b. Chemicals that may create potential hazards may be classified according to

their physical states or characteristics. Some occur as gases, vapors, mists, dusts, or
fumes that may be breathed with the air. Others are solids or liquids that may be
absorbed through the skin or ingested (taken in through the mouth). It is important to
understand these physical states in which toxic materials may occur, since the hazard
associated with their use often depends upon this factor.

MD0165 2-2
 (1) Gases. A gas is a fluid that has neither independent shape nor volume,
but tends to expand indefinitely. Some examples are air, oxygen, chlorine, and the gas,
which constitutes one of the most serious occupational hazards, carbon monoxide.

(2) Liquids (liquid itself, vapors, and mists). Liquids are fluids characterized
by particles that move freely, without a tendency to separate from one another as in the
case with a gas. Examples of liquids are water and most insecticide formulations.

(a) Vapors. Vapors are gaseous forms of substances that are normally
liquid or solids at normal temperature and pressure. Vapors can be changed to liquids
and solids by increasing the pressure or decreasing the temperature. Among the
vapors, the solvents are particularly hazardous, since they tend to vaporize easily and
contaminate the work atmosphere. Benzyl, carbon tetrachloride, and trichloroethylene
are examples of organic solvents that vaporize readily.

(b) Mists. Mists are airborne droplets formed by the breaking up of a

liquid, as by splashing, foaming, or atomizing. Mist particles can also result from vapor
condensation and are generally larger than vapor particles. Mists are particularly apt to
form over hot solutions and can spread throughout an area if ventilation is poor. Acid
mists are primarily respiratory irritants; however, chromic acid mists are suspected of
causing lung cancer.

(3) Solids

(a) Dusts are finely divided solid particles formed by the crushing,
grinding, or abrading of solid materials. Dusts settle to the ground at variable rates
depending on their size and mass. Dusts may cause pneumoconiosis (a chronic
inflammation of the lungs after continued inhalation of dusts after a period of time). The
most common reaction is fibrosis. Silicosis is the predominant form of fibrosis that is
known to cause disability. Systemic poisons in the form of dusts are common, and
some need not be inhaled to cause damage. Skin absorption may be the route of entry
for some toxic dusts. Examples of toxic dusts are those formed from lead, antimony,
manganese, and some plastics.

(b) Fumes are very small-suspended solid particles generated by

condensation from the gaseous state usually evolved from heated metals or other
materials to form metallic oxides. Fumes are responsible for a particular occupational
illness known as "metal fume fever." "Metal fume fever" is a temporary condition
resembling an acute respiratory infection and occurs most commonly in galvanizing and
welding operations. Some of the metal fumes may be absorbed into the bloodstream
and thereby cause toxic symptoms in other parts of the body. Examples of toxic fumes
are those of lead, mercury, manganese, and cadmium.

MD0165 2-3
2-3. ROUTES OF ENTRY OF TOXIC AGENTS

Toxic chemicals can enter the body by various routes and the response to any
toxic agent may vary markedly depending on the specific route of entry. It is important
to understand the routes of entry since protecting the individual from toxic agents
depends on preventing exposure.

a. Inhalation. Inhalation is the most important route of entry for toxic agents.
Some toxic agents may produce acute effects that will be quickly recognized by the
person being exposed. Others may cause chronic effects that may take up to 25 years
to recognize, such as asbestosis from asbestos exposure.

b. Absorption. The most common occupational disease seen in the Army and
in the public sector is dermatitis. Effects on the skin and other sites of absorption are
primary irritation from contact, sensitization from repeated exposure, and systemic
poisoning from absorption.

c. Ingestion. Ingestion occurs as a result of eating or smoking with

contaminated hands, contaminated utensils, or in contaminated areas. Ingestion of
inhaled materials also occurs as a result of the natural cleaning action of the lungs.
Material is removed from the lungs by cilia and is deposited in the throat to be
swallowed.

d. Injection. Accidental injection occurs mainly during the administration of

drugs. Other injections may occur from the use of high pressure, air or liquid, such as in
spray painting, or from the rupture of high-pressure lines.

2-4. NATURAL BODY DEFENSES

a. The Respiratory System. The conducting portion of the respiratory system

provides a low resistance pathway for uniform distribution of gases to the air sacs in the
lungs, and it contains structures which "condition" the air and protect the lungs from at
least the largest of infectious or toxins particles in the atmosphere. Some of these
structures are:

(1) Mucosa. The mucous surfaces of the nose protect nose breathers from
inhaling particles larger than 5 or 10 microns in diameter (a micron is one millionth of a
meter or approximately 1/25,000 inch). Soluble gases are largely removed by
absorption and the air is moistened and warmed (or cooled, in hot, dry conditions). In
addition, the smell receptors in the upper reaches of the nose may serve as a protective
role.

(2) Cilia. The tracheobronchial system is lined with cilia (short hairs) that
constantly force mucus toward the larynx. When the mucus reaches the pharynx, it
may be expectorated but is usually swallowed. These "pulmonary clearance"

MD0165 2-4
mechanisms play an important role in preventing pulmonary effects from inhalation of
dusts, fumes, and other forms of potentially hazardous materials.

b. The Skin Surface. The skin, with its thick layers of cells and its secretions, is
almost impervious to chemical agents. However, certain chemicals, such as solvents
and gases, can penetrate the skin's barriers.

c. The Excretory System. The body attempts to modify harmful substances

into less harmful substances. The liver and kidneys play a major role by extracting and
expelling chemicals. However, the excretory system is perhaps the least effective of the
body's defenses against harmful chemicals.

2-5. EFFECTS OF CHEMICALS ON THE BODY

Many chemicals may act as toxic agents. A detailed discussion of all the
biological actions of all the toxic agents a preventive medicine specialist would
encounter would be an impossible undertaking. Instead, the toxic agents will be
discussed according to their general biological actions.

a. Irritants. The basis of classifying these materials is their ability to cause

inflammation of mucous membranes. Many irritants are strong acids and alkalis familiar
as corrosive to nonliving things. Bear in mind that inflammation is the reaction of living
tissue and is distinct from chemical corrosion.

b. Asphyxiates. The basis of classifying these materials is their ability to

deprive the tissue of oxygen. The materials classified as asphyxiates do not damage
the lungs. Simple asphyxiates are physiologically inert gases that act when they are
present in sufficient quantities to exclude an adequate oxygen supply. Among these
substances are nitrogen, nitrous oxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, helium, methane, and
ethane. Some of these gases are chemically reactive and some may pose a major
threat of fire. Chemical asphyxiates are materials which specifically render the body
incapable of utilizing an adequate oxygen supply. Two classic examples are carbon
monoxide and cyanides.

c. Anesthetics. The main action of these materials is their depressant effect

upon the central nervous system, particularly the brain. The degree of anesthetic action
depends upon the effective concentration in the brain as well as upon the specific
pharmacological action. The anesthetic potency of simple alcohol rises with increasing
numbers of carbon atoms up to amyl alcohol, which is the most powerful of the series.

d. Lung Damaging Agents. In this category are materials that produce

damage of the pulmonary tissue but not by immediate irritant action. Materials such as
free silica produce fibrotic changes. Asbestos also produces a typical damage to the
lung tissue, and there is newly aroused interest in possible effects of low-level exposure
of individuals who are not asbestos workers. Other dusts, such as coal dust, can

MD0165 2-5
produce pneumoconiosis. Many dusts, of organic origin such as those arising from
cotton or wood can cause pathology of the lungs and/or alterations in lung function.

e. Systemic Poisons. In this category are materials that cause damage to

internal organs such as the liver, the kidney, and the nervous system. Carbon
tetrachloroethane is probably the most toxic of the chlorinated hydrocarbons and
produces atrophy of the liver; that is why it is no longer used as a solvent. Other
chlorinated hydrocarbons are chloroform and a certain group of pesticides. Some
halogenated hydrocarbons are chloral hydrate, trichloroethane, and chloroform. Some
halogenated hydrocarbons produce damage to the kidney as well as the liver if
excessive, acute, or chronic exposure to these compounds occurs. Some metals such
as manganese, mercury, and thallium cause damage to the nervous system. Organic
phosphorus pesticides inhibit the production of cholinesterase, which is an enzyme
necessary for the proper function of the nervous system. Some other examples are
benzene, uranium, lead, and mercury.

f. Carcinogens. These materials have demonstrated that they cause cancer in

humans or suspected of causing cancer based on animal studies. The classic example
is cancer of the scrotum from coal tar pitch volatiles. Other substances of proven
carcinogenic potential in humans are asbestos, chromium (VI), vinyl chloride, and
naphthylamine. The list of substances suspected of causing cancer is lengthy and is
growing nearly every day. It includes benzene, beryllium, carbon tetrachloride,
chloroform, ethylene oxide, formaldehyde, and methyl iodide.

NOTE: Some substances may fit in two or more categories. Many variables determine
the effect of hazardous substances with the most important consideration is the dose
response relationship. Dose involves two variable concentration and duration of
exposure. For certain chemicals, a high concentration for a short period of time would
produce the same effects as a low concentration for a long period of time. Safe limits
are set so that the combination of concentration and time are below levels, which will
produce injury or illness, the "response." A sufficiently small amount of most chemicals
do nothing injurious. This means that there is a threshold of effect of a "no response"
level.

2-6. FACTORS AFFECTING TOXICITY

a. The toxicity (poisonous effect) of a chemical agent may be affected by a

variety of factors based on the characteristics of the contaminant itself, such as:

(l) Volatility.

(2) Temperature.

(3) Solubility.

MD0165 2-6
 (4) Particle size.

(5) Density.

b. Physical conditions of the workers themselves can have an effect on the

toxicity of agents. These factors include the worker's age, his general state of health,
and his prior history of sensitivity.

c. The toxicity of chemical agents can also be affected by environmental factors

such as:

(1) Concentration

(2) Control measures in effect.

(3) Duration of exposure

(4) Frequency of exposure

SECTION II. ATMOSPHERIC HAZARDS

2-7. GENERAL

The atmosphere includes toxic chemicals that are released into the air as by
products of industrial activity. Examples include: carbon monoxide from tuning and
testing combustion engines, welding fumes, solvent vapors from spray painting,
degreasing operations, and the like.

2-8. CARBON MONOXIDE

a. Source of Exposure. Carbon monoxide is produced whenever fossil fuels

are burned in the presence of insufficient oxygen to transform all the hydrocarbons
present to carbon dioxide and water. Carbon monoxide is produced in the incomplete
combustion of coal, gasoline, natural gas, and other carbon containing substances. It is
produced in the explosion of dynamite and nitroglycerine and in the operation of blast
furnaces and internally lubricated compressors. Automobile exhaust contains 5 to l0
percent or more carbon monoxide. Carbon monoxide occurs in small traces in natural
gas, but incomplete burning of natural gas can produce greater amounts. Since
gasoline, oil, coal, and gas are used in virtually all jobs and homes, the potential for
exposure to carbon monoxide is widespread. Carbon monoxide is an insidious hazard,
in that it is odorless, colorless, tasteless, and nonirritating, and its presence may
therefore go undetected.

MD0165 2-7
 b. Bodily Effects. Carbon monoxide interferes with the supply of oxygen to the
tissues of the body. Normally, inhaled oxygen is transferred in the lungs to a chemical
known as hemoglobin, which is present in all red blood cells. Hemoglobin then
transports oxygen, by way of the bloodstream, to the tissue cells where transfer takes
place. The affinity of hemoglobin for carbon monoxide is 250 times greater than it is for
oxygen. When carbon monoxide combines with hemoglobin, the transport of oxygen to
the tissue cells is blocked. Without oxygen, cells cannot live, and when the
concentration of carbon monoxide is great enough, death occurs through asphyxiation.

c. Prevention. The most common and most easily recognized potential

exposure to carbon monoxide is in installation motor pool maintenance shops.
Whenever "gasoline powered" (the chemical profile for diesel engine exhaust does not
include much carbon monoxide) vehicle engines are operating, a method of removing
the carbon monoxide-laden exhaust from the vehicle's breathing zone must be used.
This is best accomplished by a combination of natural ventilation and mechanical tail
pipe extension systems that carry the exhaust outside the building. A full discussion of
ventilation systems is found in lesson 4 of this subcourse.

2-9. OTHER GASES

a. Irritant Gases. The gases that have an irritant effect on the mucous
membranes of the respiratory tract and eyes are important occupational hazards.
Gases in this group are chemically very different, but their bodily effects are similar.
Nitrogen dioxide and phosgene will be used as examples of irritant gases.

(1) Sources of exposure. Nitrogen dioxide gas is produced in many

processes, including welding, bleaching, and the manufacturing of explosives.
Phosgene was used as a chemical warfare agent in World War I. It can be accidentally
produced when chemicals called chlorinated hydrocarbons come into contact with a
flame, hot metal, or any other heat source. Trichloroethylene is a chemical commonly
used in vapor-degreasing operations. Contact of this vapor with a heat source can
produce phosgene. Phosgene can also be produced when the vapor of a chlorinated
hydrocarbon comes in contact with ultra-violet radiation such as that produced by
electrical arc welding.

(2) Bodily effects. The body has many mechanisms for protecting its
tissues from injury by harmful gases. For example, some of the irritant gases cause
coughing, sneezing, narrowing of the air passages, or even temporary cessation of
respiration. Also, the tears of the eye and mucus of the respiratory tract tend to dilute
and wash away irritating substances. Irritation of the eyes and upper respiratory tract
may in some cases be severe enough to drive a person out of an area of exposure
before serious damage can occur. On the other hand, some gases damage the lungs,
yet produce only slight irritation of the upper respiratory tract. This effect is
characteristic of phosgene, for example. Other gases may fail to produce warning
symptoms when the amount of gas in the air is increased gradually. The effects of
exposure to a large amount of irritating gases for a short time are different from those

MD0165 2-8
due to small amount stretched over weeks or months. Sudden, large exposure results
in inflammation, swelling, and narrowing of the airway, and in some cases the lungs fill
up with a fluid-a condition known as pulmonary edema. Those that primarily affect the
lungs, such as phosgene, often cause few, if any, symptoms at the time of exposure.
The employees may continue at their jobs, unaware that they have inhaled a dangerous
gas. Only after several hours do headache, vomiting, coughing, and shortness of
breath appear. In severe cases, death may occur. Prolonged exposure to small
amounts of irritant gas may produce a persistent cough or repeated cold-type infections
as the only symptoms.

(3) Prevention and control. The best prevention of exposure to irritant

gases is to ensure that they are not present in the workers' environment. This is best
accomplished by good engineering design and maintenance of the equipment on the
job. If exposure to some irritant gas is unavoidable, then provisions should be made for
appropriate personal protective equipment. Appendix B lists those representative
control measures used to reduce or eliminate the hazard from irritant gases.

b. Narcotizing Gases. Narcotic substances can produce unconsciousness and

many of the same symptoms that are exhibited with asphyxiates. The distinguishing
feature of narcotics is the effect on the central nervous system, causing it to fail to do its
normal job. Anesthetics and narcotics exert their principal action by causing simple
anesthesia without serious systemic effects, unless the dose is massive. Depending on
the concentration present, the depth of anesthesia will range from mild symptoms to
complete loss of consciousness and death. In accidents involving very high
concentrations, death may be due to asphyxiation. Substances like ether, chloroform,
and other anesthetics that are very effective in producing anesthesia are selected when
the intent is to make someone unconscious. In the industrial environment, there are
many things that have a narcotic action. Examples of these are acetone, methyl
bromide, and carbon disulfide.

c. Toxic Gases.

(1) Ethylene oxide, a common toxic gas, is used for sterilizing surgical
supplies. The high chemical reactivity and the general exothermic nature of ethylene
oxide reactions present a number of stable conditions, but the vapor in concentrations
of 3 to l00 percent is highly flammable and subject to explosive decomposition. Ignition
and decomposition are initiated by many common sources of heat, and the pressure
rise is sufficiently rapid and extensive to cause violent rupture of containing equipment.
The hazards of health associated with the handling of ethylene oxide are those of
inhalation of the vapor and contact of the eyes and skin with the liquid or solutions even
as dilute as one percent. Ethylene oxide may be described as a central depressant, an
irritant, and a protoplasmic poison. Contact with even dilute solutions may cause
irritation and necrosis of the eyes and irritation, blistering, edema, and necrosis of the
skin. Excessive exposure to vapor may cause irritation of the eyes, respiratory tract,
lungs, and central depression. Nausea and vomiting are usually delayed and may be

MD0165 2-9
followed by convulsive seizure and profound weakness of the extremities and
secondary infection of the lungs.

(2) Hydrogen sulfide, a colorless gas with the foul odor of rotten eggs that is
flammable and highly toxic, is used as an industrial chemical. It is encountered in
mining, especially where sulfide ores are found; in excavating in swampy or filled
ground, and sometimes in wells, caissons, and tunnels; in natural gases and in sewer
gases. By far the greatest danger from the inhalation of hydrogen sulfide is from its
acute effects. Concentrations of 700 PPM and above may result in acute poisoning.
Although the gas is an irritant, the systemic effects from the absorption of hydrogen
sulfide into the blood stream exceed that which is readily oxidized. Systemic poisoning
results, with a general action on the nervous system. Hyperpnea occurs shortly, and
respiratory paralysis may follow immediately. This condition may be reached without
warning as the originally detected odor of hydrogen sulfide may have disappeared.
Unless the victim is removed to fresh air within a very few minutes and breathing is
stimulated or induced by artificial respiration, death occurs.

Section III. ORGANIC SOLVENT HAZARDS

2-10. GENERAL

The most widespread, and some of the most dangerous, occupational hazards
are created by liquid chemicals, such as solvents. These chemicals may present
hazards from the use of the liquid itself, as a vapor of the liquid, or as a mist of the
liquid. The vast majority of liquid chemicals found in the industrial workplace are
organic compounds. The organic compounds are those that contain carbon. They are
found in plant and animal tissues and in materials, such as petroleum and coal, which
result from the breakdown of living substances. Lubricants, solvents, fuel, and many
insecticides are but a few of the many hundred of different compounds in use, and new
ones are constantly being produced. These chemicals are used in the course of most
industrial-type jobs, as well as being commonly found in the home. Because of their
widespread use and their harmful properties, the organic compounds present significant
military occupational hazards.

2-11. SOURCES OF EXPOSURE

It would be virtually impossible to list all the possible occupations or industrial

type operations in which exposure to liquid chemicals occur, since so many occupations
or industrial processes use these chemicals in one way or another. However, a few
typical military exposures will be discussed, and others are listed in Appendix B.

a. Liquid Chemicals. There are many military situations in which individuals

are exposed to a potentially hazardous organic compound in liquid form. Many different
solvents and fuels are used in military operations. Vehicle and weapons maintenance

MD0165 2-10
requires grease, oil, and other lubricants. Field sanitation teams, engineers, and
preventive medicine personnel handle insecticide concentrates. Additional examples of
operations involving the use of liquid chemicals can be found in Appendix B.

b. Liquid Chemicals as Vapors. Most organic compounds can be vaporized

very easily; in fact, some vaporize at room temperature. A common exposure involving
chemical vapor occurs in vapor degreasing of metal parts. When metal machine parts
are removed for repair or cleaning, their lubricating oils and greases must be removed.
This is often accomplished by immersing the parts in the vapor of solvents which, when
contained in open top containers, will evolve various amounts of vapor, depending upon
the type of solvent and its temperature.

c. Liquid Chemicals as Mists. Liquid chemicals can be changed into a fine

mist by passing the compound through an appeture such as a spray-painting nozzle.
A common example of this process is spray painting. Spray painting is widely used in
vehicle repair shops, machinery maintenance facilities, and building construction and
maintenance. Paint contains many organic compounds that make up the pigment,
binders, thinners, wetting agents, and solvents.

2-12. BODILY EFFECTS

a. General. The bodily effects of liquid chemicals vary widely, depending on the
exact chemical involved. The effects on the skin, nervous system, liver, and those
leading to cancer will be discussed in this subcourse.

b. Skin Diseases. In terms of numbers, occupational skin diseases (dermatitis)

are by far the most important of the occupational diseases. Although occupational skin
conditions may cause considerable loss of time from work, they are not usually severe
enough to cause permanent disability.

(1) The healthy skin has certain barriers against injury. The dead surface
cells resist most chemicals, while the oily secretions of the skin form a protective
covering against some chemicals. Deeper skin cells prevent the loss of water from the
skin.

(2) The occurrence of occupational dermatitis depends mainly on the

specific chemicals to which the skin is exposed and the length of the exposure. The
presence of other skin diseases lowers resistance to exposure. Personal cleanliness is
important, since failure to wash the skin or to remove dirty clothing increases the length
of exposure. The type of skin is an important factor, too. People with oily skins are
more likely to develop infected sweat glands; where as those with dry skins are more
affected by drying agents such as detergents. Male workers have more skin disease
than do female workers, possibly because females take better care of their skin. There
is more skin disease in the summer than in the winter because of the fact that less
clothing is worn and to the presence of sweat.

MD0165 2-11
 (3) The effect of chemicals on the skin may be an irritant effect, a sensitizing
effect, or both. A chemical that is classified, as a skin irritant will cause irritation to any
individual's skin, if left in contact with the skin longs enough. Most of the organic
compounds can be considered skin irritants, although they vary greatly in strength.
Chemical agents which do not cause skin disease on first contact but do so after 5 to 7
days or more of continuous or repeated contact are called sensitizing chemicals. This is
a type of allergy, which develops only in a small number of people exposed, depending
on the chemical involved and the individual's sensitivity to that substance. Examples of
chemicals capable of sensitizing are the explosives, photographic developers, epoxy
mixtures, some insecticides, and some fungicides.

c. Nervous System Effects. It is difficult to summarize the toxic effects of

organic solvents, since they vary greatly in their effects on human tissue. There is one
property, however, which is common to practically all of the organic solvents. It is their
ability to produce a loss of sensation and sometimes a loss of consciousness. Sudden
large exposures to concentrated vapors of certain solvents can lead to instant
unconsciousness and even death. With lower levels of exposure, less severe
symptoms will be experienced. Headaches, dizziness, nausea, vomiting, and
convulsions may occur. Even low exposure may produce enough drowsiness to create
an accident hazard under certain conditions. The insecticides are good examples of
these toxic properties; for example, the chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticide like DDT
acts directly on the brain and can cause tremors, dizziness, and convulsions.
Organophosphorus and carbamate insecticides such as Malathion are also organic
compounds, but they exert their toxic action on that part of the nervous system that
controls breathing, digestion, muscle strength, vision, and sweating. Thus, excessive
exposure to these chemicals results in respiratory difficulty, vomiting, muscle weakness,
blurry vision, and excessive sweating, which are but a few of the many symptoms. No
attempt will be made to describe the toxic effects of each specific chemical in this group.

d. Cancer Producing Liquid Chemicals. Brief mention should be made of the

cancer producing properties of certain liquid chemicals. In lesson l, it was mentioned
that as early as l775, cancer of the scrotum in chimney sweeps was recognized as a
hazard of that occupation. Since that time, skin cancer as been found in many other
occupations in which exposure to coal tar and pitch exists. Cancer of the urinary
bladder has been reported in workers who handle certain organic dyes. Occupational
Service Health Act has published a list of cancer producing chemicals (carcinogens)
that can be found in 29 CFR Part 1910.1000.

2-l3. PREVENTION AND CONTROL

a. General. Measures for the prevention and control of illnesses arising from
exposure to liquid chemicals fall into three groups: environmental control, personal
control, and medical control. By far the most effective category is environmental
control; this type of control involves designing the work area and associated equipment
to minimize the exposure of the worker to the liquid chemical, its vapors, or its mists.
Environmental control also includes one of the most basic control measures substituting

MD0165 2-12
less toxic substances for the more toxic substances being used. Personal protective
measures are not as effective as engineering controls (like ventilation) or work practice
modifications. Personal protective measures are limited to the use of protective clothing
and respirators. Medical control refers to programs encompassing pre-placement
physical examinations and medical surveillance of workers to detect early signs of
occupational disease.

b. Prevention of Occupational Dermatitis. The best prevention against

occupational dermatitis is to use measures that decrease, as far as possible, contact of
the workers with the dermatitis causing chemicals. When complete avoidance is
impossible, personal protective measures are used. These include protective clothing,
protective ointments, and personal cleanliness. Protective clothing should cover every
part of the body exposed to the irritating or hazardous chemical. This protective
clothing, and in some cases, underclothing, must be supplied and laundered daily.
Contaminated work clothing should never be worn away from the place of work. There
are many types of protective ointments available; when applied to the skin they form a
film that affords some protection. The main value of protective ointments comes from
the subsequent washing off, since the harmful chemicals are removed at the same time.
Personal cleanliness is the best protective measure against occupational dermatitis. If
strong irritant chemicals come into contact with the skin, they should be removed
immediately with water. Washing facilities should always be readily available. Pre-
placement and periodic medical examinations are recommended, to aid in the
prevention of occupational dermatitis.

c. Welding Fumes. Welding fumes vary in composition and quantity. They

depend upon the alloy being welded and the process, and the electrodes being used.
Therefore, for the analysis of these welding fumes to be accurate, consideration must
be made on the type of welding process performed and the system being inspected.

(1) Aluminum and titanium (little flame but intense radiation). For example,
when aluminum and titanium (a reactive metal and alloy) are welded in argon (a
protective, inert atmosphere), they will produce very little flame but intense radiation.
This radiation’s can offspring into ozone.

(2) Steels (low-level fumes). When arc-welding steel, which is a similar

process to that of aluminum and titanium, fumes, produced is low level. These fumes
contain chromium and nickel compounds and the electrodes, coated and flux-cored with
fluorides, produce fumes containing considerably more fluorides than oxides.

(3) Ferrous alloys (considerable fumes). When arc-welding ferrous alloys in

an oxidizing atmosphere or environment, what is generated are significant amount of
fumes and carbon monoxide. These fumes are composed of different particles of
amorphous slag’s containing silicon, iron, manganese, and other metallic components.
The alloy system used will determine the make up of the constituents.

MD0165 2-13
NOTE: Slag is dross or scum (mainly oxides and impurities) forming on the surface of
molten metals, as they are being melted or refined.

(4) Individual constituent testing. Because of the varying factors when

arc-welding and the varying fumes are produced, the fumes must be frequently tested
for the presence of individual constituents to determine if specific threshold limit value
has been exceeded. When arc-welding steels, for example, testing should be
conducted on the fumes to determine if a hazardous form of hexavalent chrome (CrVI)
(a chrome compound) is present and registering above the TLV. Some hexavalent
chrome compounds are carcinogenic, especially water-insoluble ones. Because the
TLVs vary with the compounds present for chrome and their chrome compounds,
analysis of the fumes for hexavalent, and total chrome are needed.

NOTE: Variable concentrations of a wide variety of substances are found in the work
place air. Two organizations promulgate standards for worker exposure to specific
chemicals. In Title 29 Code of Federal Regulation 1910.1000, OHSA has established
Permissible Exposure Limits (PEL’S) for potentially hazardous chemical substances.
The American Conference of Government Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) has
recommended threshold limits (TLV) which do the same. Ordinarily, ACHGIH TLVs are
more stringent (and provide greater worker protection) than OSAH PELs. It is important
to understand that PELs and TLVs is not the same thing.

(5) Total fume concentration or content analysis. Analyze the total fume
concentration or content as needed. This analysis will be sufficient if no other toxic
elements are present in the metal, welding rods, or metal coatings and conditions are
not ripe for toxic gas formation.

2-l4. STANDARDS

The U.S. Army must comply with the standards of 29 CFR l9l0.l000 for
exposures to airborne contaminants. In addition, the Army has adopted the consensus
standards developed by the ACGIH. We must check both sources and use the more
stringent of the two standards.

a. Standards. The standards in 29 CFR l9l0.l000 are termed Permissible

Exposure Limits (PELS) while those from ACGIH are TLVs. Whatever they are called,
they represent the maximum amount of chemicals under which it is believed that nearly
all workers may be repeatedly exposed day after day without adverse effect. The TLV
booklet is a consensus standard published by a civilian organization. They are updated
annually to reflect current data. The TLV booklet is the most common and current
source of standards for airborne contaminants. Appendix C contains industrial hazards
found in the Army.

MD0165 2-14
 b. Terms.

(1) Threshold limit value-time weighed average . The threshold limit value-
time weighed average (TLV-TWA) is the time weighted average for a normal 8-hour
workday and a 40-hour workweek to which nearly all workers may be repeatedly
exposed day after day without adverse health effects.

(2) Threshold limit value short-term exposure limits. The threshold limit
value short-term exposure limits (TLV─STEL) is the concentration to which workers can
be exposed continuously for a short period of time. A STEL is defined as a l5 minute
time weighted average exposure, which should not be exceeded at any time during a
work day even if the 8-hour time-weighted average is within the TLV. Exposure at the
STEL should not exceed l5 minutes and should not be repeated more than 4 times a
day. There should be at least 60 minutes between successive exposures at the STEL.

(3) Threshold limit value-ceiling. The Threshold limit value-ceiling (TLV-C)is

the concentration that should not be exceeded even instantaneously. Indicated by a "C"
in the TLV listing.

(4) "Skin" notation. Listed substances followed by the designation "skin"

refer to the potential contribution to overall exposure by the coetaneous route including
the mucous membranes and eyes.

(5) "Ceiling" values. There are certain toxic substances for which time-
weighted average concentrations are inappropriate. For example, there are substances
that are predominantly fast acting, and whose threshold limit is based on this response.
Substances of this type are assigned a "ceiling" limit ("C") that should not be exceeded
under any circumstances. Appendix E contains examples of substances to which "C"
limits have been assigned.

c. Computation of a Time-Weighed Average. Exposures must be averaged

for the time period of the standard 8 hours or l5 minutes, and because sampling periods
may differ, a simple arithmetic average will not yield the true average. The following
formula is used to average results from sampling for atmospheric contaminants.

T = Time
C = Concentration
TWA = time weighed average
Hrs = hours

(T1 x C1) + (T2 x C2) + (Tn x Cn) = TWA

8 Hrs

MD0165 2-15
 d. Working with TLV Data. The following examples will provide practice in
using TLV's and related data.

(1) Example 1. Workers in an industrial shop on an Army installation are

exposed to a perchloroethylene solvent of the following concentrations, for the following
periods: l hour at 50 parts per million (ppm); 2 hours at ll0-ppm; 3 hours at 30-ppm; l l/2
hours at l5-ppm; and l/2 hour at 200-ppm.

(a) Refer to preceding paragraphs and to Appendix E, then answer the

following questions:

1 What is the TLV for perchloroethylene?

2 What is the TWA exposure for these workers during the 8-hour
day?

3 Are the concentrations to which these workers are exposed

acceptable?

(b) Solutions:

1 By referring to Appendix E, we determine that the TLV for

perchloroethylene is 50-PPM.

2 The TWA exposure is determined by substituting our data in the

formula:

TWA = (T1 x C1) + (T2 x C2) + (Tn x Cn)

8 hrs

3 Substituting, we have:

TWA = (1 x 50) + (2 x 110) + (3 x 30) + (l.5 x l5) + (0.5 x 200)

1 + 2 + 3 + l.5 + .5

50 + 220 + 90 + 22.5 + 100 = 482.5 ppm = 60.3

8 8

4 The TWA exposure is 60.3-ppm.

5 The exposure is out of compliance with the TLV-TWA.

MD0165 2-16
 (2) Example 2. Workers are engaged in a process that results in the
production of ozone (03). Throughout most of the 8-hour shift, the process, the
concentration reaches 0.005-ppm. However, at four steps in the process, the
concentration reaches 0.5-ppm, for about l2 minutes each time. These four instances of
0.5-ppm concentrations are 90 minutes apart.

(a) Refer to preceding paragraphs and to Appendix E; then answer

these questions:

1 What is the TLV for ozone?

2 What is the STEL for ozone?

3 Do the concentrations to which these workers are periodically

exposed exceed standards (that is, are they unacceptable)?

(b) Solutions:

1 By referring to Appendix E, we determine that the TLV for ozone

is 0.l ppm as a ceiling value.

2 There is no STEL for ozone.

3 Remember, the ceiling value is a maximum concentration to

which workers may not be exposed for any time period.

4 Because the actual concentration exceeds the ceiling limit, this

situation does not meet standards, that is, it is unacceptable; control measures to
reduce the concentrations, or to protect the workers from the excessively high
concentration, will be necessary.

(3) Example 3. A soldier working in a laboratory uses formaldehyde

routinely. The exposure in his breathing zone usually is for 20 minutes. The soldier
believes that he is in no danger from these short periods of 2-ppm concentration.

(a) Is he correct, or should some action be taken to control the

concentration?

(b) Solution: From Appendix E, we determine that although the TLV for
formaldehyde is 1.0-ppm, this substance has been assigned a STEL which means that
the STEL region must not be exceeded for longer than 15 minutes. This soldier's health
is in jeopardy and control measures are imperative.

MD0165 2-17
2-15. SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

a. The collection and analysis of representative samples of the air in the work
place is an important means of determining the nature and extent of occupational
hazards or exposures associated with an operation or process. In addition, the
effectiveness, or the inadequacy, or exiting control measures may be demonstrated by
appropriate sampling. In this regard, the preventive medicine specialist will frequently
be called upon to assist in the collection of samples of potentially contaminated air in a
variety of work places on Army installations. Very often this sampling will be conducted
for the purpose of determining compliance with Department of the Army and OSHA
environmental standards. There are a number of important factors that must be
considered during the collection of samples if reliable results are to be obtained.
Disregarding any of these factors can seriously limit the accuracy of the data collected
and can lead to invalid conclusions.

b. Before the sampling technique or method can be selected, some basic

questions must be answered:

(l) Where should sampling be done?

(2) Whom (which workers) should be sampled?

(3) How long should each sampling period be?

(4) How many samples will be necessary?

(5) When should sampling take place?

c. The sampling location will be dictated by the kind of information needed or

the type of evaluation desired. It may be one, or a combination, of the following.

(1) General room (area or background) air sample. The general room air
sample provides an indication of the total concentration of a contaminant in the overall
work area. Such sampling gives qualitative data on what contaminants are present in
the work area and to some extent indicates if control measures are effective.

(2) Breathing zone/personal sample. The breathing zone personal sample

more definitely determines the worker's exposure to a contaminant. From breathing
zone samples, a daily time-weighed average can be determined. Frequently breathing
zone samples are used in conjunction with biological samples such as urine and blood
to assess the total effect the exposure has on the worker.

(3) Operation/process area sample. This third type of sampling is done at

the operation or process area itself and will provide both qualitative and quantitative
information about the influence of the operation or process on those exposed to it and
the need for local control of the contaminant. It also allows the identification of the step

MD0165 2-18
in the operation or process, which constitutes the greatest hazard, and the duration of
the hazard.

d. Determination of whom to sample is closely related to where to sample.

The most effective way to determine actual worker exposure is to collect breathing zone
samples from all workers. Some work areas have a large number of workers and
collection of breathing zone samples from all the workers is not feasible. Samples
would then be collected from the maximum risk workers. The maximum risk worker is
normally the worker closest to the source of the contaminant. Other considerations are
work patterns, work habits, worker mobility, and air movement patterns.

e. Depending upon the physical demands of the work, workers inhale from 5 to
20 cubic meters of air during an 8-hour day. However, the volume of the air sample
(and hence, the length of the sampling period) need not approach the volume of air
actually inhaled by the worker. All that is needed is a representative sample of the air,
large enough to contain sufficient contaminant to be analyzed and identified. Therefore,
the volume of the air sample (and the duration of the sampling period) will be dependent
upon the TLV of the contaminant, sensitivity of the analytical procedure to be used, and
the estimated concentration of the contaminant in the work place atmosphere. The
sample volume and flow rate is determined by using the USAEHA Sampling Guide TG
141 (see Appendix D). The duration of the sampling run depends on the flow rate of the
sampling pump and the volume required and can be calculated by using the formula:

Volume
Duration = ────────
Flow rate

f. There is no set rule for determining the number of samples needed to

evaluate a worker's exposure, provided that a minimum number characterizing the
exposure in time and space is taken. A single grab sample is never sufficient even if it
is believed that the concentration at the time of sampling will be maintained throughout
the work period. If the indicated concentration is near or above the TLV, repeated
sampling should be done. Ordinarily, contaminants are not generated at uniform rates,
so the concentration can vary from time to time. In addition, the type of contaminant
will, to some extent, dictate the number of samples to be taken as well as the type of
instrumentation to be used for sampling. The number of samples to be collected will
also depend upon the type of evaluation being conducted. If the objective is merely to
determine the presence of a contaminant, a few samples will suffice. On the other
hand, if a comprehensive survey is being conducted, more samples will be required.

g. Before we can decide when to sample, we must consider the purpose of the
evaluation (for example, what information is desired) as well as the overall nature of the
particular operation or process being evaluated. Since the concentration of contaminant
may vary considerably throughout a 24-hour period, it is necessary to take samples
during each shift of operation. In addition, when Army installations are located in areas
which experience wide seasonal variations in temperature, it may be necessary to

MD0165 2-19
sample during each of the seasonal extremes, since the demands on the ventilation
system and hence, the ability of the system to control the contaminant, may vary
considerably.

h. Closely related to the question of how long to sample, how many samples to
collect, and when to collect the samples is the matter of determining how to sample,
that is, the type of sample to be collected. In this regard, there are four general
categories of samples: spot (grab) samples, partial period samples, full period single
samples, and full period consecutive samples.

(1) Grab samples. This is a method for collecting a sample of gas or vapor.
Grab samples are also called instantaneous samples, as they are collected almost
instantaneously, that is, usually within a few seconds, although some grab samples may
be collected over a period of up to l5 minutes. A grab sample is therefore
representative of the atmospheric conditions at the sampling site at a given point in
time. Normally, at least five to seven samples should be taken, at random, except for
contaminants with a "ceiling" TLV. In this case, the samples must be taken at times
when concentrations are expected to be maximum. Evacuated flask samples, Mylar
bag samples, and detector tube samples are all examples of grab samples. Examples
of grab sample collecting devices are shown in Figures 2-1 and 2-2.

Figure 2-1. Evacuated flask for collecting grab sample.

MD0165 2-20
 Figure 2-2. Bag for collecting grab samples

(2) Partial period samples. In this kind of sampling, the sample is collected
for a portion of some standard period such as workday or shift. Partial period sampling
should not be conducted for less than 70the period of the standard (for example, 5 l/2
hours of an 8-hour work period). To collect partial period samples, it is necessary to
collect atmospheric air and pass it through a device or a series of devices in which the
contaminant can be concentrated for later analysis.

(3) Full period single samples. A full period single sample is one sample
collected continuously throughout the full period of the standard (for example, the work
shift or workday). As was the case with the partial period sample, it is necessary to
draw in atmospheric air and process it through some device (like a charcoal tube),
which collects and/or concentrates the contaminant for later analysis.

(4) Full period consecutive samples. Several samples of equal or unequal

time are taken for the full period of the standard. This sampling method yields the most
dependable results because there are no unsampled periods of time throughout the
workday. Furthermore, because there is more than one sample for the work period, it is
easier to pick out, from the results, periods or "excursions" of chemical exposure that
might exceed the STEL limits for a particular chemical. Unfortunately, because of the
number of samples that must be analyzed, generally by an analytical laboratory, this
method is the most expensive and labor-intensive sampling.

MD0165 2-21
 (5) Analysis of samples. Once air samples have been requested on
charcoal tubes, filters, and so forth, the sample media is sent to USAEHA for analysis. The
sampling form with instructions is at Appendix I. This information applies to each type of
sampling.

i. This description of sampling techniques and strategies has of necessity been

general and relatively brief. For detailed guidance on specific sampling procedures, see
USAEHA Technical Guide (TG) 141. Technical Guide 141 can be obtained by sending
a DA Form 17 to the Commander, USAEHA, Aberdeen Proving Grounds, and Maryland
21010.

2-l6. SAMPLING INSTRUMENTATION AND METHODS

a. General. In deciding upon a sampling strategy, it is important to remember

that the sampling period must be statistically significant, that is, it must provide a sample
of the exposure, which is truly representative of the exposure in time and space. The
purpose of the evaluation will be the major consideration in determining how long the
sampling period must be in order to be statistically significant. The purpose of the
evaluation, as well as the general nature of the suspected contaminant (for example,
probable concentration, gaseous, or particulate), will influence the choice of sampling
technique and/or equipment, which will fall into one of the following categories.

b. Gases and Vapors.

(1) In the case of soluble contaminants, absorption devices may also collect
samples. These devices concentrate the contaminant by dissolving it in some medium;
bubblers and impinges (see Figure 2-3) are examples of such devices. They are used in
conjunction with some form of pump or suction device, which captures the air-gas
mixture and brings it into the absorption device where it is impinged on a receptive
liquid. In using such a device, it is necessary to know the rate at which the air-gas
mixture was collected (flow rate) and the duration of the sampling period, in order to
determine the volume of air from which the contaminant was extracted.

MD0165 2-22
 Figure 2-3. Absorption devices for collecting gaseous or vapor forms
of soluble contaminants. Gas washing (A and B); helical (C);
fretted bubbler (D); glass-bead contaminants (E).

(2) In the case of insoluble contaminants, adsorption devices such as

charcoal tubes and silica gel tubes (see Figures 2-4 and 2-5) can be used to collect and
concentrate the contaminant, for further analysis. These devices use a medium, to the
surface of which the contaminant adheres. Again, it will be necessary to keep accurate
data on the flow rate of the pump and the duration of the sampling period, in order to
determine the volume of the sample.

MD0165 2-23
 Figure 2-4. Charcoal tube for collecting insoluble contaminants.

Figure 2-5. Cyclone/filter holder assembly and sampling pump.

MD0165 2-24
 (3) When sampling gas/vapor contaminants, it is possible to use direct
reading devices that do not require subsequent laboratory analysis. One such device is
the detector tube (see Figure 2-6), which is accurate to plus or minus 25 physical
principles (e.g., heat of oxidation and wavelength of light) to obtain direct indications of
the concentration of contaminant. These are limited to use with certain specific
contaminants. Examples of this kind of instrument are carbon monoxide monitor (see
Figures 2-7 and 2-8).

Figure 2-6. Precision piston gas detector system (A); cut away view of automatic
precision hand pump (B); bellows pump with detector tube and
stroke counter (C); and cut away view of bellows pump (D).

MD0165 2-25
 Figure 2-7. Portable carbon monoxide monitor.

Figure 2-8. Infrared analyzer for general-purpose gas

analyzer and portable gas analyzer.

c. Particles. Contaminants in the form of particulate may be sampled in several

ways, depending on the size of the individual particles.

(1) Impingement or impactors. These devices require a means of collecting

atmospheric air (such as a pump), which forces the air into the device, where the
particles strike various surfaces due to inertia, and are collected on these surfaces.
Such devices sometimes employ a medium, on which the particles impinge and are

MD0165 2-26
collected. These devices may also be single-staged or multistage (for example, consist
of two or more devices connected in tandem).

(2) Filtration. In many cases, drawing contaminated air through a filter

medium and collecting the particulate contaminant is the preferred method. Filtration
devices allowing a range of sampling rates (high volume or low volume) are available.
A variety of filter materials are used, including polyvinylchloride (PVC), cellulose ester
(CE), and glass fiber (GF). The filter medium chosen will depend to some extent on the
size of the individual particles of contaminant (see Figures 2-5 and 2-9).

Figure 2-9. Filters.

(3) Respirable dust sampling. Some standards are based upon the dust
being of respirable size, meaning the dust will not be filtered out before reaching the air
sacs in the lungs. In this case, a cyclone is utilized before the filter, which slows the
dust down, to enable the filter to capture it (see Figure 2-5).

(4) Precipitators. Electrostatic precipitators are frequently used to collect

samples of contaminants occurring in the form of fumes. They are very efficient when
collecting particles smaller than 1 micron in diameter. Electrostatic or electric
precipitation differs from particle collection mechanisms in that the forces acting to
separate the particles from the gas in which they are suspended are electric rather than
inertial or thermal. Charged particles passing through the precipitator are attracted to
oppositely charged plates or tubes. Electrostatic precipitators can be extremely
hazardous in potentially explosive environments.

d. The Sampling Train. Discussions thus far have borne on various devices
used in sampling the air in the worker's environment. In actual practice, these devices
are interconnected in a certain order to obtain the desired sample; this interconnection
of instruments and devices is known as a sampling train (see Figure 2-10). A sampling
train for particulate would consist of these critical elements, in this order: an inlet orifice
(opening); particulate separator (filter, precipitator, impinge, and so forth); air flow meter

MD0165 2-27
(to determine flow rate); flow rate control valve; and suction pump. The suction pumps
will require some sort of power supply; some particulate separators also require an
additional source of electrical power. A sampling train for gas or vapor would be similar,
except that some type of absorption or adsorption device would replace the particulate
separator. Refer again to Figure 2-5 for an example of a sampling train, in this instance,
assembled to sample for respirable dust).

e. Calibration. The accurate analysis of a contaminant's concentration in the

work environment is possible only if the volume of the air sample can be accurately
determined and the efficiency of the collection device maintained at its maximum. For
these reasons, frequent calibration of all equipment is essential. While it is important for
you to be aware of this requirement, you will probably not be required to be able to
actually calibrate the equipment. A detailed discussion of calibration techniques is
beyond the scope of this subcourse.

Section IV. RESPIRATORY PROTECTIVE DEVICES

2-l7. GENERAL

One of the major routes of entry for toxic substances is through inhalation.
Almost every industry has some form of respiratory hazard associated with it. Industrial
type operations carried out on Army installations have hazards too. In the field of
industrial hygiene, our primary concern is to protect the worker from exposure to
hazardous situations in the work environment. One method of eliminating an inhalation
exposure is to place a barrier between the worker's respiratory tract and the hazardous
environment. You may recall that in lesson l we referred to Pliney the Elder, who, in 60
AD, reported that a goat's bladder placed over the face could protect workers from the
hazard of working with lead (the bladder is a barrier between the worker's respiratory
tract and the hazardous environment). Respirator design has come a long way since
that time; however, the improper use of a respirator or the selection of the wrong one
can leave a worker with a false sense of security, and possibly less protection than he
might get with a goat's bladder. As a preventive medicine specialist, you may be called
upon to evaluate the use of respirators and to train employees in their proper selection,
use, and maintenance.

MD0165 2-28
 Figure 2-l0. Calibration setup of a sampling train.

2-l8. TYPE OF RESPIRATORS

Industrial respiratory protective devices have been designed, tested, and

approved for protection against specific industrial exposures. These devices have been
grouped for convenience into two general classifications according to mode of
operation. The two basic groups are the atmospheres supplying respirators and the air
purifying respirators. The choice of respirator for a given situation will depend upon a
number of factors, which will be discussed in paragraph 2-22. Detailed information on
these general classes of respirators is provided in succeeding paragraphs.

2-19. AIR-PURIFYING RESPIRATORS

a. General Description. Air-purifying respirators can be half mask, quarter

mask, full-face piece, or mouthpiece styles equipped with air purifying units to remove
gases, vapors, and particulate matter from the ambient air prior to its inhalation (see
Figure 2-11). Some air purifying respirators are "breathing assisted" (blower operated)
and provide respirable air to the face piece (or hood) under a light positive pressure.
These are often referred to as "powered air-purifying respirators" or "PAPR."

b. General Limitations. Air-purifying respirators do not protect against oxygen

deficient atmospheres or against skin irritation by, or absorption through the skin of,
airborne contaminants. The designed efficiency and capacity of the cartridge, canister,
or filter for the contaminant and the measured concentration of the contaminant at the
work site determine the maximum contaminant concentration, against which an air-
purifying respirator will protect. Since air-purifying respirators may not have an end of

MD0165 2-29
 Figure 2-11 Air purifying respirator.

service indicator, they may not be used for contaminants that have poor odor warning
properties. The maximum concentration for which the air-purifying unit is effective is
specified by applicable Federal occupational health standards. Respirators will not
provide the maximum design protection specified unless the face piece is carefully fitted
to the wearer's face to prevent inward leakage. Fit testing is a requirement of Federal
Law and Army regulation. The time period over which protection is provided is
dependent on canister, cartridge, or filter type, concentration and physical state of
contaminant, and the wearer’s respiratory rate. The proper type of canister, cartridge,
or filter must be selected for the particular atmosphere and condition. Air purifying
respirators may cause discomfort and objectionable resistance to breathing. Respirator
face pieces present special problems to individuals required to wear prescription lenses,
and those individuals who have a profile on shaving. Army Regulation 11-34, The Army
Respiratory Protection Program specifically prohibits unshaven personnel (especially
having beards) from working in environments where wearing a respirator is required.
This requirement is also an OSHA mandate.

c. Gas and Vapor-Removing Respirators.

(1) General description . See Figure 2-12. Packed solvent beds (cartridge or canister)
remove single gases or vapors (for example, chlorine gas), a single class of gases or vapors (for
example, organic vapors) or a combination of two or more classes of gases and vapors
(for example, acid gases, organic vapors, ammonia, and carbon monoxide) by
absorption, chemical reaction or catalysis or a combination of these methods.

MD0165 2-30
 Figure 2-12. Gas mask.

(2) General limitations. No protection is provided against particulate

contaminants, unless specified on canister or cartridge label. A rise in canister or
cartridge temperature indicates that a gas or vapor is being removed from the inspired
air. This is not a reliable indicator of canister performance. An uncomfortably high
temperature indicates a high concentration of gas or vapor and signals a potentially very
hazardous environment, which requires a different form of respiratory protection.

(3) Gas masks. Gas masks include all completely assembled air
purifying masks that are designed for use as respiratory protection during entry into
atmospheres not immediately dangerous to life or health or escape only from
hazardous atmospheres. Gas masks are further described according to the types of
gases or vapors they remove. They may be front mounted and back mounted
(consisting of a full face piece, a canister which is usually attached to the face piece,
and associated connections).

(b) Limitations. Gas masks shall be used only for escape from (not
entry into) immediately dangerous to life or health (IDLH) atmospheres and shall not be
used against gases or vapors with poor warning properties or which generate high
heats or reaction with solvent materials in the canister. In addition, eye protection may
be required when escape type gas masks are used. In general, gas masks have only

MD0165 2-31
been tested and approved against certain contaminants. See Table 2-1 for a
description of the label that is required on the canister of all gas masks, and Table 2-2
for the color code used for gas mask canisters.

(4) Chemical cartridge respirators.

(a) Description. Chemical cartridge respirators (see Figure 2-13)

include all completely assembled respirators which are designed for use as respiratory
protection during entry into or escape from atmospheres not immediately dangerous to
life and health, and are described according to the specific gases or vapors against
which they are designed to provide respiratory protection (see Table 2-3). Each device
may contain the following component parts, as appropriate: face pieces (half mask or
full), mouthpiece, hood or helmet, cartridge, with filter, harness, breathing tube, and
attached blower.

1. On each canister shall appear in bold letters the following on

the most conspicuous surface or surfaces of the canister:

Canister for • • • • • • • • • •

(Name for atmospheric contaminant)

In addition, essentially the following wording shall appear beneath

the appropriate phase on the canister label: "For respiratory
protection in atmospheres containing not more than.
percent by volume of. ”

2. Canisters having a special high-efficiency filter for protection

against radio nuclides and other highly toxic particulates shall be
labeled with a statement of the type and degree of protection afforded
by the filter. The label shall be affixed to the neck end of, or to
the gray stripe, which is around and near the top of, the canister.
The degree of protection shall be marked as the percent of penetration
of the canister by a 0.3-micron diameter dioctyl phthalate (DOP) smoke
at a flow rate of 85 liters per minute.

3. Each canister shall have a label warning that gas masks should be
used only in atmospheres that are not oxygen deficient (at least 19.5
percent oxygen by volume at sea level), since gas mask canisters are
only designed to neutralize or remove contaminants from the air.

Table 2-1. Labels for gas mask canisters.

MD0165 2-32
 Type of Atmospheric Contaminant* Color Code │

Acid gases White

Acid gases, ammonia, carbon monoxide, and organic vapors Red

Acid gases, ammonia, and organic vapors Brown

Acid gases and organic vapors Yellow

Ammonia gas Green

Carbon monoxide gas Blue

Organic vapors Black

Other vapors and gases not listed above Olive

Radioactive materials (except tritium and noble gases) Purple

Dusts, fumes, and mists (other than radioactive material) Orange

* A purple or orange stripe on any cartridge or canister signifies

that contaminant is contained within, regardless of percentage.

* If only the labels are color-coded as above, then the canister or cartridge
body is to be gray or natural metallic color.

* Wording on the label will tell you the contaminant contained within and
the degree of protection it will give you.

Table 2-2. Color-coding for cartridges and gas mask canisters.

MD0165 2-33
 Type of Chemical Maximum Use Concentration
Cartridge Respirator Parts Per Million (PPM)

Ammonia 600

Chlorine 10

Hydrogen Chloride 50

Methyl Amine l00

Organic Vapor* l,000

Sulfur Dioxide 50

*Not for use against organic vapors with poor warning properties or those
which generate high heats or reaction with solvent material in the cartridge.

*Maximum use concentrations are lower for organic vapors that produce
atmospheres immediately hazardous to life or health at concentrations
equal to or lower than this concentration.

Table 2-3. Maximum concentration of gas and vapor for

chemical cartridge respirators.

Figure 2-13. Chemical cartridge respirator.

MD0165 2-34
 (b) Limitations. Chemical cartridge respirators shall not be used in
atmospheres immediately dangerous to life or health and will be limited to the maximum
concentration of gases and vapors as specified on the cartridge (also see specific
standard for exposure to chemical or chemicals in question). Some chemical cartridges
are listed in Table 2-4. In addition, in the case of the half mask face piece, no protection
is provided for the eyes. The nose clip on mouthpiece style respirators shall be
securely in place to prevent nasal breathing. No protection is provided to the eyes.

NSN Respirator

4240─01─259─4573 * Respirator, air filtering, for pesticides

(Respirator furnished with 50 cartridges and
100 filters

4240─01─108─4171 * Respirator, air filtering, for dusts (Respirator

furnished with 50 filters)

4240─01─259─4575 * Respirator, air filtering, for metal fumes

(Respirator furnished with l00 filters, or 50
filters depending on whether the mask is dual
or single element)

4240─01─259─4577 * Respirator, air filtering, for paint spray

(Respirator furnished with l00 or 50 cartridges
and filters)

4240─0l─259─4576 * Respirator, air filtering, for organic vapors

(Respirator furnished with l00 or 50 cartridges)

Table 2-4. Air purifying respirators and gas masks available in the
Federal supply system.

d. Dust, Fume, and Mist Respirators (Particulate Respirators).

(1) Description. These respirators include all completely assembled

respirators designed for use as respiratory protection during entry into and escape from
hazardous particulate atmospheres that contain adequate oxygen to support life.
Devices may be attached to a powered blower. Each device may contain mouthpiece
with nose clip, hood, helmet, filter unit, harness, attached blower, and breathing tube.
These devices are further described as follows:

MD0165 2-35
 (a) Respirators, either with replaceable or reusable filters, designed as
respiratory protection against dusts, fumes, and mists having maximum acceptable
exposure limits not less than 0.05 milligram per cubic meter (mg/m3) of air.

(b) Respirators, with replaceable filters, designed as respiratory

protection against dust, fumes, and mists having maximum acceptable exposure limits
less than 0.05 mg/m3.

(c) Respirators, with replaceable filters, designed as respirator

protection against radon daughters, and radon daughters attached to dusts, fumes, and
mists.

(d) Respirators, with replaceable filters, designed as respirator

protection against asbestos containing dusts and mists. The Federal Asbestos
Standard (29 CFR 1910.1000) is very specific about respirators to be used for asbestos
handling.

(e) Single use dust respirators designed for protection against

pneumoconiosis and fibrous producing dusts, or dusts and mists, including asbestos.

(2) Limitations.

(a) General. Protect against nonvolatile particles only. No protection

against gases and vapors. The filter shall be replaced or cleaned when breathing
becomes difficult due to plugging by retained particles. These respirators shall not be
used during shot and sand blasting operations.

(b) Half mask face pieces. Fabric coverings are only permissible in
atmospheres of coarse dust and mists of low toxicity. No protection is provided to the
eyes.

(c) Mouthpiece respirator. Nose clip shall be firmly in place to prevent

nasal breathing. Mouth breathing prevents the detection of any incidental vapor
contaminants by odor. No protection is provided for the eyes.

e. Combination Gas, Vapor, and Particulate Removing Respirators.

(1) Description. These respirators include all the devices discussed having
either canisters or cartridges with filters for protection against dusts, mists, fumes,
gases, and vapors. These include respirators that have been tested against lacquer
and enamel mists (paint spray respirators).

(2) Limitations. With the exception that these devices protect against
gases, vapors, and particulates, the limitations of the other devices would also apply to
the combination device.

MD0165 2-36
 f. Pesticide Respirators.

(1) Description. Pesticide respirators include all completely assembled

respirators that are designed for use as respiratory protection during entry into and
escape from atmospheres containing pesticide hazards. These would include the
following types:

(a) Front or back mounted gas masks.

(b) Chin style gas masks.

(c) Chemical cartridge respirator.

(d) Air purifying respirator with attached blower.

(e) Combination devices.

(2) Limitations. Limitations previously discussed for each type of device will
also apply, in general, to pesticide respirators.

NOTE: See Table 2-4 for a list of air purifying respirators and gas masks available in
the federal supply system.

2-20. ATMOSPHERE-SUPPLYING RESPIRATORS

See Figure 2-14 for air supply and self-contained respirators.

a. General Description. A respirable atmosphere is supplied independent of

the ambient air surrounding the wearer. These devices provide protection against
oxygen deficiency and most toxic atmospheres.

b. General Limitations. Except for the supplied air suit, no protection is

provided against skin irritation by materials such as ammonia and hydrochloric acid
(HCl), or against absorption of materials such as hydro cyanic acid (HCN), tritium, or
organic phosphate pesticides through the skin. Face pieces present special problems
to individuals required to wear prescription lenses.

MD0165 2-37
 Figure 2─l4. Air-line respirator (A) and self-contained respirator (B).

c. Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus

(1) Description. The self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) includes all

completely assembled, portable, self-contained devices designed for use as respiratory
protection during entry into and escape from or escape only from hazardous
atmospheres.

(a) Open circuit apparatus. An apparatus from which exhalation is

vented to the atmosphere and not re-breathed. This may be demand type apparatus (in
which the pressure inside the face piece in relation to the immediate environment is
positive during exhalation and negative during inhalation), or it may be pressure
demand type apparatus (in which the pressure inside the face piece in relation to the
immediate environment is positive during both inhalation and exhalation).

(b) Closed-circuit apparatus. An apparatus of the type in which the

exhalation is rebreathed by the wearer after the carbon dioxide has been effectively
removed and a suitable oxygen concentration restored from sources composed of
compressed, chemical, liquid oxygen, or an oxygen generation solid.

(2) Limitations.

(a) General. Use is permissible in IDLH atmospheres. The period

over which the device will provide protection is limited by the amount of air or oxygen in

MD0165 2-38
the apparatus, the ambient atmospheric pressure (service life is cut in half by a doubling
of the atmospheric pressure), and workload. A warning device shall be provided to
indicate to the wearer when the service life has been reduced to a low level. Some
SCBA devices have a short service life (few minutes) and are suitable only for escape
(self rescue) from a non-respirable atmosphere. Chief limitations of SCBA devices are
their weight or bulk or both, limited service life, and the training required for their
maintenance and safe use.

(b) Closed circuit apparatus. The closed circuit operation conserves

oxygen and permits longer service life.

(c) Open circuit demand and pressure demand. The demand type
produces a negative pressure in the face piece on inhalation whereas the pressure
demand type maintains a positive pressure in the face piece and is less apt to permit
inward leakage of contaminants.

d. Supplied-Air Respirators.

(1) Description. Supplied-air respirators include all completely assembled

respirators designed for use during entry into or escape from hazardous atmospheres.
The respirable air supply in not limited to the quantity an individual can carry, thus the
devices are lightweight and relatively simple.

(a) Type "A" supplied air respirator. A hose mask respirator for entry
into and escape from atmospheres not immediately dangerous to life or health which
consist of a motor driven or hand operated blower that permits the free entrance of air
when the blower is not operating, a strong large diameter hose having a low resistance
to airflow, a harness to which the hose and the lifeline are attached and a tight fitting
face piece.

(b) Type "B" supplied air respirator. A hose mask respirator, for entry
into and escape from atmospheres not immediately dangerous to life or health, which
consists of a strong, large diameter hose with low resistance to airflow through which
the user draws inspired air by means of his lungs alone, a harness to which the hose is
attached, and a tight fitting face piece.

(c) Type "C" supplied air respirator. An airline respirator, for entry into
and escape from atmospheres not immediately dangerous to life or health, which
consists of a source of respirable breathing air, a hose, a detachable coupling, a control
valve, orifice, demand valve or pressure demand valve, an arrangement for attaching
the hose to the wearer, and a face piece, hood, or helmet.

(d) Types "AE," "BE," and "CE" supplied air respirators. Types "A," "B,"
or "C" supplied-air respirator equipped with additional devices designed to protect the
wearer's head and neck against impact and abrasion, and with shielding material to

MD0165 2-39
protect the window(s) of face pieces, hoods, and helmets which do not unduly interfere
with the wearer's vision and permit easy access to the external surface of such
window(s) for cleaning.

(2) Limitations.

(a) General. The wearer is restricted in movement by the hose or air

line and must return to a respirable atmosphere by retracing his route of entry. The
hose or air line is subject to being severed or pinched off.

(b) Type "A" hose mask respirator with blower. If the blower fails, the
units still provide an air supply and sufficient protection to permit the wearer to escape
although a negative pressure exists in the face piece during inhalation. Use is not
permissible in atmospheres immediately dangerous to life or health.

(c) Type "B" hose mask without blower. If the air supply fails, no
protection is provided the wearer. Limited to use in atmospheres not immediately
dangerous to life or health and from which the wearer can escape unharmed without aid
of the respirator.

(d) Type "C" air line respirators (continuous flow, demand, and
pressure demand types). The demand type produces a negative pressure in the face
piece on inhalation whereas continuous flow and pressure demand types maintain a
positive pressure in the face piece at all times and are less apt to permit inward leakage
of contaminants. Demand flow air-line respirators are for use in atmospheres
immediately dangerous to life or health, provided an auxiliary self-contained air supply is
worn to permit escape if the air supply fails.

2-21. COMBINATION ATMOSPHERE-SUPPLYING AND AIR-PURIFYING

RESPIRATORS

Combination respirators will usually be made up on an air line respirator with an

air purifying attachment to protect the worker if the air line should fail; or, they may be
air-purifying respirators with small cylinders attached in case contaminant
concentrations exceed the capabilities of the air-purifying respirator. In assessing the
capabilities of combination respirators, limitations of the respective individual
components will determine the overall limitations of the combination. In other words,
the part (component) with the greater limitation will determine the overall limitations,
since the wearer may not change over, even if conditions should require it.

2-22. SELECTING THE PROPER RESPIRATORY PROTECTIVE DEVICE

Selection of the appropriate type of respiratory protective device is essential if the

health of the worker is to be protected. The following criteria should be considered
when making selections:

MD0165 2-40
 a. Nature of Hazard. Identify the substance or substances against which
protection is required. Determine the hazards and significant properties of each
substance. Determine the physical state in which the contaminant is likely to occur. Is
the hazard one of oxygen deficiency, or is it dangerous to life and health? This is the
first and over riding consideration.

b. Conditions of Exposure. Determine the conditions of exposure, the

potential exposure, and the reliable exposure (determines the TWA) present. What is
the location of the hazard? What will be the duration of the exposure?

c. Safety Requirements. What are the specific requirements for protection of

the eyes, face, and so forth? Are there human capabilities that are essential to the safe use of
the devices?

d. Movement Required. What is the range of worker movement necessary for

accomplishment on the job? What are the entry and exit (egress) requirements?

e. Decision Logic. Appendix F contains a guide for selection of respirators.

NOTE: There is one limitation that should be kept in mind, as it affects all respiratory
protective devices: Certain gases can harm the body by means other than through the
respiratory tract. For example, ammonia, in a sufficiently high concentration, can cause
skin burns, particularly on moist skin. As a result, suitable protective clothing would
have to be worn, in addition to the proper respirator.

2-23. INSTRUCTION IN RESPIRATOR USE

If respirators are to be safely used, the workers must be thoroughly instructed

and trained in their selection, use, and maintenance. Both workers and supervisor must
be trained, and only persons fully competent in the use of the devices should be allowed
to conduct the training. As a minimum, the training must include:

a. Instruction in the nature of the hazard, along with an honest appraisal of the
consequences if the respirator is not used.

b. Explanation of why the respirator is needed and why it is not possible to

employ more positive control in the work area. Worker acceptance will be enhanced if
there is recognition that every reasonable effort is being made to reduce or eliminate the
need for respirators.

c. Explanation of the basis for selection of the particular respirator. The training
must include instructions covering the fitting of respirator on personnel with special
problems, such as facial hair, eyeglasses, deep cuts, scars, or irregular facial features
(for example, hollow temples, dentures, lack of teeth, and so forth.).

MD0165 2-41
 d. A discussion of the respirator's capabilities and limitations.

e. Instruction and training in the actual use of the respirator. This must include
hands on training during which workers are provided an opportunity to handle the
respirator, fit it properly, test its face piece to face seal, wear it in a test atmosphere.
Training must include that required to recognize and cope with emergency situations; it
must also include the requirement that respirator face piece shall be checked for fit each
time they are worn.

2-24. ASSIGNMENT OF RESPIRATORS TO PERSONNEL

Each job, which requires the use of a respirator, should have the correct
respirator specified for that job. Selection of the respirator should be made by the
supervisory personnel, using guidance provided by the Installation Medical Authority
(IMA), the Installation Respirator Program Director (IRPD), and the Installation
Respirator Specialist (IRS). Care should be taken that when a worker has been fitted
with a particular style and size of mask and instructed in its use and capabilities,
substitutions for that particular respirator must not be made. Respirators permanently
assigned to an individual worker must be durably and legibly marked with the
individual’s name. The date of issuance should be centrally recorded and maintained
by the responsible individual for the overall respiratory protection program.

2-25. MAINTENANCE AND CLEANING

a. Routinely used respirators must be cleaned and disinfected as frequently as

necessary to ensure that the workers are provided the proper protection. This is
generally after the workers have been thoroughly briefed on the cleaning procedure, so
that they will be confident of always receiving a clean, disinfected respirator. This is
doubly important when respirators are not individually assigned. Those respirators
maintained for emergency use must be cleaned and disinfected after every use.

b. The following cleaning and disinfecting procedures are recommended:

(1) Remove any filters, cartridges, or canisters.

(2) Wash face piece and breathing tube in cleaner disinfectant or detergent
solution. Cleaner disinfectant solutions are available which effectively clean the
respirator and also contain a bactericidal agent. As an alternative, respirators may be
washed in a liquid detergent solution and then immersed either in a hypo-chloride
solution for 2 minutes or an aqueous iodine solution for 2 minutes, or a quaternary
ammonium solution. A hand brush may be used to facilitate the removal of dirt.
Because some of these disinfecting agents may age rubber parts and corrode metal
parts, immersion times should be kept to a minimum and all disinfectants thoroughly
drained from the parts.

MD0165 2-42
 (3) Rinse completely in clean, warm water. Because some disinfectants
can damage rubber, elastomer, or metal parts, and because quaternary ammonium
solutions can even cause dermatitis if not rinsed completely from the respirator, the
importance of through rinsing cannot be stressed too strongly.

(4) Air-dry the part in a clean area.

(5) Clean other respirator parts as recommended by the manufacturer.

(6) Inspect valves, head straps, and other parts for wear and/or damage;
replace with new parts if defective.

(7) Insert new filters, cartridges, or canisters; ensure that all seals are tight.

(8) Place in plastic bag or container for storage.

c. Repairs to respirators or replacement of parts should only be done by the

Installation Respirator Specialist or other experienced personnel, using parts designed
for the particular respirator. Repairs, adjustments, or parts replacement beyond the
manufacturer's recommendations should not be attempted. Regulators and reducing
admission valves are particularly critical parts and should be returned to the
manufacturer or to a trained technician for adjustments or repair.

CAUTION: Improper disposal of an oxygen generating canister from a closed

circuit SCBA is dangerous. Maintenance personnel should consult
manufacturer's instructions or the National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health (NIOSH) TG.

2-26. INSPECTION

a. Respirators should be inspected routinely before and after each use.

Respirators that are not routinely used, such as those kept ready for emergency use,
should be inspected after each use and regularly (monthly, at the minimum) to ensure
that they are in proper working condition. Self-contained breathing apparatus should
also be checked monthly, and air/oxygen cylinders kept fully charged in accordance
with the manufacturer's specifications. Regulator and warning devices must be checked
carefully to ensure that they function correctly. Complete records of inspection date and
findings must be kept for respirators maintained for emergency use.

b. When inspecting respirators, be sure to check the tightness of connectors and

the condition of the face piece, headbands, valves, connecting tubes, and canisters.
During the inspection, respirators should also be checked for leaks. Rubber and soft-
formed material (elastomer) parts must be inspected for pliability and signs of
deterioration. It is helpful to stretch and manipulate rubber and elastomer parts with a
massaging action. This keeps them pliable and flexible and prevents them from
assuming an undesirable "set" during storage.

MD0165 2-43
2-27. STORAGE

a. After respirators are inspected, cleaned, and repaired, they should be

properly stored to protect them against the undesirable effect of dust, sunlight, heat,
extreme cold, damaging chemicals, excessive moisture, or mechanical damage.
Respirators that are routinely used, such as dust respirators, may be kept in plastic
bags between uses. Respirators should not be stored in lockers or toolboxes unless
they are in carrying cases or cartons designed expressly for that purpose.

b. Frequently, respirators are kept at work areas or stations for emergency use.
In such cases, they should be stored in compartments built for the purpose, quickly
accessible at all times, and clearly marked.

c. No matter where they may be stored, respirators should be packed so that

the face piece and exhalation value will rest in a normal position,
thereby preventing the softer materials used in these parts from assuming
shapes or positions that might impair their functions.

2-28. PROGRAM SURVEILLANCE AND EVALUATION

If respiratory protection for workers in a hazardous environment is to be effective,

there must be continuous surveillance and evaluation of the program. This surveillance
and evaluation is the shared responsibility of supervisors and the IRPD with guidance
from the IMA. It will entail active monitoring of the issuing, storage, maintenance,
inspection, and utilization of respirators, as well as evaluation of the effectiveness of the
training provided to users. Records of inspection should be checked periodically to
ensure that inspections are being conducted when required and that they are achieving
their purpose.

2-29. MEDICAL EXAMINATIONS

Pre-employment medical examinations are normally required for all personnel.

Those workers who work in potentially hazardous environments, and especially those
who work in environments which require the use of reparatory protective devices,
should be given additional medical examinations, to ensure that the devices are
adequately protecting the health of the workers and to determine the effects of their
environment on the workers. These examinations should be given as frequently as
deemed necessary by the medical authority, but should be given at least annually.
During the annual examination, in addition to the pulmonary function test, blood and
urine should be tested.

MD0165 2-44
2-30. APPROVING AGENCIES

At one time, the US Bureau of Mines was the governmental agency responsible
for approval of respirators. The NIOSH and the Mine Safety and Health Administration
(MSHA) have assumed this responsibility. Manufacturers of respirators are to submit
respirators to NIOSH for testing and certifying. When a respirator is found to be
satisfactory for use against a specific contaminant and concentration, NIOSH issues it a
"TC" number indicating that it has been "tested and certified" with Federal Law.
Thereafter, it must be used as a unit as certified. If it requires any replacement parts,
they must be replaced by parts identical to those being replaced.

Continue with Exercises

MD0165 2-45
EXERCISES, LESSON 2

INSTRUCTIONS: Answer the following exercises by marking the lettered response that
best answers the exercise, by completing the incomplete statement, or by writing the
answer in the space provided at the end of the exercise.

After you have completed all of these exercises, turn to "Solutions to Exercises" at
the end of the lesson and check your answers. For each exercise answered incorrectly,
reread the material referenced with the solution.

1. The gas that constitutes one of the most serious occupational hazards is
______________________________________.

2. In which state is a chemical hazard classified if it is a fluid, which has neither

independent shape nor volume but tends to expand indefinitely?

a. Liquid.

b. Mist.

c. Gas.

d. Fume.

3. A metal toxic fume is:

a. Sulfide.

b. Iron.

c. Lead.

d. Iron sulfide.

4. List three examples of organic solvents that vaporize easily.

a. ___________________________________.

b. ___________________________________.

c. ___________________________________.

MD0165 2-46
5. Which particles are finely divided solids resulting from crushing, grinding, or
abrading?

a. Solids.

b. Dust.

c. Liquids.

d. Gases.

6. Which part of the body, with its thick layers of cells and its secretions, is almost
impervious to chemical agents? However, certain chemicals, such as solvents
and gases, can penetrate this barrier.

a. The skin.

b. Excretory system.

c. Respiratory system.

7. For all practical purposes, mists and vapors are the same.

a. True.

b. False.

8. Which potential chemical hazard is most likely to be formed during the heating of
metals?

a. Solid.

b. Dust.

c. Mist.

d. Fume.

MD0165 2-47
9. Liquids are fluids characterized by particles that move freely, without a tendency to
separate from one another as in the case with a gas. What are examples of mist
liquids?

a. Benzol and carbon tetrachloride.

b. Lead and mercury.

c. Insecticide and water.

d. Oil and vinegar.

10. The most common route of entry to the body for a chemical agent is through
ingestion.

a. True.

b. False.

11. The human tracheobronchial system is lined with short hairs known as
______________________.

12. Name the two body organs that play the major role in extracting and expelling
chemicals:

a. ______________________.

b. ______________________.

13. The skin offers virtually no resistance to the entry of harmful chemicals into the
body.

a. True.

b. False.

MD0165 2-48
14. Select the chemical asphyxiants that render the body incapable of utilizing an
adequate oxygen supply (because they replace the oxygen in the air or interfere
with the body's oxygen transfer mechanism).

a. Carbon monoxide (automobile fumes) and cyanides.

b. Nitrogen and nitrous oxide (laughing gas used by dentists).

c. Carbon dioxide (gas produced by plants), hydrogen, and helium.

d. Methane (gases from marshes and mines) and ethane (natural gases and
fumes).

e. All of the above.

f. Both a and c.

15. An anesthetic may be used during surgery as a depressant to the central nervous
system, particularly the brain. However, an anesthetic is a chemical that is
potentially hazard in that its:

a. Effectiveness depends upon the effective concentration in the brain.

b. Degree of anesthetic action depends upon the effective concentration in the

brain as well as upon the specific pharmacological action.

c. Potency of simple alcohols rises with increasing number of carbon atoms up to

amyl alcohol, which is the most powerful of the series.

d. All of the above.

16. List four examples of systemic poisons.

a. _________________________.

b. _________________________.

c. _________________________.

d. _________________________.

MD0165 2-49
17. The toxicity of a chemical may be affected by all of the following except:

a. Volatility.

b. Particle size.

c. Color.

d. Density.

18. The physical condition of a worker has no effect on the toxicity of a chemical agent
to which he might be exposed.

a. True.

b. False.

19. List two environmental factors that can affect the toxicity of a chemical agent.

a. ___________________.

b. ___________________.

20. What gas damages the lungs but only slightly irritates the upper respiratory tract?
_____________________________________-

21. What is the best prevention and control of irritant gases?

a. Aerate the area.

b. Good engineering design and strong willed employees.

c. Protective equipment and better rooms.

d. Protective equipment and good engineering design and maintenance of the

equipment on the job.

MD0165 2-50
22. Which one of the following does NOT produce carbon monoxide?

a. Operation of internal combustion engines.

b. Explosion of dynamite.

c. Incomplete burning of natural gas.

d. Photosynthesis of plants.

23. Carbon monoxide interferes with the function of _________________which is to

transport _________________________to the body tissues.

24. What type of gas can accidentally be produced when chemicals called chlorinated
hydrocarbons come into contact with a flame, hot metal, or any other heat source?

a. Carbon monoxide.

b. Nitroglycerine.

c. Carbon dioxide.

d. Nitrogen dioxide.

25. Which toxic colorless gas will quickly cause systemic poisoning, hyperpnoea on
the nervous system and immediate respiratory paralysis, without warning, and
unless the victim is removed to fresh air within a very few minutes and breathing
stimulated or induced by artificial respiration, death will occur?

a. Ammonia.

b. Nitrogen dioxide.

c. Hydrogen sulfide.

d. Carbon dioxide.

MD0165 2-51
26. Chemicals, found at most industrial type jobs and homes, contain harmful organic
liquid chemical properties, which may present a _________________ military
occupational hazard to soldiers.

a. Possible.

b. Significant.

c. Mediocre.

d. Remote.

27. More specifically, ____________ are good examples of the liquid chemicals which
are widespread in their use and which constitute some of the most dangerous
occupational hazards.

28. Most organic compounds can be vaporized very easily; in fact,

a. Some vaporize at room temperature.

b. When metal machine parts are removed for repair or cleaning, their lubricating
oils and greases are immersed in the vapor of solvents will give off vaporous
fumes.

c. When open top containers house organic compounds, various amounts of

vapor will evolve, depending upon the type of solvent and its temperature.

d. All of the above.

e. None of the above.

29. Dermatitis is one of the most important occupational diseases and the effect of
chemicals on the skin may be caused by:

a. A sensitizing effect.

b. An irritant effect.

c. Both a and b.

d. None of the above.

MD0165 2-52
30. Which is the most important of the occupational diseases for time lost from the job
but usually not severe enough to warrant permanent disability?

a. Nervous system effect.

b. Skin diseases.

c. Cancer-producing liquid chemical.

d. Respiratory diseases from ingesting unsafe water.

31. The three types of measures used for the prevention and control of illnesses
arising from exposure to liquid chemicals are __________ control, __________
control, and _____________ control.

32. Personal control measures for the prevention and control of illnesses arising from
liquid chemicals are limited to the use of _______________, ________________,
and ________________.

33. Which organic insecticide solvent acts directly on the brain causing tremors,
dizziness, and convulsions?

a. Methyl chloroform.

b. Chlorinated hydrocarbons like DDT.

c. Ammonia.

` d. Sodium carbonate.

34. When a "ceiling" limit is assigned to certain toxic substances, it should:

a. Exceed when the threshold limit is reached.

b. Not be exceeded under any circumstances.

c. Change as circumstances change.

d. Be removed for fast acting substances.

MD0165 2-53
35. List three of the sample locations that may be used, depending upon the type of
evaluation desired, when performing sampling techniques.

a. ____________________.

b. ____________________.

c. ____________________.

36. Which of the following sampling devices is NOT a direct readout device of gases
and vapors?

a. Portable carbon monoxide monitor and dector tube.

b. Infrared analyzer and charcoal tube.

c. Charcoal tube and silica gel tube.

d. Fritted bubbler and infrared analyzer.

37. The number of air samples to be collected will depend upon the type of evaluation
being conducted and what is necessary to effectively evaluate a worker’s
exposure.

a. True.

b. False.

38. Devices used to sample air, which are interconnected in a certain order to obtain
the desired sample, are known as:

a. Impingers.

b. Flow meters.

c. Sampling trains.

d. Suction pumps.

39. Air purifying respirators do not protect against _________________ or against

___________________.

MD0165 2-54
40. A sampling train for ______________ would be similar to a sampling train for
particulate, except that some type of absorption or adsorption device would
replace the particulate separator.

41. One limitation for a gas mask is that it may only be used for escape from:

a. Entry.

b. Exit.

42. Which type of chemical cartridge respirator could have a maximum use
concentration of 100 ppm?

a. Ammonia.

b. Chlorine.

c. Hydrogen chloride.

d. Methyl Amine.

43. The respirator with a Federal supply system NSN of 4240-01-259-4575 indicates
that this is a:

a. Respirator, air filtering, for pesticides (respirator furnished with 50 cartridges

and l00 filters).

b. Respirator, air filtering, for dusts (respirator furnished with 50 filters).

c. Respirator, air filtering, for metal fumes (respirator furnished with l00 filters, or
50 filters depending on whether the mask is dual or single element).

d. Respirator, air filtering, for paint spray (respirator furnished with l00 or 50
cartridges and filters).

e. Respirator, air filtering, for organic vapors (respirator furnished with l00 or 50
cartridges).

MD0165 2-55
44. Pesticide respirators contain:

a. Shoulder-style gas masks.

b. Air purifying respirator with an attached blower.

c. Individual devices.

d. No cartridge respirators.

45. List three criteria to be considered when selecting a respirator.

a. _______________.

b. _______________.

c. _______________.

46. Which is NOT a criteria for selecting the proper respiratory protective device?

a. Movement requirements.

b. Conditions of exposure.

c. Atmospheric conditions downstream.

d. Nature of hazard.

47. What do you look for when checking a respirator during an inspection?

a. Tightness of connectors and condition of face piece, headbands, valves,

connecting tubes, and canisters. Leaks in respirator; pliability and signs of
deterioration in rubber and soft-formed material (elastomer) parts.

b. Looseness of conductors.

c. Clean parts.

d. None of the above.

MD0165 2-56
48. After the respirator has been washed and completely rinsed in clean, warm water,
what are the next correct sequenced steps?

a. Air dry the part in a clean area and clean other respirator parts. Insert new
filters, cartridges, or canisters; ensure that all seals are tight. Inspect valves,
head straps, and other parts for wear and/or damage; replace with new parts if
defective. Place in plastic bag or container for storage.

b. Air dry the part. Inspect valves, head straps, and other parts for wear and/or
damage; replace with new parts if defective. Insert new filters, cartridges, or
canisters; ensure that all seals are tight. Clean other respirator parts as
recommended by the manufacturer. Place in plastic bag or container for
storage.

c. Inspect valves, head straps, and other parts for wear and/or damage; replace
with new parts if defective. Air dry the part in a clean area. Clean other
respirator parts as recommended by the manufacturer. Insert new filters,
cartridges, or canisters; ensure that all seals are tight. Place in a plastic bag.

d. Air dry the part in a clean area. Clean other respirator parts as recommended
by the manufacturer. Inspect valves, head straps, and other parts for wear
and/or damage; replace with new parts if defective. Insert new filters,
cartridges, or canisters; ensure that all seals are tight. Place in plastic bag or
container for storage.

49. Where should respirators always be stored?

a. Lockers.

b. Plastic bags.

c. Tool boxes.

d. Desk drawers.

MD0165 2-57
50. What must be continuously checked and evaluated if respiratory protection for
workers in a hazardous environment is to be effective?

a. Only the respirators.

b. The program.

c. Only the workers.

d. The oxygen-generating canister.

Check Your Answers on Next Page

MD0165 2-58
SOLUTIONS TO EXERCISES, LESSON 2

1. Carbon monoxide. (para 2-2b(l))

2. c (para 2-2b)

3. c (para 2-2b(3)(b))

4. Benzol.
Carbon tetrachloride.
Trichloroethylene. (para 2-2b(2)(a))

5. b (para 2-2b(3)(a))

6. a (para 2-4b)

7. b (para 2-2b(2))

8. d (para 2-2b(3)(b))

9. c (para 2-2b(2))

10. b (para 2-3a, c)

11. Cilia. (para 2-4a(2))

12. Liver
Kidneys. (para 2-4c)

13. b (para 2-4b)

14. e (para 2-5b)

15. d (para 2-5c)

16. (any four of the below)

Carbon tetrachloride.
Tetrochlorethane.
Halogenated hydrocarbons.
Metals such a manganese, mercury, thallium, lead, and uranium.
Organic phosphorus pesticides.
Benzene. (para 2-5e)

17. c (para 2-6a)

MD0165 2-59
18. b (para 2-6b)

19. (any two of the below)

Concentration.
Control measures in effect.
Duration of exposure.
Frequency of exposure. (para 2-6c)

20. Phosgene. (para 2-9a(1)(2))

21. d (para 2-9a(3))

22. d (para 2-8a)

23. Hemoglobin, oxygen. (para 2-8b)

24. d (para 2-9a(1)

25. c (para 2-9c(2))

26. b (para 2-10)

27. Solvents. (para 2-10)

28. d (para 2-11b)

29. c (para 2-12b(3))

30. b (paras 2-12b, 2-13b)

31. Environmental, personal, medical. (para 2-13a)

32. Protective clothing, protective ointments, and personal cleanliness. (para 2-13b)

33. b (para 2-12c)

34. b (para 2-14b(5))

35. General room (area or background) air sample.

Breathing zone sample.
Operation or process area sample. (para 2-l5c)

36. c (para 2-l6b(2), Figure 2-5)

37. a (para 2-l5f)

MD0165 2-60
38. c (para 2-16d)

39. Oxygen deficient atmospheres; skin irritation/absorption of contaminant.

(para 2-19b)

40. Gas or vapor (para 2-16d)

41. b (para 2-19c(3)(b))

42. d (Table 2-3)

43. c (Table 2-4)

44. b (para 2-19f(1)(d))

45. (any three of the below)

Nature of the hazard.
Conditions of exposure.
Safety requirements.
Movement required.
Decision logic. (para 2-22)

46. c (para 2-22)

47. a (para 2-26b)

48. d (para 2-25b)

49. b (para 2-27a)

50. b (para 2-28)

END OF LESSON 2

MD0165 2-61
 LESSON ASSIGNMENT

LESSON 3 Noise and the Conservation of Hearing.

TEXT ASSIGNMENT Paragraph 3-1 through 3-20.

LESSON OBJECTIVES After completing this lesson you should be able to:

3-1. List and define the properties of sound.

3-2. Select the statement which best describes the

factors for determining whether noise is
hazardous to hearing.

3-3. Select the statement which best describes the

mechanics of hearing and the effects of noise on
the ear.

3-4. Select the statement which best describes

management's responsibilities for providing
workers with a safe noise level environment as
per the Army Hearing Conservation Program.

3-5. Select the statement which best describes the

essentials of a hearing conservation program for
job-related noise, management and its staff's
responsibilities for noise abatement, and the
effects of excessive noise.

3-6. Define the purpose of a noise survey.

3-7. Select appropriate measurement noise standard

criterion and ensure measuring equipment
accuracy.

3-8. Select the statement that correctly describes

protective and medical measures to abate noise.

SUGGESTION After studying the assignment, complete the exercises

at the end of this lesson. These exercises will help you
to achieve the lesson objectives.

MD0165 3-1
 LESSON 3

NOISE AND THE CONSERVATION OF HEARING

Section I. INTRODUCTION

3-1. GENERAL

We are surrounded by sound. Twenty-four hours each day, we live in a world of

sound. Even while we are asleep, the ticking of the clock or the whirring of the air
conditioner may be part of our environment. In our waking hours, we are immersed in
sound-passing automobiles, overhead aircraft, clattering computer printers and
typewriters, weapons firing, equipment operating, people talking, radios playing. A total
lack of sound can in itself be disturbing; too much sound can be literally deafening. In
the field of industrial hygiene, we are concerned with those sounds known as noise and
the hazards that they present to workers. Exposure to certain noises can have
profound physical and psychological effects on the individual. To protect Federal
government personnel against these effects, hearing conservation programs must be
planned and implemented at all Army installations. Management of such programs is
an installation responsibility; however, the US Army Medical Department is responsible
for ensuring that such programs are established and that they are effective. As a
PVNTMED Specialist, you will play an active role in the installation hearing conservation
program.

3-2. RESPONSIBILITIES

a. Installation Commander. The commander of an Army installation is

responsible for providing a safe work environment, free of hazardous noise levels, and
to meet the hearing conservation program requirements according to Army Regulation
(AR) 40-5 and AR 385-10. Subordinate commanders, supervisors, and managers are
responsible for purchasing new equipment that generates the lowest noise level
feasible.

b. Safety Director or Officer. The safety director coordinates with the

Installation Medical Authority to determine the existence of noise and performs the
following functions:

(1) Conducts inspections and includes noise hazard abatement projects in

the hazard abatement plan.

(2) Controls entrance to hazardous areas by posting color-coded caution

and other signs designating the more hazardous areas.

MD0165 3-2
 c. Installation Medical Authority (IMA). The IMA plans and supervises the
overall Occupational Health Program, including the Hearing Conservation Program in
accordance with (IAW) TB MED 501 and DA Pam 40-501. The IMA ensures that a
physician determines the diagnosis of noise-induced hearing loss and notifies the
Civilian Personnel Office of hearing and noise hazardous problems. Specialists, who
assist the IMA, include medical officers, audiologists, hearing conservation officers, and
preventive medicine specialists.

d. Preventive Medicine Specialist. In most cases, preventive medicine

specialists will wear several hats and serve as the supervisors or commander's
industrial hygiene manager (TB MED 503) and/or the hearing conservation officer (TB
MED 501 and USAEHA Technical Guide (TG) No. 167), especially in the field. These
individuals will manage and coordinate all aspects of the hearing conservation program
as outlined in AR 40-5. Responsibilities of the preventive medicine specialist will vary
according to level of skill, certification needed in certain disciplines, and composition of
staff at installation or regional areas. Responsibilities include:

(1) Drafting, staffing, and implementing a SOP.

(2) Ensuring that medically trained personnel fit individuals with hearing
equipment.

(3) Performing announced and unannounced inspections of noise

hazardous areas at installations and in the field.

(4) Using approved and calibrated equipment, and surveying all suspected
noise-hazardous areas and equipment at least once and within 30 days of any change
in operations.

(5) Establishing a time-weighted average for all civilians working in

noise-hazardous areas and soldiers working in noise-hazardous industrial type
operations.

(6) Performing audiometric testing, maintaining audiograms (IAW

ARs 40-66 and 25-400 and TB MED 501) and providing audiometric test records and
exposure health materials or information upon request. (Must be certified to do so.)
(Usually performed by an ear, nose, and throat specialist or OH nurse).

(7) Maintaining a current inventory of all noise-hazardous areas, using DD

Form 2214 (Noise Survey), until health hazard information module (HHIM) can
accommodate noise information.

(8) Providing the names of noise-exposed personnel and the magnitude of

their noise exposure to their commander or supervisor and the hearing officer, if one is
available.

MD0165 3-3
 (9) Recommending job placement and job criteria, that is, wearing personal
protective devices.

e. Civilian Personnel Officer.

(1) Ensuring that OH is included on the in processing and out processing

checklists for new, transferring, or terminating personnel.

(2) Maintaining pertinent personnel records of civilian employees involved in

the hearing conservation program and for notifying job supervisors of annual audio-
metry appointments.

(3) Ensuring that job descriptions (IAW AR 385-10) include, where

applicable, the requirement to wear hearing personal protective equipment (PPE)
(hearing protectors) and enforcing such use.

f. Director of Engineering and Housing. The Director of Engineering and

Housing (DEH) engineer provides corrective actions designed to reduce or eliminate
sources of hazardous noise levels, that is, installing engineering controls such as
acoustical materials, when exposure to steady, loud, and so forth, noise exceeds the
time weighed criteria. In addition, facility engineers are responsible for providing treated
booths or rooms for audiometric testing, when the number of persons requiring such
testing warrants the expense involved. Usually, the purchase of prefabricated
audiometric booths is more economical than constructing a sound treated room and is
also more satisfactory for testing purposes.

Section II. THE ARMY HEARING CONSERVATION PROGRAM

3-3. PURPOSE

The purpose of the Army hearing conservation program is to prevent hearing

losses caused by exposure to noise in the work environment. In addition to the reduced
job performance caused by hearing loss, this hearing damage costs the Army as much
as $100 million a year in the form of compensation paid to individuals. Army surgeons,
as well as civilian industrial physicians in the employ of the Army, must be familiar with
the nature of noise, the effects of noise on human hearing, and measures for preventing
hearing loss caused by noise. It is the responsibility of these medical officers not only to
be familiar with the subject, but also to identify noise hazards that may exist in the work
environment of the personnel for which they have health responsibility and to establish
hearing conservation programs when the need is indicated. Before an effective noise
abatement program can be implemented, the subject of sound must first be understood
and its problems recognized.

MD0165 3-4
3-4. THE MECHANICS OF HEARING

The human ear is composed of three major sections: the external ear, the
middle ear, and the inner ear. Each of these has a distinct function in the hearing
process.

a. The external ear or external auditory canal is a somewhat trumpets shaped

structure that leads to the middle ear. It's bone and cartilage is covered with skin that is
very sensitive. This canal skin is protected and kept moist by the sebaceous glands
(located distally). Sound waves entering the ear travel through the external ear canal,
are funneled to the middle ear, and strike the eardrum, or tympanic membrane.

b. The middle ear consists of the eardrum, the air cavity, filled with a chain of
small bones called the malleus, incus, stapes or the hammer, anvil, and stirrup plus the
oval window. One end of this chain rests against the eardrum, while the other end is
connected to the inner ear. It is within the middle ear that the sound waves strike the
tympanic membrane (eardrum), which in turn, cause vibrations. Note in Figure 3-1 that
the tympanic membrane is catty-corner to the auditory canal. These vibrations are then
bounced off hammer, anvil, stirrup, and oval window as they are carried or transferred
to the inner ear.

c. The inner ear consists of a spiral or curved tube filled with fluid. The spiral
tube contains the cochlea, organ of Corti, and semicircular canals. The cochlea, sea
shell shaped, bone contains the organ of Corti, which consists of many sensory cells
with delicate hairs or hair cells projecting into the fluid. The organ of Corti receives the
sound waves and transfers these impulses to the eighth cranial nerve. This auditory
nerve transmits the impulses to the brain for interpretation by the brain.

3-5. PROPERTIES OF SOUND

There are several definitions of the physical properties of sound, which you need
to understand and that will be helpful to you in carrying out your responsibilities.

a. Sound. Sound is based upon the sense of hearing. Sound is the effect
produced on the organ of hearing and its central connections by the vibrations of the air
or other medium. The motion, energy, and frequency, of these particles (gas, liquid, or
solid) passing through a medium, like a human ear or tunnel, provide a sensation. This
sensation or vibration reaching the human ear is interpreted by the human brain as
"sound." A frequency of between 8 and 20,000 cycles per second provides the stimulus
for the subjective sensation of hearing. Although sound resembles forms of
electromagnetic energy (light, x-rays, radio waves), it always requires a transport
medium.

b. Frequency. Frequency is the rate per unit time that high and low pressure
regions occur. It is measured as Hertz, where one Hertz is equivalent to one cycle per
second. The range of sound frequencies, which the human ear can perceive, extends

MD0165 3-5
from 16 Hz up to as high as 30,000 Hz (also written as 30 KHz). The average young
adult can hear sounds from 20 to 20,000 Hz, although as a practical matter, few adults
can hear sounds whose frequency exceeds 11,000 Hz (11 KHz).

c. Intensity. Intensity is a measure of the rate of energy passing through a unit

area. It is measured in decibels (dB or dbs). Loudness is the observer's impression of
the sound intensity received.

d. Tone. A tone is an acoustic stimulus (sound), whose pressure varies in a

perfectly periodic manner. If there is only one component whose pressure varies in a
simple sinusoidal (like a sine wave) manner, it is called a "pure tone"; if it can be
analyzed into several such components, it is termed a "complex tone."

Figure 3-1. Anatomy of the human ear.

MD0165 3-6
 e. Noise. Noise, normal or abnormal, is simply defined as unwanted sound,
whether it is a pure tone, a complex of tones, or unwanted speech or music. For actual
complex sounds, the acoustical character is usually applied to sounds which contain a
large number of separate frequency components that extend over a wide range of
frequencies, coming from animate or inanimate objects, and may or may not convey
meaning or information. Then again, noise may be a single sharp, squeaky, or piercing
sound of short or long duration.

f. Steady Noise. Steady noise is a periodic or random variation in atmospheric

pressure at audible frequencies. It may be continuous, intermittent, or fluctuating with
the sound level varying over a wide range.

g. Spectrum of Sound. Decibels are measured in the A scale or dB(A). This

term refers to the pattern of the distribution of energy or sound pressure present at
different points or areas along the scale of audible (capable of being heard) frequencies.
It is common practice to analyze a single complex sound by means of octave bands, an
octave being a range of frequencies where the upper is twice the lower. This result is
called an octave band analysis of the sound.

h. Impulse or Impact Noise. Noise characterized by a sharp rise in intensity

followed by a rapid decline in intensity, such as that produced by gunfire. It cannot be
measured accurately with an ordinary sound level meter.

i. Audiogram. It is measured as dB(P). An audiogram is a graphic record of

an individual's hearing sensitivity in each ear for each of a number of pure tone or sound
test frequencies. The measure of hearing sensitivity is the individual's threshold of
hearing, which is the lowest intensity of a given tone that he hears. (This job function is
usually performed by a different specialist).

j. Audiometer. This is the electronic device that produces acoustic stimuli of a

known frequency and the intensity for the measurement of hearing or stated another
way; it is an instrument that detects response to sound stimuli by changes in the
electroencephalogram. (This job function is usually performed by a different specialist).

k. Hearing Level of an Ear at a Specified Frequency. This is the amount, in

decibels, by which the threshold of audibility for that ear exceeds, or is less than, the
standard audiometric threshold. This threshold of audibility varies among individuals.

l. Decibel. The decibel (dB or db) is a term borrowed from electrical

engineering, and represents a relative quantity. When used to express sound pressure
levels, it represents a level compared to a reference level. This reference level is
usually a sound pressure of 20 micropascals (uPa) and is usually referred to as "0
decibels" or "0 dB." Practically speaking, this beginning or starting point on the relative
scale of noise levels is about the level of the weakest sound that can be heard by a

MD0165 3-7
person with very good hearing in an extremely quiet environment. To use the decibel in
a familiar example, the sound pressure level in a large administrative office is usually
between 40 and 60 dB. It should be no higher than 60 dB.

m. The dB(A). When measuring the intensity of sound using a sound level
meter, the meter is equipped with a system of "weighting networks" whose effect is to
duplicate the response of the human ear. To achieve this, these weighting networks
cause the sensitivity of the meter to vary with frequency and intensity of sound, as does
the sensitivity of the human ear. When referring to sound levels in this subcourse, we
will be referring to sound levels measured by a meter employing the "A-weighting"
network and will use the term "dB(A)" rather than "dB." Table 3-1 lists some typical
noise levels, given in dB(A).

n. The dB(P). This is the unit used to express the peak sound pressure of
impulse noise.

Table 3-1. Some typical noise levels.

MD0165 3-8
3-6. THE EFFECTS OF NOISE ON THE EAR

a. Exposure to excessive noise for extended periods of time over-activates the

hair and hair cells in the inner ear, causing injury or destruction. Such injury to the
organ of Corti usually leads to permanent loss of hearing. There is no known treatment
for such hearing loss. Depending upon the duration of the exposure to excessive noise,
hearing loss may be only temporary in nature. Table 3-2 shows some common noise
exposures that personnel encounter.

SOURCE: Sound Level Data of Military Noise Sources, US Army Environmental

Hygiene Agency, Edgewood Arsenal, MD.

Table 3-2. Some common military exposures to noise.

MD0165 3-9
 b. Over exposure to high frequency noise causes more significant hearing loss
than over exposure to low frequency noise of the same intensity. During initial
exposure, most of the hearing impairment is in the frequency range above those
important to the understanding of speech. As a result, early damage is frequently not
noticed by the individual. Detection of losses in these ranges by the medical officer is
important, as early losses may be regarded as danger signs of further potential hearing
loss. Continued exposure will lead to progressively greater damage, including loss of
the speech frequencies that, if allowed to reach an advanced stage, will cause a severe
handicap.

c. Other physiological effects that can be produced by excessive exposure to

noise include nausea and headaches. In many cases the reflex responses of the
individual will be affected.

d. Psychological stress from noise may be manifested in the form of fatigue,

inability to function, annoyance, and distraction.

3-7. FACTORS DETERMINING THE DEGREE OF NOISE HAZARD

Of the properties or characteristics of noise, there are four that determine

whether a given noise is likely to be hazardous to the hearing of workers.

a. Frequency. The frequency of a noise determines its pitch, which is that

attribute of an auditory sensation in terms of which sounds may be ordered on a scale
extending from low to high. High frequency (high pitched) noises are more dangerous
to hearing than low frequency (low pitched) noises.

b. Intensity. The relative loudness of the noise, expressed in decibels, will play
a large part in determining the degree of hazard; the louder the noise, the greater its
potential for causing hearing loss.

c. The Nature of the Noise. Noise may be continuous or intermittent. It may

be steady or made up of a series of impact or impulse noises.

d. The Duration of Exposure. The longer the exposure, the greater the
damage to the hearing mechanism.

3-8. ESSENTIALS OF A HEARING CONSERVATION PROGRAM

A hearing conservation program is an effective program to prevent hearing loss

due to exposure to excessive job-related noise. It involves the carefully coordinated
application of engineering control measures, personal protective measures, medical
control measures, health education, proper supervision, and personal discipline on the
part of workers. Normally, the first step in establishing a hearing conservation program
will be to conduct a noise survey. However, there are occasions when a program can

MD0165 3-10
be initiated without such a survey. For example, a noise survey is unnecessary in the
following cases:

a. When personnel have difficulty communicating by speech while they are in

the noise area.

b. When personnel hear noises or ringing sounds in their ears after working in
the noise area for several hours.

c. When personnel experience temporary loss of hearing, which muffles speech

and certain other sounds, after several hours of exposure to the noise.

NOTE: In borderline cases, a noise survey is recommended.

3-9. THE NOISE SURVEY

The purpose of the noise survey is to evaluate the exposures to noise in the work
place in relation to interference with speech, worker comfort, and hearing loss. Another
important purpose served is the collection of information for use in designing controls.
In making noise measurements, the following points are important.

a. At all locations where noise makes it difficult for two persons with good
hearing to converse at close range, tests should be made with a sound level meter.
The average, overall level is determined by taking several meter readings at each
location. In general, when it is necessary to shout in order to be heard intelligibly at a
distance of 1 foot, the noise level is at least 60 dB(A), and probably even higher.

b. Steady noises from several sources, varying in their composition and

frequency spectra, can lead to hearing loss. It is therefore essential that such noise be
broken down into its several components and analyzed. This can be done by using an
octave band analyzer with the sound level meter.

c. Noise levels should be measured at the approximate position of the worker's

more exposed ear. Repeated measurements should be made to take into account
variations in noise levels resulting from changes in operating schedules or work
procedures.

d. Repeated measurements should be taken in order to accurately determine

the manner in which noise levels are distributed throughout the workday.

e. Many operations and areas that are sources of hazardous noise are common
to most Army installations and should be the site of sound surveys. These include the
interiors of tanks, personnel carriers, and truck cabs; the vicinity of field electrical
generator sets; machine shops, carpenter shops; sheet metal shops; engine repair and
testing shops; weapons ranges; areas in which air driven tools are used; aircraft in
operation on the ground and in the air; and aircraft engine test facilities.

MD0165 3-11
 f. During noise surveys, inventories of hazardous noise areas are usually kept.
Records of noise surveys are kept on DD Form 2214 (Appendix H). Risk assessment
codes are assigned for all sound levels above 85 dB (A).

3-10. HAZARDOUS NOISE STANDARDS

a. Steady Noise -- Exposure Criterion. Levels of steady noise of 85 dB(A) or

greater are considered hazardous regardless of the duration of exposure for the
purpose of administering a hearing conservation program. Hearing conservation
measures must be initiated when personnel are exposed to levels 85 dB(A) or greater.
This criterion affords the advantage of increasing the overall efficiency of the program
by simplifying its administrative aspects and eliminating the requirement for dosimetry.
The dosimetry would determine a cumulative measure of varying noise levels and
exposure durations. It will also better protect those individuals who are more
susceptible to the effects of noise. Figures 3-2, 3-5 show examples of education
posters, which should be prominently posted in noise hazardous areas.

(1) Although the requirements of the program demand the initiation of

hearing conservation measures when levels are 85 dB(A) or greater, the
implementation of all available measures may not be necessary in every case. For
example, visitors to noise hazardous areas are required to wear hearing protective
devices, but the requirement for hearing evaluations does not apply to visitors.

(2) There may also be unique situations where noise levels rise infrequently
and unpredictably to 85 dB(A) or greater for short durations so that the wearing of
hearing protective devices may be judged impractical or unnecessary. Decisions to
waive the wearing of hearing protective devices or any other requirement of the
program must not be made arbitrarily. Such judgments may be rendered by trained
AMEDD personnel who will perform a thorough evaluation using approved
instrumentation and who will consider all factors relative to the potential for a given
exposure to cause hearing impairment.

b. Impulse Noise--Exposure Criterion. Levels that exceed 140 dB(P) are

considered hazardous. The measurement of impulse noise requires the use of special
instrumentation and must be done only by specially trained AMEDD personnel. All
small arms used by the Army produce impulse noise levels above 140 dB(P). Hearing
conservation measures must be instituted and enforced when firing weapons during
training. Impulse noise between 120 and 140 dB(P) may be uncomfortable and the
wearing of hearing protection may be advisable. Repeated exposure to levels
exceeding 100 dB(A) can result in significant hearing loss.

3-11. ENGINEERING CONTROL MEASURES

The environmental control of noise exposure may involve the solution of complex
noise reduction problems. Many such projects should be undertaken only with the help
of acoustical engineers or consultants in noise control.

MD0165 3-12
 a. Noise Control Methods. The following general methods of noise control
may be applied in certain situations.

(1) Reducing the amount of noise produced by the source.

(2) Reducing the amount of noise transmitted through air or building

structures.

(3) Revising operating procedures.

b. Examples of Noise Source Reduction.

(1) Substituting new equipment for that now in use.

(2) Periodically repairing and maintaining equipment.

(3) Making changes in processing methods.

c. Examples of Reducing Noise Transmissions.

(1) Increasing the distance between work areas and noise sources.

(2) Providing acoustical barriers between work areas and sound sources.

(3) Reducing reverberation by sound treating work area room surfaces.

(4) Installing vibration mounts under equipment.

d. Examples of Operating Procedure Changes.

(1) Providing acoustical observation booths.

(2) Providing sound-isolated remote control positions.

(3) Changing job schedules.

(4) Rotating personnel.

MD0165 3-13
 Figure 3-2. Safety poster (general information on using earplugs).

Figure 3-3. Safety poster (inserting the triple-flange earplugs).

MD0165 3-14
 Figure 3-4. Safety poster (inserting the single-flange earplugs).

Figure 3-5. Safety poster (general information on earmuffs).

MD0165 3-15
3-12. PERSONAL PROTECTIVE MEASURES

a. Personal protective devices to lessen the risk of hearing loss consist of

earplugs and earmuffs (see Figures 3-6, 3-7, 3-8). Whichever device can be worn
comfortable and consistently by the exposed individuals is an important element in
selecting the device to be worn. In exposures to extremely high, steady state noise
levels (108 dB (A) and above), earplugs and earmuffs must be worn together.
Table 3-3 gives a list of earplugs and earmuffs available through medical and/or
regular supply channels.

b. Well-designed and properly fitted earplugs or earmuffs will lessen the noise
reaching the inner ear by 15 dB in the lower frequencies and by up to 35 dB in the
higher frequencies. Wearing earplugs and earmuffs together, however, does not
provide attenuation (weakening of the sound) equal to the arithmetic sum of the
individual attenuation of earplugs and earmuffs worn separately. The combination of
plugs and muffs provides from 35 to 40 dB noise attenuation at most frequencies.
Regular use of ear protective devices is mandatory for all individuals exposed to noise
in excess of 85 dB(A) or impulse noise in excess of 140 dB(P).

c. Persons with normal hearing will have little difficulty in understanding speech
when earplugs or muffs are worn if the speakers will raise their voices slightly above the
level of ordinary conversation. Actually it is easier for a person to hear and understand
auditory signals with them. A simple demonstration will be useful in illustrating this
conversation in a noisy room. You will note that the conversation can be more
easily understood.

Figure 3-6. Ear plugs and carrying case approved by The Surgeon General.

MD0165 3-16
 d. Properly fitted earplugs will not cause damage to the normal ear canal if the
earplugs are kept reasonably clean. Plugs should be fitted individually for each ear,
under medical supervision (see Figure 3-9). Occasionally, an individual's two ear canals
will require earplugs of different sizes. A good seal between the ear canal and the
earplug is very important, so that no leak develops. A really good seal may cause some
initial discomfort to the wearer. When earmuffs are chosen in preference to earplugs,
the headband must be properly adjusted to ensure a snug fit. When eyeglasses are
worn at the same time as earmuffs, it is important that the flange of the muff fit well
around the temple of the glasses, because even a small "leak" will completely destroy
the purpose of the ear protector, yet the wearer will have a false sense of security
because of wearing the protector. A related problem with earplugs is that they tend to
work loose as a result of talking and chewing. As a result, they must be reseated from
time to time during the workday.

Figure 3-7. Type I earmuffs.

MD0165 3-17
 e. The only effective ear protector is one that is worn consistently. Hearing
damage becomes progressively worse with each additional day of exposure; personnel
must be convinced of the importance of wearing their ear protectors.

Figure 3─8. Type II earmuffs.

MD0165 3-18
 Table 3-3. Ear plugs and earmuffs available through medical and/or
regular supply channels.

MD0165 3-19
 Figure 3-9. Examples of poorly fitted/poorly inserted earplugs and
well-fitted/properly-seated earplugs (continued).

MD0165 3-20
 Figure 3-9. Examples of poorly fitted/poorly inserted earplugs and
well-fitted/properly-seated earplugs (concluded).

MD0165 3-21
3-13. HEALTH EDUCATION, SUPERVISION, AND DISCIPLINE

a. Personnel exposed to hazardous noise levels must be taught the nature of

the hazard from excessive noise and the measures which they can employ to reduce
the hazard. They must also be fully indoctrinated in the proper use and care of their
personal protective equipment. These educational efforts must not be limited to the
initial job safety orientation, but must be integrated into a continuing program of on-the-
job training and supervision (see Figure 3-10). One of the goals of this continuing
program should be the development of a high degree of worker safety discipline.

b. Supervisory and command personnel should be fully indoctrinated in the

overall aspects of the hearing conservation program. They have a responsibility to
imbue workers with a confidence that all possible engineering controls have been
implemented, and with an awareness of the importance of personal protective devices.
Supervisors and commanders are charged with the overall responsibility for the success
of the program. They must be prepared to take disciplinary action, if required to ensure
compliance with safety procedures. Imaginative use of multimedia materials such as
films, video tapes, pamphlets, posters, decals, along with classes and seminars can
greatly aid in the conduct of a health education program of the type required in a
successful hearing conservation program.

3-14. MEDICAL CONTROL MEASURES

a. Audiograms must be a part of all replacement physical examinations. They

are an absolute requirement when the individual is to be assigned duties in a noisy
environment. In purely military units, the tasks and duties associated with certain
military occupational specialties (MOS) will involve exposure to high noise levels; pre-
assignment hearing evaluations should be made of all soldiers to be assigned in such
an MOS.

b. Audio metric testing must be done only by trained personnel. The baseline or
reference audiogram should be made at least 15 hours after the most recent exposure
to high intensity noise. For the purposes of a hearing conservation program, only air
conduction tests are required.

c. Losses in excess of 20 dB indicate the need for referral of the individual to a

physician for otological study. In all cases, accurate recording of the audiometric results
is vital. Results of the audiometric examination along with other pertinent hearing
conservation data can be conveniently entered on DD Forms 2215 and 2216.

MD0165 3-22
 Figure 3-10. Example of an earplug fitting and educational pack.

d. The accuracy of the audiometer must be checked at least once a week; this is
easily done by testing two young persons with no history of ear disease or hearing loss
and a known hearing threshold level (HTL). Such a procedure checks not only the
accuracy of the instrument, but also the effectiveness of sound insulation in the test
room. The results should be within 5 dB of HTL level of the individual at each test
frequency. Failure to obtain such results indicates either incorrect audiometer
calibration or excessive room noise, or both. The audiometer should be calibrated
periodically, at least semiannually for self-recording audiometers, and annually for
others by a qualified medical equipment repair facility.

MD0165 3-23
3-15. PERIODIC HEARING EVALUATION

a. Routine periodic audiograms made on all personnel working in areas having

high intensity noise are necessary to detect beginning changes in hearing acuity, since
the individual may be unaware of any hearing change. The first in this series of periodic
audiograms should be made at the beginning of the workday, approximately 90 days
after the beginning of the worker's exposure to high noise levels. If no significant
change in hearing acuity is noted, subsequent audiograms should be made every 12
months. Personnel exposed to excessively high-noise levels (that is, weapons instructors
and members of gun crews) should be tested more frequently.

b. All personnel should be encouraged to report for evaluation if symptoms of

progressive hearing loss or progressive tinnitus (ringing of the ear) develop. This is
imperative, since prompt action may prevent a permanent hearing loss.

3-16. DIAGNOSIS

Hearing loss caused by noise is difficult to differentiate from that resulting from
such other factors as systemic disease, toxicity from infection, effect of drugs, and
presbycusis. All reasonable methods of differential diagnosis should be used before
establishing the diagnosis of hearing loss caused by noise. This includes a careful
investigation of the worker's history with special references to any previous hearing
tests, a general physical examination, accurate pure tone and air conduction
audiometric tests, and complete speech and discrimination tests. Trained personnel
under the supervision of a physician or a qualified audiologist may measure hearing.
The physician, however, is responsible for determining and evaluating the degree of
hearing loss.

Section III. SOUND MEASURING EQUIPMENT

3-17. GENERAL

In order to conduct accurate noise surveys, it is necessary to be able to operate

the instruments for measuring noise. It will be your job when you get to the field to
operate the equipment and take reliable readings and interpretations from them.

3-18. THE SOUND LEVEL METER

a. The standard sound level meter is the basic measuring instrument for the
industrial hygienist. It consists of a microphone, an amplifier with calibrated volume
control, and an indicating meter. It measures the sound pressure level in decibels,
which is proportional to intensity or sound energy flow.

MD0165 3-24
 b. Sound level meters of the same type differ mainly in external shape,
arrangement of controls, and other convenient features that frequently influence the
selection made by a prospective user. A typical sound level meter is pictured in
Figure 3-11.

Figure 3-11. Typical sound level measuring equipment.

(A) Sound level meter. (B) Calibrators.
(C) Octave band analyzer with SLM.

MD0165 3-25
 c. Standards for sound level meters specify performance characteristics in order
that all conforming instruments will yield consistent readings under identical
circumstances. The more important characteristics specified are frequency response,
signal averaging, and tolerance.

d. Three weighting networks (A, B, and C) are provided on standard sound level
meters. The purpose of these is to give a number that is an approximate evaluation of
the total loudness level. The (A) scale emphasizes those frequencies, which the human
ear responds to. The (B) scale is an intermediate scale. The (C) scale has a flat
response, which indicates the actual sound pressure level.

e. The A-weighting network is the most useful one on the sound level meter. It
indicates the A-weighted sound level, often abbreviated dB(A) from which most human
responses can be predicted quite adequately (see para 3-2m).

f. Action of the indicating meter may be selected as "fast" or "slow." Steady

state sounds are measured with the more sluggish "slow" response to reduce meter
needle swings.

g. The speed of meter response affects the readings obtained for transient
sounds. For example, the level of a whistle toot lasting 1/5 second should be indicated
no more than 2 dB low on the "fast" scale. On the "slow" scale, the level of a toot
lasting 1/5 second would read 3 to 5 dB low. The "slow" meter response must be used
for steady-state noise surveys.

h. American standard sound level meters are furnished in three types offering
varying degrees of precision. Designated Types 0, 1, and 2 in order of increasing
tolerances, the Type 2 generally measures within 2 or 3 dB of true levels, which is
satisfactory for most purposes.

i. By combining a device known as an octave band filter with a sound level

meter, it is possible to determine the pattern of the distribution of sound pressure at
different points or areas along the scale of audible frequencies (see Figure 3-11). Using
this equipment, it is possible to make a spectrum analysis of complex sounds or noises.

3-19. USE OF THE SOUND LEVEL METERS (SLM)

a. Since the hazardous criteria for steady state noise is 85 dB(A) s, the SLM
should be set for a range of 80 to 90 dB on the weighted scale.

b. Starting at a point a distance from the noise source, the technician moves
toward the noise, holding the SLM at a 70o angle to the noise source. When the SLM
registers 85 dB (A), he stops recording the spot on a diagram of the area. He then
repeats the procedure 3 to 5 mores times from different points, thereby making it
possible to establish a noise contour.

MD0165 3-26
 c. All of the area inside the contour is considered noise hazardous. Hearing
protection must be worn while inside the contour.

3-20. THE SOUND LEVEL CALIBRATOR

The overall accuracy of sound measuring equipment may be checked by using

an acoustical calibrator such as is shown in Figure 3-11. It consists of a small, stable
sound source that fits over the microphone and generates a predetermined sound level
within a fraction of a decibel. If the meter reading is found to vary from the known
calibration level, the meter may be adjusted to eliminate this error. The acoustical
calibration procedure supplements the electrical calibration incorporated in some meters
to check the gain of all electronic components following the microphone. Sound level
calibrators should be used only with the microphones for which they are intended in
order to avoid errors and microphone damage. Appendix G illustrates representative
procedures for calibrating sound level meters.

Continue with Exercises

MD0165 3-27
EXERCISES, LESSON 3

INSTRUCTIONS: Answer the following exercises by marking the lettered response

that best answers the exercise, by completing the incomplete statement, or by writing
the answer in the space provided at the end of the exercise.

After you have completed all the exercises, turn to "Solutions to Exercise" at the
end of the lesson and check your answers. For each exercise answered incorrectly,
reread the material referenced with the solution.

1. Exposure to certain hazardous noise in the work environment can have what type
of effect on the individual?

a. Make the individual feel the environment is ideal.

b. Can cause profound physical and psychological effects on the individual.

c. Cause the individual's productivity to increase.

d. Increase the individual\s hearing range.

2. Will the total absence of all sound result in an ideal work environment?

a. Never.

b. Always.

c. Sometimes.

3. To protect Federal government personnel against the effects of hazardous noise

or sounds, what must all Army installations plan and implement?

a. Better entrance tests.

b. More elaborate health examinations.

c. Preventive medicine programs for said specialists.

d. Hearing conservation or noise abatement programs.

MD0165 3-28
4. What type of new equipment are commanders, supervisors, and managers
responsible for purchasing to maintain a safe work environment?

a. Equipment with the lowest noise level feasible.

b. Big heavy equipment.

c. Equipment with matching colors.

d. A variety of different brand name equipment.

5. Who is responsible for performing audiometric testing, maintaining

audiograms, and providing audiometric test records and exposure health materials
or information upon request?

a. Safety Officer.

b. Occupational health nurse or ears, nose, and throat specialist.

c. Army Medical Department or IMA.

d. Director of Engineers and Housing.

6. Which item is a function of the preventive medicine specialist?

a. Conduct inspections and include noise hazard abatement projects in the

hazard abatement plan.

b. Ensure that OH is included on the in-processing and out-processing checklists

for new, transferring, or terminating personnel.

c. Provide for treated booths or rooms for audiometric testing, when the number
of persons requiring such testing warrants the expense involved.

d. Maintain a current inventory of all noise hazardous areas, using DD Form

2214, until HHIM can accommodate noise information.

MD0165 3-29
7. What is the purpose of the Army hearing conservation program?

a. Run tests to determine how much noise or sound individuals can sustain
before it is reduced.

b. Try out new hearing supplies and equipment on its individuals.

c. Prevent individual hearing loss caused by exposure to noise in the work

environment.

d. Comply with Government regulations.

8. When noise or hazardous sound is not reduced or eliminated in the work

environment, what does this cause?

a. Reduced job performance caused by hearing loss.

b. Cost to the Army of up to $100 million a year in individual compensation.

c. Paperwork that could have been avoided.

d. All of the above.

9. Army physicians and civilian industrial physicians in the employ of the Army,
must be familiar with the:

a. Nature of noise.

b. Effects of noise on human hearing.

c. Measures for preventing hearing loss due to noise and hazardous sound.

d. All of the above.

MD0165 3-30
10. As part of the mechanics of hearing, which statement is correct concerning the
movement of sound waves?

a. Sound waves are funneled to the external ear and then strike the tympanic
membrane.

b. Sound waves strike the inner ear.

c. Sound moves in straight lines.

d. Sound waves entering the ear travel through the external ear canal, are
funneled to the middle ear, and strike the eardrum, or tympanic membrane.

11. Which small bones in the middle ear receive vibrations from the tympanic
membrane and transmit them to the inner ear?

a. Malleus, incus, stapes or the hammer, anvil, and stirrup.

b. Oval window.

c. a and b.

d. Organ of Corti and semicircular canals.

12. The vibrations are transmitted to the brain by the:

a. Sensory cells.

b. Eighth cranial nerve.

c. Organ of Corti.

d. Auditory canal.

13. The sense of hearing is based upon which property?

a. Tone.

b. Sound.

c. Intensity.

d. Frequency.

MD0165 3-31
14. As an age dependent and practical matter, in most cases, few adults can hear
sound whose frequency exceeds:

a. 4,000 Hz.

b. 7,000 Hz.

c. 11,000 Hz.

d. None of the above.

15. What is the difference between the terms loudness and intensity?

a. About several Hz.

b. Loudness is the observer's impression of the sound intensity received.

c. There is no difference.

d. The range of sound.

16. Define noise.

a. Noise, normal or abnormal, is simply defined as unwanted sound, whether it is

a pure tone, a complex of tones, or unwanted speech or music.

b. Noise may be a single sharp, squeaky, or piercing sound of short or long

duration that is unwanted by the person receiving.

c. a and b.

d. A conveyer of information.

17. Which statement is correct concerning steady noise?

a. Intermittent, continuous, or fluctuating noise with the sound level varying over
a wide range.

b. A single complex sound within octave bands.

c. Noise we sometimes hear.

d. Noise that does not fluctuate nor vary in sound level range.

MD0165 3-32
18. When the pressure of a sound varies in a perfectly periodic manner, the sound is
termed as a:

a. Tone.

b. Sound.

c. Decibel.

d. Frequency.

19. The ___________________ is a graphic record of an individual's hearing

sensitivity.

a. Audiometer.

b. Audiogram.

c. Impulse of noise.

d. Level sound meter.

20. Which electronic device needs to be calibrated before use?

a. Audiometer.

b. dB(P).

c. Microphone.

d. Ear muff.

MD0165 3-33
21. The beginning or starting point on the relative scale of noise levels is about the
level of the weakest sound that can be heard by a person with very good hearing
in an extremely quiet environment. The word for this is _____________and is
expressed as ________________.

a. Decibel (dB or db); "0 dB."

b. DB(A); "0 dB."

c. dB(P); "0 dB."

d. DB; "0 dB."

22. A dB(P):

a. Is the frequency and intensity sound level?

b. Expresses the peak sound pressure of impulse noise.

c. Is usually the sound pressure expressed in micropascals.

d. Is used for sound test frequencies above 10 micropascals.

23. Which item in Table 3-1 has a peak sound pressure of impulse noise at 94 dB(A)?

a. Whisper.

b. Howitzer.

c. Air compressor.

d. Printing plant.

24. If over an extended period of time, ears are exposed to excessive noise, what
happens to the individual's inner ear?

a. The hair and hair cells activate, causing hearing injury or destruction.

b. Injury to the organ of Corti usually leads to permanent loss of hearing.

c. Depending upon the duration of the exposure to excessive noise, hearing loss
may be only temporary in nature.

d. All of the above.

MD0165 3-34
25. Which statement is correct concerning overexposure of frequency noise?

a. Overexposure to high frequency noise causes more significant hearing loss

than low frequency noise of the same intensity.

b. During initial exposure, most of the hearing impairment is in the frequency

range above those important to the understanding of speech.

c. Detection of losses in these ranges is important, and possible danger signs of

further potential hearing loss.

d. Continued exposure will lead to progressively greater damage, including loss

of the speech frequencies, which if allowed to reach an advanced stage, will
cause a severe handicap.

e. All of the above.

26. What are the other physiological effects that can be produced by excessive
exposure to noise?

a. Nausea and headaches.

b. Reflex responses will change.

c. a and b.

d. Pure-tone will change.

27. Psychological stress factors to noise may also be manifested in the form of:

a. Fatigue, inability to function, and annoyance and distraction.

b. Fatigue, acceptance of distraction, and inability to function.

c. Annoyance and distraction, mental reservation, and fatigue.

d. Inability to function, chemical imbalances, and irritability.

MD0165 3-35
28. Early damage to hearing may not be noticed by the individual.

a. Always.

b. Never.

c. Sometimes.

d. All of the above.

29. Which are the correct factors in determining the degree of noise hazard?

a. Intensity, frequency, tone, nature of noise, and duration of exposure.

b. Frequency, tone, nature of noise, and duration of exposure.

c. Sound, intensity, frequency, steady noise, nature of noise, and duration of

exposure.

d. Intensity, frequency, nature of noise, and duration of exposure.

30. If the frequency of noise determines its pitch, then which pitched noise is more
likely to be dangerous to the individual?

a. High.

b. Medium.

c. Low.

d. Intermittent.

31. Based upon exercise # 30, which item would be more dangerous to the ear than a
gasoline chain saw?

a. Diesel truck.

b. Grinder, electric.

c. Chain saw.

d. None of the above because their frequencies are lower.

MD0165 3-36
32. Which statement is correct? Noise may be:

a. Continuous, intermittent, steady, or a series of impact or impulse noises and

the longer the exposure, the greater the damage to the hearing mechanism.

b. Continuous, intermittent, steady, or a series of impact or impulse noises and

the shorter the exposure, the greater the damage to the hearing mechanism.

c. Of greater damage to inanimate objects.

d. Part of overall efficiency.

33. The hearing conservation program can be an effective means to prevent hearing
loss from exposure to excessive job-related noise if careful coordination involves:

a Engineering control measures, medical control measures, and health

education.

b. Personal protective measures and personal discipline on the part of workers.

c. Proper supervision and an effective implementation of the hearing

conservation program.

d. All of the above.

34. What is the first step in establishing a hearing conservation program?

a. Check the noise impulse.

b. Determine steady noise.

c. Conduct a noise survey.

d. Determine the standards.

35. Under what circumstances might a noise survey be conducted? When personnel:

a. Have difficulty communicating by speech while they are in the noise area.

b. Hear noises or ringing sounds in their ears after working in the noise area for
several hours.

c. Experience temporary loss of hearing, which muffles speech and certain other
sounds, after several hours of exposure to the noise.

d. All of the above.

MD0165 3-37
36. What is the purpose of a noise survey?

a. Determine the relationship of noise to interference with speech, worker

comfort, and hearing loss.

b. Determine the noise level average.

c. Find out which area configurations are the quietest.

d. Determine who may suffer from hearing loss if loud noises persist.

37. During a noise survey, which points are important when making noise
measurements?

a. Check all locations where noise interferes with persons conversing at close
range and can't hear each other.

b. Check steady noises from several sources, varying in composition and

frequency spectra.

c. Measure noise levels at the approximate position of the worker's more

exposed ear.

d. All of the above.

38. If it is necessary to shout in order to be heard at a distance of 1 foot, then the

noise level is probably at or above what dB (A)?

a. 0.

b. 75.

c. 70.

d. 60.

39. If noise or sound is at 90 dB(A), how many decibels over the normal range of
office administrative noise is this?

a. 30 to 50.

b. 20 to 40.

c. 10 to 30.

d. 00 to 20.

MD0165 3-38
40. Why is it essential to break down the composition and frequency spectra of steady
noise coming from several sources?

a. Determine which noises have high frequency/pitch and to what degree.

b. Find out which noises are loud, continuous or short, and low.

c. Compile the noise information, evaluate exposures, and make sound

recommendations to management.

d. All of the above.

41. Sound or noise above 60 dB may need to be reduced depending on the working
environment but noises above _______ are considered to be __________
and risk assessment codes are assigned for all sound levels above this.

a. 80; dangerous.

b. 85; hazardous.

c. 90; OK.

d. 96; moderate.

42. When measuring for noise, you check the noise level at the source and at the
approximate position of the worker's:

a. Ear.

b. Foot.

c. Hand.

d. Knees.

43. Hazardous noise standards consist of what type of noise exposure?

a. Frequency and steady.

b. Intensity and frequency.

c. Steady and impulse.

d. Steady and intensity.

MD0165 3-39
44. An example of engineer noise source reduction is to:

a. Provide acoustical barriers between work areas and sound surfaces.

b. Install vibration mounts under equipment.

c. Move personnel closer to the noise source.

d. a and b.

45. Generally speaking, when a worker is exposed to steady state noise levels in
excess of _________________ he should wear both earplugs and earmuffs.

a. 60 dB(A).

b. 68 dB(A).

c. 108 dB(A).

d. 138 dB(A).

46. Which statement concerning ear protectors is not true?

a. One size earplug will fit all individuals.

b. It is important to keep earplugs clean.

c. Earplugs should be fitted under medical supervision.

d. Earplugs tend to work loose as a result of chewing and talking.

47. Which forms are used to record an audiometric examination results?

a. DD Form 2215.

b. DD Form 2A.

c. DD Form 2216.

d. a and c.

MD0165 3-40
48. The three basic parts of a standard sound level meter are the:

a. Calibrator, amplifier, and indicating meter.

b. Microphone, amplifier, and indicating meter.

c. Microphone, presbycusis, and indicating meter.

d. Indicating meter, acoustical barrier, and amplifier.

49. Which weighting network sound level meter scale empathizes those frequencies,
which the human ear responds?

a. dB (A).

b. dB (B).

c. dB (C).

d. a and b.

50. Which statement about the sound lever meter is correct?

a. The American models are furnished in four types offering varying degrees of
precision.

b. The designated Types 0, 1, and 2 are in decreasing order of tolerances.

c. By combining an octave band filter with a sound level meter, you can
determine the pattern of the distribution of sound pressure at different points or
areas along the scale of audible frequencies.

d. The Type 2 generally measures within 4 to 6 dB of true levels.

Check Your Answers on Next Page

MD0165 3-41
SOLUTIONS TO EXERCISES, LESSON 3

1. b (para 3-1)

2. c (para 3-1)

3. d (para 3-1)

4. a (para 3-2a)

5. b (para 3-2d(6))

6. d (para 3-2d(7))

7. c (para 3-3)

8. d (para 3-3)

9. d (para 3-3)

10. d (para 3-4a)

11. c (para 3-4b)

12. b (para 3-4c)

13. b (para 3-5a)

14. c (para 3-5b)

15. b (para 3-5c)

16. c (para 3-5e)

17. a (para 3-5f)

18. a (para 3-5d)

19. b (para 3-5i)

20. a (para 3-5j)

21. a (para 3-5l)

MD0165 3-42
22. b (para 3-5n)

23. c (Table 3-1)

24. d (para 3-6a)

25. e (para 3-6b)

26. c (para 3-6c)

27. a (para 3-6d)

28. c (para 3-6b)

29. d (para 3-7)

30. a (para 3-7)

31. d (Tables 3-1, 3-2)

32. a (para 3-7c)

33. d (para 3-8)

34. c (para 3-8)

35. d (para 3-8)

36. a (para 3-9)

37. d (para 3-9a, b, c)

38. d (para 3-9a)

39. a (para’s 3-5l, 3-9a)

40. d (para 3-9)

41. b (para 3-9f)

42. a (para 3-9c)

43. c (para 3-10)

MD0165 3-43
44. d (para 3-11c)

45. c (para 3-12a)

46. a (para 3-12d)

47. d (para 3-14c)

48. b (para 3-18a)

49. a (para 3-18d, e)

50. c (para 3-18i)

END OF LESSON 3

MD0165 3-44
 LESSON ASSIGNMENT

LESSON 4 Ventilation.

TEXT ASSIGNMENT Paragraphs 4-1 through 4-12.

LESSON OBJECTIVES After completing this lesson, you should be able to:

4-1. Select the statement which best describes the

purpose of ventilation airflow.

4-2. Identify the methods of ventilation, the

selection criteria, and advantages and
disadvantages of each.

4-3. Given background information on a hazardous

operation, determine whether the type of
ventilation is appropriate.

4-4. Identify the various instruments used to

measure airflow and its velocity.

4-5. Select the statement that best describes the

calibration of airflow instruments.

4-6. Compute the airflow.

4-7. Select the statement which best describes the

basic principles of air flow.

4-8. Correctly survey and evaluate the performance

of air flow systems.

SUGGESTION After studying the assignment, complete the exercises

at the end of this lesson. These exercises will help
you to achieve the lesson objectives.

MD0165 4-1
 LESSON 4

VENTILATION

Section I. VENTILATION SYSTEMS

4-1. GENERAL

a. Industrial operations of some kind will be found on virtually all Army

installations. Many of these operations generate toxic substances, dust, and heat which
can be harmful to the worker if they are inhaled or which can cause severe worker
discomfort. To prevent this from happening, various types of ventilation systems have
been designed and are used to protect the worker and to create a safe, comfortable
working environment. An understanding of ventilation systems will help you to evaluate
their effectiveness in eliminating the health hazards associated with industrial
operations.

b. Ventilation is probably one of the most important control techniques, which

can be employed to improve or maintain the quality of the air in the work area for
administrative or industrial operations. Generally speaking, ventilation is a way of
controlling the environment with airflow. In industrial work areas, the purpose of airflow
is to achieve one or more of these aims:

(1) Heating or cooling,

(2) Removing a contaminant,

(3) Diluting the concentration of a contaminant, or

(4) Supplying makeup air.

c. All applications of ventilation usually fall into one of these three areas:

(1) Prevention of fire and explosions,

(2) Control of atmospheric contaminants to healthful limits, or

(3) Control of heat and humidity for comfort.

4-2. METHODS OF VENTILATION

a. Two Methods. Two different methods of ventilation can be employed to

control potentially hazardous airborne contaminants.

MD0165 4-2
 (1) General (dilution) ventilation. The first method involves diluting the
concentration of the contaminant before it reaches the worker's breathing zone. This
method is referred to as "general ventilation" or "dilution ventilation."

(2) Local exhaust ventilation. The second method involves capturing and
removing the contaminant near its source or point of generation, thus preventing the
release of the contaminant into the work pace. This method is called "local exhaust
ventilation."

b. Comparison of Methods. Dilution ventilation does not actually reduce or

eliminate the total amount of hazardous material released into the workspace. On the
other hand, local exhaust ventilation prevents the release of the contaminants into the
workspace. Normally, local exhaust ventilation is the preferred, more effective, and
more economical method for contaminant control compared to dilution ventilation.

Section II. VENTILATION SELECTION CRITERIA

4-3. GENERAL (DILUTION) VENTILATIONS

General ventilation describes a system in which a workspace, a room, or an

entire building is flushed by supplying and exhausting a large volume of air throughout
the area. General ventilation can be quite effective in removing large volumes of heated
air or in reducing the concentration of certain atmospheric contaminants. General or
dilution ventilation can be achieved by either natural or artificial means. In actual
practice, best results are often achieved through a combination of natural and
mechanical air supply coupled with a system of natural and mechanical exhaust.

a. Natural General Ventilation. Natural means by which workspaces or

buildings may be ventilated include wind and thermal convection. These effects result
from natural pressure differences and air density differences, respectively; they each
cause natural displacement and infiltration of air through windows, doors, walls, and
other openings. (The amount of air that enters a building under a natural ventilation
scheme depends upon the wind and upon thermal effects occurring within the building.
Warmer air inside a building rises and leaks out of openings, cracks, and vents in the
upper areas; colder air leaks into the building by the same process in the lower areas.)
If it were adequate, natural ventilation would be more economical then mechanical
ventilation, but wind currents and thermal convections are erratic and not always
predictable. As a result, natural ventilation is unreliable as a primary control method.

b. Mechanical General Ventilation. Modern buildings in which industrial

operations are conducted are usually of large area, low height design, or, if they are of
multi-story design, are of masonry and glass construction. In either case, natural
ventilation forces are virtually nonexistent and mechanical ventilation must be relied
upon completely. Mechanical air supply must be provided all year round to reach

MD0165 4-3
interior areas, provide adequate air distribution, and prevent the creation of negative air
pressures in the building. In large, open industrial buildings, general ventilation can be
achieved by roof fans used with or without gravity ventilators. The best method of
providing general ventilation in a closed building is to supply air through ductwork and
distribute it into the work areas in a manner that will provide both humidity and
temperature control.

Figure 4-1. Simplified schematic of a general ventilation system.

c. Dilution Selection Criteria.

(1) When considering whether dilution (general) ventilation would be

preferable to a local exhaustion system, there are limiting factors, which must be kept in
mind.

(a) The quantity of contaminant generated must not be excessive; if it

is, the volume of air required for dilution will be impracticality high.

(b) The toxicity of the contaminant must be low.

(c) Workers must be located far enough away from the point of
contaminant evolution, or the contaminant must be in low enough concentrations, so
that workers will not have an exposure that is above acceptable limits.

(d) The evolution or generation of contaminants must be reasonably

uniform.

(2) Considering these factors, dilution ventilation would usually not be

recommended for control of fumes and dust, because the high toxicities often
encountered require excessively large quantities of air and because the velocity and
rate of contaminant evolution are usually quite high, resulting in unacceptably high local
concentrations.

MD0165 4-4
 d. Advantages of a Dilution Ventilation System.

(1) General ventilation systems have several advantages over local exhaust
systems. Perhaps the most obvious of these are simplicity of design and low initial cost.
However, it would not be wise to choose a general ventilation system solely because of
its low initial cost; because these systems invariably exhaust large volumes of heated
air from a building, their use can result in high operating costs in the form of conditioned
make-up air. Over a long period of time, this would tend to make the general ventilation
system much more expensive.

(2) Use of general ventilation systems does result in great flexibility in the
layout of the work area. In addition, it does provide a certain amount of comfort
ventilation.

e. Disadvantages of Dilution Ventilation System. Generally speaking, the

velocity of the air circulating in a general ventilation system is too low to effectively
remove high concentrations of contaminants. In addition, general ventilation is
inadequate for removing contaminants of high toxicity, that is, contaminants whose TLV
is less than 100 ppm.

4-4. LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION

A local exhaust system is one in which the contaminant being controlled is

captured at or near the point at which it is created or dispersed. In contrast to general
or dilution ventilation, local exhaust ventilation places total reliance on mechanical
means of controlling airflow. A typical local exhaust system usually includes the use of
hoods or enclosures, ductwork leading to an exhaust fan, an air cleaning device for
abatement of air pollution, and finally, discharge to the outside air (see Figures 4-2 and
4-3). Local exhaust systems usually contain more mechanical components than
general ventilation systems, require more precise control of their operation, and, as a
result, require more maintenance.

a. Basic Principles. When applying local exhaust ventilation to a specific

problem, there are several basic principles that should be kept in mind.

(1) The source of contaminants should be enclosed as completely as

practicable.

(2) The contaminant should be captured with adequate air velocity.

(3) The contaminant should be kept out of the worker's breathing zone.

(4) Adequate make-up air must be provided.

(5) The exhaust air must be discharged away from air inlet systems.

MD0165 4-5
 Figure 4-2. Schematic of a local exhaust system.

Figure 4-3. Elements of a local exhaust system.

b. Selection Criteria. Local exhaust ventilation systems are usually specified

when the following conditions exist in the work environment:

(1) The concentration of contaminant is high.

(2) The toxicity of the contaminant is high.

(3) The worker's position is close to the point of the contaminant's evolution
or dispersion.

(4) The generation of the contaminant is non-uniform.

MD0165 4-6
 c. Advantages of Local Exhaust Systems. Local exhaust systems are usually
preferred over general ventilation systems for these reasons:

(1) Control of the contaminant can be complete; therefore, the exposure of

the worker to the contaminant can be prevented, which results in a much more healthful
work environment.

(2) A local exhaust system can handle more highly toxic contaminants.

(3) A local exhaust system can handle higher concentrations of

contaminants.

(4) The velocity of the air in the system is high; as a result, performance of
the exhaust fan system is not likely to be affected by cross drafts.

d. Disadvantages of Local Exhaust Ventilation Systems.

(1) Local exhaust systems are, as a rule, mechanically complex. This fact
results in high initial costs and a greater requirement for maintenance.

(2) Installation of the enclosures and ductwork associated with local exhaust
systems results in an inflexible work area.

4-5. GUIDELINES FOR AIR-FLOW IN VENTILATION SYSTEMS

a. Basic Laws. The basic laws governing the complete motion of a fluid such
as air are complex. In the simple case of moving a layer, or layers of air (laminar flow),
the motion of the air can be computed analytically. However, in most ventilation
systems (and especially in local exhaust systems) the air-flow is usually turbulent to
some degree. As a result, the analytical solution to the motion of air in exhaust systems
depends largely on experimental data.

b. Basic Principles. A basic consideration in the principles of airflow is

conservation of mass, or put another way, the continuity equation. This equation states
that the mass rate of flow remains constant along the path taken by a fluid such as air.
Therefore, at any two points in the stream of air:

Q 1 = Q2 and A1V1 = A2V2

Where Q = AV is the volumetric rate of air-flow in cubic feet per minute (cfm);
A = cross sectional area in square feet (ft2);
V = velocity in feet per minute (ft/min).

There is a very definite relationship between velocity and rate of flow, which can be
expressed by the equation:

MD0165 4-7
 Q = AV

Where Q = rate of flow in cfm.

V = average linear velocity in ft/min.
A = cross-sectional area of the duct or hood in ft2.

From this equation, it is possible to calculate airflow rate (Q) if the velocity (V) and the
cross-sectional area (A) are known.

For example: If a duct is 12" by 36," and the velocity of the air has been measured four
times, with readings of 170, 185, 210, and 195 ft/min, what is the rate of flow?

First, determine the average velocity:

V = 170 + 185 + 210 + 195

4

V= 760 = 190.0 feet per minute (fpm)

4

Then, determine cross-sectional area:

A = 1' x 3' = 3 ft2 (Change inches to feet before computing A.)

Finally, substitute values in the formula:

Q = AV
Q = 3 x 190.0 = 570.0
Q = 570.0 cubic feet per minute (cfm)

NOTE: For circular ducts, cross-sectional area is determined using the formula for area
of a circle: A = πr2, where π = 3.1416 and r = radius of the circle (r = 1/2 x diameter).

c. Air Velocity. The purpose of the exhaust system in an industrial work area is
to remove the contaminant from the environment. To do this effectively, the air must
have sufficient velocity to overcome opposing air currents and particle inertia causing
the contaminated air to flow into the enclosure (usually a hood) and there must be
sufficient velocity to keep the contaminant from settling out in the duct.

(1) Capture velocity. To effectively remove the contaminant from the

environment, the air must have sufficient velocity to overcome opposing air currents and
particle inertia causing the contaminated air to flow into the enclosure (usually a hood).
This minimum air velocity is called the capture velocity and is an important
consideration in designing a local exhaust ventilation system or in evaluating the
operating effectiveness of an existing system. The minimum air velocity at a point
within or in front of an exhaust hood necessary to overcome opposing air currents and

MD0165 4-8
particle inertia, causing the contaminated air to flow into the hood. The capture velocity
can be calculated for a distance (x) from the hood, using Figure 4-4.

(2) Duct velocity. The air velocity found within the duct.

(3) Face velocity. The air velocity is at a point parallel with the face of the
hood.

(4) Transport velocity. That velocity required to prevent the settling of a

contaminant within the duct.

4-6. TYPES OF PRESSURES

a. Velocity Pressure. Air in motion exerts a pressure called velocity pressure,

which maintains air velocity and which may be thought of as kinetic energy. This
pressure exists only when air is in motion, and it acts in the direction of air-flow. It is
always a positive pressure.

b. Static Pressure. Another important aspect of airflow principles is static

pressure. Static pressure actually produces initial air velocity; it also overcomes the
resistance in a system caused by friction of the air against the duct walls and
overcomes turbulence and shock caused by a change in direction or velocity of air
movement. Static pressure may be thought of as potential energy; it exists even when
there is no air motion and acts equally in all directions.

c. Total Pressure. The driving force for airflow is actually a pressure difference.
Pressure is required to start and maintain flow. This pressure is called total pressure
and has two components: velocity pressure and static pressure. Static pressure,
velocity pressure, and total pressure are all interrelated, as shown by the formula:

SP + VP = TP

MD0165 4-9
 Figure 4-4. Capture velocity of some representative hood types.

4-7. TYPES OF PRESSURE LOSSES

Pressure losses in airflow systems are caused by a variety of factors.

a. Friction Losses. Friction losses result from the fact that air in motion
encounters resistance along any surface confining the flowing volume. Some of the
energy of the air is given up in overcoming this friction and is transformed into heat.
The rougher the surface confining the flow or the higher the flow rate, the higher the
frictional losses will be.

MD0165 4-10
 b. Dynamic Losses. Dynamic losses are those energy losses encountered in
airflow that result from turbulence caused by a change in direction or velocity within a
duct. The pressure drop in a duct system due to dynamic losses increases with the
number of elbows or angles and the number of velocity changes within the system.

4-8. MEASURING INSTRUMENTATION FOR AIR- FLOW AND VELOCITY

a. Rate of Air-Flow. The purpose of a local exhaust system is to capture and

transport airborne contaminants from the source through an air cleaner to the
atmosphere. Precise measurements of capture velocities as well as estimates of
exhaust or supply volumes can be made at the point where the airflow system interacts
with the work environment.

b. Anemometers (Air-Flow Measuring Instruments). In using any of the

various airflow instruments, which are known as anemometers, the need to take
multiple measurements of a given slot, hood, or diffuser must be kept in mind. Only by
making a uniform traverse of the opening being evaluated will you be able to arrive at a
satisfactory average velocity to use in the calculation of airflow.

(1) Rotating vane anemometer. The rotating vane anemometer is

comprised of a vane or propeller on a shaft connected to gears. The air movement
causes the vane to rotate, turning gears that register the revolutions on the dial of the
instrument as linear feet. Readings are usually taken for one-minute periods, thus
giving air velocity in linear fpm. These instruments are best suited for determining air
velocities and estimating air flow through large openings such as mine shafts and air
supply and discharge grilles. It will be necessary to consult the instrument operating
instructions for correction factors to be used in calculating actual airflow rates. In
addition, these instruments must be handled with extreme care; they require the use of
a timing device and must be frequently calibrated. They should be used in relatively
clean air.

(2) Swinging vane anemometer. The swinging vane anemometer indicates

air velocity as a function of the pressure exerted by the air stream on a spring-loaded
swinging vane. They are quite portable and used extensively by industrial hygienists
and ventilation engineers in the field. They are used primarily for measuring velocities
of exhaust or supply openings. By using the fittings available for some brands of
swinging anemometers, they can be used to measure static pressures. It is important to
follow the instructions carefully, using the recommended correction factors and
calibrating the instrument periodically. Figure 4-5 illustrates several possible
applications of a swinging vane anemometer.

MD0165 4-11
 Figure 4-5. Applications of a commercially available swinging vane anemometer.

(3) Heated thermocouple anemometer. The heated thermocouple

anemometer operates on the principle that air moving past a heated object will remove
heat. The amount of heat removed is proportional to the quantity of air passing, which
is a function of velocity. These instruments have one or more thermocouples as
sensing elements that are heated by either alternating or direct current. A change in
airflow causes a change in temperature of the thermocouples, resulting in a change of
direct current output. Another unheated thermocouple is in the direct current circuit to a
meter. As a result of the changes in temperature, a change in voltage is developed
which is read as air velocity. These instruments are usually comprised of a single probe

MD0165 4-12
connected to an operating unit housing circuitry, meter, batteries, and so forth, and are
about the size of a cigar box. They are quite portable and commercially available.
Problems with these instruments are related primarily to maintaining the integrity of the
probe. Heavy dust loadings or corrosive materials, as well as mechanical shock, can
damage the delicate wires in the probe. These instruments also require periodic
calibration.

(4) Heated wire anemometer. Heated wire anemometers depend upon the
change in resistance of a wire with a change in temperature. The degree of
temperature change is proportional to the velocity of air passing the wire. Velocity is
read directly on a meter that is actuated by a change in voltage, resulting from the
temperature change. Generally, the advantages and limitations of these instruments
are the same as those described for heated thermocouple anemometers.

4-9. CALIBRATION OF INSTRUMENTATION

All too often the need for calibration is not applied to devices for measuring
airflow and velocity, yet, as a group (with the exception of the Pitot tube), such devices
require periodic calibration. Calibration needs to be executed before measurements are
performed. Generally, airflow-measuring instruments are based on electrical or
mechanical systems, which are sensitive to shock. In addition, use of these instruments
in corrosive or dusty atmospheres affects their reliability.

4-10. MEASURING AIR FLOW WITHIN THE SYSTEM

a. It is frequently necessary to determine precise measurements that

characterize the performance of an air flow system within the system. Instead of
measuring the velocity of air going into exhaust hoods or coming from air outlets,
measurements are made inside the ductwork leading to the point of entry of discharge.
Such measurements are usually made to determine static pressure drops associated
with hood entries, ducts, and across air cleaners, as well as velocity pressures.

b. The Pitot tube is the standard instrument for measuring the velocity of air in
ducts. The Pitot tube consists of two concentric tubes. The opening of the inner tube is
axial to the flow of air and measures total pressure, while the large tube with
circumferential openings measures static pressure. The difference between the total
pressure and the static pressure is the velocity pressure. Figure 4-6 shows the
relationships between the various pressures in an exhausting system, while Figure 4-7
illustrates the construction of a standard Pitot tube. The major disadvantage of the Pitot
tube is that it is not direct reading. The Pitot tube measures velocity pressure in inches
of water.

NOTE: An inch of water is a unit of pressure equal to the pressure exerted by a column
of liquid one inch high at a standard temperature.

MD0165 4-13
 To calculate the rate of air flow use:
_______
V = 4005 √ VP(d)

Where V = rate of flow in fpm.

VP = velocity pressure; measured with Pitot tube.
d = air density factor; at standard temperature and pressure = 1.0.

c. Some of the anemometers that have previously been discussed, for example,
those with relatively narrow probes and fittings, can also be used to measure air
velocities within the system. No matter which device is used, however, the accuracy in
determining duct velocities or flow rates will be dependent upon proper locations and
number of measurements taken in traversing the duct.

Figure 4-6. Relationships between pressures in an exhausting system.

MD0165 4-14
 Figure 4-7. Construction of the standard Pitot tube.

d. Pitot tubes are used to determine the velocity pressure contours inside ducts.
These measurements are obtained by connecting the static and total pressure taps of
the Pitot tubes to a manometer, which is an instrument for measuring gas (air) pressure
(see Figure 4-8). Inclined manometers are normally used since they increase the
accuracy and precision, especially for air velocities below 2,000 feet per minute.

Figure 4-8. Pitot tube connected to an inclined manometer.

MD0165 4-15
 e. Aside from avoiding instrument error, the most significant requirement in
making valid velocity or air flow measurements is the location selected for the
measurements and the traverse of that location. The reason for these requirements is
that airflow is not uniform in the cross section of a duct. This is especially true near
such interferences as elbows, entries, and so forth. Therefore, for greater accuracy,
measurements should be taken at least 7.5 diameters of straight run downstream or 1.5
diameters upstream from any interference. Once a location is selected, a Pitot traverse
can be conducted. Figure 4-10 shows a cutaway drawing of both a round and a
rectangular duct, illustrating the principle of measuring the velocity pressure of equal
areas. Note that for round ducts it is advisable to traverse in two planes perpendicular
to each other. The suggested optimum number of measurements per plane for ducts of
stated dimensions is given below.

Duct Diameters (Inches) Number of Measurements

3-6 6
5-48 10
48 and greater 20

Like round ducts, rectangular ducts are traversed in terms of equal area segments.
Rectangular ducts should be divided into a minimum of 16 to a maximum of 64 equal
area rectangles with readings taken in the center of each rectangle, as shown in
Figure 4-9.

Figure 4-9. Traverse of a round and a rectangular duct.

MD0165 4-16
 f. There are fewer limitations for Pitot tubes than for other air velocity measuring
devices. Although they can be used in corrosive or variable temperature conditions, the
impact and static openings can become clogged with particulate matter. Also, as with
other instruments, corrections will have to be made if the temperature is plus or minus
30ºF from standard; if the altitude is greater than 10,000 feet, or if the moisture content
is 0.02 pound per pound or higher. They cannot be used to measure low velocities
(less than 600-fpm) and require an inclined manometer that must be level and free of
vibration. They are not applicable for use in small diameter ducts (less than 3 inches) or
in orifice type openings.

g. In addition to inclined manometer, there are other instruments available for

pressure measurements within an exhaust system.

(1) Aneroid gauges. The most common and best known of the aneroid
gauges is the Magnehelic gauge. Aneroid gauges can be used for total, static, and, in
conjunction with a Pitot tube, velocity pressure measurements. They are small,
extremely portable, and not as sensitive to vibration and leveling as liquid filled
manometers. Since the inches of water pressure is a function of the location of an
indicating needle on a dial, they are extremely easy to read. The principal limitations
are accuracy and calibration. Accuracy is usually below plus or minus two is a need to
calibrate these devices periodically.

(2) Manometers. Manometers range from the simple U-tube to the inclined
manometers mentioned earlier. A range of sizes and varieties of U-tube manometers is
available and they may be filled with a variety of media ranging from alcohol to mercury.
Readings can be converted to inches of water simply by correcting for differences in
density (that is, 1 inch of mercury is equal to 13.61 inches of water). When extreme
accuracy is not essential or in high-pressure systems, U-tube manometers will suffice.
However, for greater accuracy and in low-pressure systems, inclined manometers are
required. Figure 4-8 illustrates an inclined manometer used with a Pitot tube.

h. It is frequently necessary to make static pressure measurements within a

ventilation system. Instruments used in making static pressure measurements include
the static leg of the Pitot tube as well as any pressure-measuring device connected to a
hole in the side of a duct. U-tube manometers and Magnehelic gauges are quite
acceptable. Whereas the exact location of the hole is not extremely critical, the type of
hole is. Generally, the holes should not be located in points where there is some basis
for turbulency or nonlinear flow such as the heel of an elbow. Holes should be flush
with the inside of the duct, with no projections or burrs. Thus, holes should be drilled
and not punched. The location of holes 90 degrees apart will allow for the averaging of
multiple readings to provide an improved estimate of static pressure. Taps can vary in
complexity from a simple soft rubber hose held tightly against a 1/16th-inch hole, to
soldered petcocks for use in high-pressure systems. Figure 4-9 illustrates the traverse
of a round and a rectangular duct.

MD0165 4-17
 i. Static pressure measurements at strategic points in a system provide
invaluable information on the performance of the system. These measurements are
neither difficult to obtain nor do they require expensive or delicate instrumentation.

(1) Coefficient of entry. Estimation of airflow, using static pressure, provides

a fairly accurate estimation of flow rate of an exhaust opening if the coefficient of entry
can be determined. (The coefficient of entry is the ratio of actual flow and theoretical
flow.) Coefficients of entry for various hoods are given in Figure 4-10. Measurements
are made between one and three diameters of straight duct from the throat of the
exhaust inlet (point where the hood is connected to the branch duct). It is advisable to
take multiple readings 90 degrees apart. The flow rate in cfm can then be calculated
using this formula:

_____
Q = 4005 Ce A √ SPh

Where: Q = Rate of flow in cfm (see Figure 4-11)

Ce = Coefficient of entry
A = Cross-sectional area of duct in square feet
SPh = Average static pressure reading in inches of water (in the hood).

(2) Static pressure. Static pressure comparisons provide a means of either

continuously or periodically monitoring the performance of a system. It is true that
additional information may be required, but strategically located static pressure
measurements can detect dirty filters, dented exhaust hoods, and changes in fan static
pressure. The placement of such devices across a filter can determine the need for
shaking, cleaning, or maintenance.

MD0165 4-18
 Figure 4-10. Coefficient of entry for a variety of hood and duct shapes.

4-11. AIR FLOW SYSTEM SURVEYS

a. System Start-Up vs System Design Basis. Any ventilation system, be it

local exhaust for contaminant control or general ventilation for comfort, is designed in
terms of removing or redistributing a specified quantity of air at a specific velocity at a
total system pressure. An initial survey is the only time a valid comparison can be made
between the design basis and the optimum system performance.

(1) Sketch of the system. A sketch not necessarily to scale but

representative of dimensions should be drawn noting such items as hoods, elbows,
branchings, air cleaner, fan, and stack. Supply ducts, plenums, and diffusers should be

MD0165 4-19
shown for general ventilation systems. Figures 4-1 through 4-3 represent a
simplification of this concept. Sketches of systems should be considered as part of the
permanent record on which future changes in the system may be recorded.

(2) Specific air-flow measurements. Measurements in terms of airflow,

velocity, and static pressure must be made to determine that the system is adequately
balanced and performing to the design basis. These measurements include:

(a) Air flow in cfm at hoods (throat suction method), branches and
mains (Pitot tube), and up and downstream of fan (Pitot tube).

(b) Static pressure measurements at hoods, up and downstream of the

air cleaner, and up and downstream of the fan.

(c) Supply, capture, face, and transport velocities at diffuser outlets

(supply velocity), face or opening of hood (face velocity), velocity at point of contaminant
release (capture velocity), branches, and mains (conveying velocity).

(d) Fan performance in terms of fan speed in rpm and horsepower

(BHP) is calculated using cfm (Q), total pressure (TP), and mechanical efficiency (ME)
of fan. This operation is occasionally performed by a preventive medicine specialist.

NOTE: The measurements obtained should agree within 10. If they do not, the system
will have to be modified until it meets design criteria.

(3) Records. The locations of the measurements must be identified on the

sketch and a record kept for future comparisons.

(4) Other checks. Local exhaust systems are installed for the singular
purpose of removing some contaminant from the work environment. Visualization
techniques using smoke tubes or candles can be most helpful in verifying that the
system exerts a sphere of control over a sufficient area to prevent excessive exposures
to operating personnel. Air examination for specific contaminants is also recommended
to verify that the system will control contaminants to levels known to be safe. Air
samples taken in the breathing zones of operating personnel will be most helpful in
assessing the adequacy of contaminant control. Photographic records of smoke tests
and the results of evaluation tests should be maintained for future reference.

b. System Operation vs System Start-Up. Once systems are started up and

determined to perform satisfactorily, the degree of evaluation can be reduced as long as
good records of start-up or initial conditions have been made. Experience with airflow
systems clearly indicates that periodic surveys are required to assure that system
performance is adequate. Operating personnel cannot be relied upon as an "indicator"
of system performance. Also, ventilation systems are rarely an integral part of the
operation in terms of quality and production, and all too often receive inadequate
maintenance. For most systems, simple velocity measurements at exhaust hoods and

MD0165 4-20
supply ducts will provide a crude indication of system performance when compared with
start up evaluations. For local exhaust systems, the throat suction method applied to
exhaust hoods or face velocity and the static pressure differentials for air cleaners and
fans will suffice in confirming that the system is performing satisfactorily.

(1) The throat suction method will provide valid information, unless:

(a) The hood entry has been modified or damaged,

(b) There are obstructions ahead of the point of measurement, or

(c) The system has been modified.

(2) A reduction in throat suction or face velocity can provide valuable

information, such as an indication that there has been:

(a) An accumulation of material in an elbow, branch, or main, thus

clogging or restricting airflow. Build-up in elbows results from impaction, while build-up
in straight runs results from insufficient conveying velocity or from overloading the
system.

(b) A change in blast gate settings, if the system is balanced using

blast gates.

(c) Additional branches and hoods added to the system. "Adding on" to
a system is always a real temptation; however, it is not sound economics when it
renders the whole system deficient.

(d) Excessive build-up on the filter. It is best to monitor filter build-up

by attaching a static pressure measuring device across the filter.

(e) Reduced fan output resulting from belt slippage, damaged, or worn
rotor, or build-up on the fan blades.

c. Data Handling and Recording. The sketch of the system made at start-up
or for the initial evaluations survey must be recorded and filed in such a manner that
future air-flow surveys can be conducted in a similar manner. The frequency of airflow
surveys can be determined only by such conditions as:

(1) Nature of the materials being controlled. The more hazardous the
materials, the more frequently the system should be checked.

MD0165 4-21
 (2) Nature of the system. A blast gate system will require more frequent
checks than other systems.

(3) The level of maintenance. Airflow systems can be used to indicate the
need for more frequent and improved maintenance.

4-12. EVALUATING THE PERFORMANCE OF AIRFLOW SYSTEMS

a. There are several reasons for evaluating the performance of air-flow systems.

(1) To assure adequacy of design and performance.

(2) To assure system performance is maintained.

(3) To determine the feasibility of expanding (adding to) the system.

(4) To establish improved design parameters for new systems.

(5) To assure compliance with Federal, state, or other regulations.

b. Just as there is numerous reasons for evaluating air flow systems, there are
differing degrees to which they may need to be evaluated. Instruments and techniques
are available which may provide only a cursory evaluation of a part of the system or an
in-depth survey of the total system.

c. Visualization is a technique that can be employed to make a cursory estimate

of the performance of a local exhaust system. It employs various methods of
generating visual "clouds" which can then be observed to evaluate airflow patterns and
air velocities at exhaust entries and supply outlets. There are several chemical devices
available for use in visualization of a system.

(1) Smoke tubes is a descriptive term applied to glass tubes containing

titanium tetrachloride absorbed on a granular medium. When the ends of the glass tube
are broken and air passes through the tube, the moisture in the air reacts with the
chemical to generate hydrochloric acid "smoke."

CAUTION: Direct inhalation of the "smoke" should be avoided, as it is extremely

irritating to the respiratory system. The same effect can be obtained by
using glass ampules of liquid titanium tetrachloride, available through
standard chemical supply companies.

CAUTION: These fumes and the liquid are corrosive to the skin, and irritating to the
eyes and respiratory system.

MD0165 4-22
 (2) Smoke candles are available in a range of sizes and a few colors. They
are sized on the basis of volume (cubic feet) of smoke produced or the duration of
smoke evolution.

(3) There are other means of generating visible clouds to follow airflow. A
"heavier-than-air" cloud can be generated by placing dry ice in an alcohol bath. A
"lighter-than-air" cloud can be generated by blowing air through a smoldering mixture of
sawdust and oil.

d. Visualization devices are best suited for the evaluation of air-flow patterns
and velocities at exhaust entries and supply outlets.

(1) The industrial hygienist can carry smoke tubes with him as he conducts
surveys or inspections of industrial work areas. The tubes can be used best as an
immediate survey type tool in assessing the ability of a local exhaust system to capture
airborne contaminants. Smoke should be administered close to the hood entry initially,
and gradually the smoke source moved away from the entry to observe the sphere of
containment the exhaust system produces. Larger quantities of smoke can be
generated inside the hood or enclosure to estimate rate of clearance as well as to check
for eddy currents, reverse airflows, and escaping contaminants. Small amounts of
smoke can be used to estimate the force and direction of air from outlets as well as a
qualitative check of the performance of return air outlets.

(2) Titanium tetrachloride is best used by swabbing it along the periphery of

hoods as a check for eddy currents, reverse airflow, and lack of control. Once swabbed
inside a hood, the smoke will persist for several seconds, providing an opportunity for
prolonged observation or photographs.

(3) Smoke candles can be used to estimate clearance rates and

containment of large hoods such as paint spray booths, laboratory hoods, or other high
volume exhaust systems. The hygienist must ensure that the system is operating at
minimal performance levels before igniting a smoke candle to ensure reasonable
removal of the smoke. Smoke candles can be held by forceps and moved across hood
face openings to estimate the air distribution at the face. Colored smoke can be
introduced in ventilation systems to check for leaks.

(4) The fire department should be informed of the use of excessive amounts
of smoke to prevent false alarms.

MD0165 4-23
 e. There are two distinct limitations on the use of visualization techniques.

(1) Visualization is strictly qualitative and does not provide any information
in terms of design or performance specifications.

(2) The materials used can be hazardous or at the very least a nuisance,
thus their use in occupied work areas should be somewhat restricted.

Continue with Exercises

MD0165 4-24
EXERCISES, LESSON 4

INSTRUCTIONS: Answer the following exercises by marking the lettered response that
best answers the exercise, by completing the incomplete statement, matching, or by
writing the answer in the space provided at the end of the exercise.

After you have completed all the exercises, turn to "Solutions to Exercises" at the
end of the lesson and check your answers. For each exercise answered incorrectly,
reread the material referenced with the solution.

1. For industrial operations, what type of system has been designed to protect
workers and create a safe, comfortable working environment?

a. Ventilation.

b. Sewer.

c. Dilution.

d. Exhaust.

2. Generally speaking, why is ventilation probably one of the most important control
techniques for workers? It:

a. Provides for fire protection.

b. Is a way of controlling the environment with air=flow.

c. Creates negative air.

d. Is used in its natural form.

3. The purpose of air-flow in an industrial operations environment is to reach which

aim?

a. Adding contaminants.

b. Increasing concentrations of contaminants.

c. Providing for proper heating and cooling.

d. Deleting make-up air.

MD0165 4-25
4. The three applications of ventilation usually concern:

_____________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________

5. What are the different methods of ventilation used to control potentially

hazardous airborne contaminants?

a. General ventilation.

b. Dilution ventilation.

c. Local exhaust ventilation.

d. All of the above.

6. Which method of ventilation actually reduces the concentration of the

contaminant or hazardous material before it reaches the worker's breathing
zone?

a. Local exhaust.

b. Dilution.

c. General.

d. b and c.

7. Local exhaust ventilation is best defined as:

a. Capturing and removing the contaminant near its source or point of

generation.

b. Preventing the release of the contaminant into the workspace.

c. a and b

d. Partially removing the total amount of hazardous material released in the

work place.

MD0165 4-26
8. Which method of ventilation is preferred and more economical?

a. Dilution.

b. Local exhaust.

9. Which is correct?

a. General ventilation is a system to flush a workspace, a room, or an entire

building by supplying and exhausting a large volume of air throughout the
area.

b. General ventilation can only be achieved by artificial means.

c. a and b.

d. General ventilation is quite effective in removing large volumes of heated air

or in removing low decentralized sources.

10. Which type of general ventilation provides the best results in most modern
buildings in which industrial operations are conducted?

a. Natural.

b. Mechanical.

c. Combination of natural and mechanical.

d. None of the above.

11. Natural general ventilation means that workspaces or buildings may be ventilated
by:

a. Wind.

b. Sun.

c. Thermal convection.

d. a and b.

MD0165 4-27
12. If wind and thermal convection are natural general ventilation, how do they work?

a. Their effects result from natural pressure and air density differences.

b. Each causes natural displacement and infiltration of air through windows,

doors, walls, and other openings.

c. Warmer air inside a building rises, leaks out of openings in the upper areas
as colder air leaks into the building from lower areas, warms up and rises.

d. All of the above.

13. Which words describe wind currents and thermal convections for mechanical
ventilation on a hot and sticky day outside?

a. Constant and smooth.

b. Erratic and unreliable.

c. Pleasant and clear.

d. Natural and cold.

14. If only mechanical general ventilation is used in an industrial operation building,

what must be relied upon completely?

a. The air supply must reach interior areas to provide adequate air distribution
and prevent the creation of negative air pressures in the building.

b. Continuous fresh supply of oxygenated air.

c. Removal of stagnant and contaminant air.

d. All of the above.

MD0165 4-28
15. In using mechanical general ventilation, which is the best method of providing
general ventilation in a closed building? Supply air:

a. Via ductwork.

b. By using roof fans.

c. Through holes in walls.

d. With a center atrium filled with plants.

16. What will a good mechanical general ventilation system do for the workers? It will
keep:

a. Humidity high and temperature down.

b. Humidity low and temperature comfortable.

c. Temperature hot and humidity high.

d. Humidity low and temperature cold.

17. Which is a limiting factor when considering the dilution ventilation system for
purchase?

a. Toxicity of the contaminant must be low.

b. Quantity of contaminant generated must be excessive.

c. Workers must be located close to contaminant evolution.

d. Evolution of contaminants must be reasonably erratic.

18. Because high toxicities encountered require excessively high quantities of air,
would usually not be recommended for control of fumes
and dusts.

a. Dilution or general ventilation.

b. Local exhaust ventilation.

MD0165 4-29
19. What are two obvious advantages of general (dilution) ventilation systems?

a. Simplicity of design and high initial cost.

b. Low cost and exhaust of small volumes of heated air.

c. Simplicity of design and low initial cost.

d. Complex design that results in low running cost.

20. What do local exhaust systems usually contain or need?

a. More mechanical components than general ventilation systems.

b. More precise control of their operation.

c. More maintenance.

d. All of the above.

21. List four basic considerations that should be kept in mind when applying local
exhaust ventilation to a specific problem.

_____________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________

22. What is/are the advantages of the local exhaust system?

a. Control of the contaminant is complete.

b. The worker is exposed to the contaminant.

c. It can handle more highly toxic contaminants.

d. a and c.

MD0165 4-30
23. What is the disadvantage of the local exhaust ventilation system?

a. It is not efficient.

b. It weighs less.

c. Installation of ductwork causes an inflexible work area.

d. The cost is initially high but it is more efficient to operate.

24. The basic laws governing the complete motion of a fluid, such as air, are widely
known and relatively simple.

a. True.

b. False.

25. What is the air-flow rate if the velocity was measured at 210, 320, 195, and 305
ft/min for a duct that is 12" by 36"?

a. 257.5 cmf.

b. 386.25 cfm.

c. 772.5 cfm.

d. 1030 cfm.

26. What consideration is needed for circular ducts when determining the rate of air-
flow? Use the:

a. Radius of a circle.

b. Area of a circle.

c. Area of a square.

d. Diameter of a circle.

MD0165 4-31
27. What term represents the minimum air velocity required to cause the
contaminated air to flow into an enclosure?

a. Capture velocity.

b. Static pressure.

c. Duct velocity

d. Face velocity.

28. When using the local exhaust system, this term maintains air velocity, exists only
when air is in motion, acts in the direction of the flow, and is always positive.
What is this term?

a. Capture velocity.

b. Velocity pressure.

c. Static pressure.

d. Total pressure.

29. When using the local exhaust system, this pressure term is required to start and
maintain air flow. What is the term?

a. Velocity pressure.

b. Static pressure.

c. Inner pressure.

d. Total pressure.

MD0165 4-32
In exercises 30 through 32, write the letter of the term in the right-hand column with the
appropriate equation definition in the left-hand column.

30. ____ SP + VP = TP a. Relationship between velocity and rate of flow.

31. ____ Q = AV b. The continuity equation.

32. ____ A1V1 = A2V2 c. Relationship difference of pressure

components.

33. Friction loss is caused by:

a. The rough surface confining the flow of air.

b. Turbulence.

c. A change in direction or velocity within a duct.

d. A pressure drop in a duct caused by elbows or angles.

34. Which anemometer is best suited for determining air velocities and estimating air
flow through large openings such as mine shafts, air supply, and discharge
grilles?

a. Rotating vane.

b. Swinging vane.

c. Heating thermocouple.

d. Heated wire.

35. Which anemometer is quite portable and used extensively by industrial hygienists
and ventilation engineers in the field?

a. Heated wire.

b. Rotating vane.

c. Swinging vane.

d. Heating thermocouple.

MD0165 4-33
36. A heated wire anemometer:

a. Requires the use of a timing device and must be frequently calibrated.

b. Usually has readings taken for one-minute periods, thus giving air velocity in
linear fpm.

c. Usually is comprised of a single probe connected to an operating unit housing

circuitry, meter, batteries, and so forth, and are about the size of a cigar box.

d. Depends upon the change in resistance of a wire with a change in

temperature.

37. Which anemometer can have its delicate wires damaged in the probe if heavy
loadings or corrosive materials come in contact with it?

a. Heated wire.

b. Rotating vane.

c. Swinging vane.

d. Heating thermocouple.

38. What basic instrument is used to measure air velocity?

a. Anemometer.

b. Rotating vane.

c. Swinging vane.

d. Heating thermocouple.

MD0165 4-34
39. Generally, the electrical or mechanical systems on which air flow measuring
instruments are based are quite sensitive to _________; this is one reason that
such instruments require periodic_______________ .

a. Touch; watering.

b. Shock; calibration.

c. Noise; static pressure.

d. Pressure; pitot tube cleaning.

40. An inch of water is:

a. A unit of pressure equal to the pressure exerted by a column of liquid one

inch high at a standard temperature.

b. A unit of pressure more than the pressure exerted by a column of liquid one
inch high at a standard temperature.

c. A formula used to help calibrate instruments.

d. Read directly on a meter, which is actuated by a change in voltage.

41. Which statement is correct concerning anemometer accuracy?

a. Relatively wide probes and fittings can also be used to measure air velocities
within the system.

b. The accuracy in determining duct velocities or flow rates will be dependent

upon proper locations and number of measurements taken in traversing the
duct.

c. The difference between the velocity pressure and the static pressure is the
total pressure.

d. All of the above.

MD0165 4-35
42. The major disadvantage of the Pitot tube is that it is:

a. Not the standard instrument for measuring the velocity of air in ducts.

b. Used to measure the velocity pressure contours inside the ducts.

c. Not used with the inclined mamometers.

d. Not direct reading.

43. Because the air flow is not uniform in the cross section of a duct, how many
diameters should be measured straight run downstream or upstream of any
interference for greater accuracy?

a. At least 7.5 diameters of straight run downstream or 1.5 diameters upstream

from any interference.

b. At least 7.0 diameters of straight run downstream or 1.0 diameters upstream

from any interference.

c. Not more than 7.5 diameters down run or 1.5 diameters upstream.

d. Two thousand feet either way.

44. Which is true about Pitot tubes?

a. These tubes are to be used during corrosive or variable temperature

conditions.

b. Corrections do not have to be made if the temperature is plus or minus 30ºF

from standard.

c. They are not used in small diameter ducts less than 3 inches or in orifice type
openings.

d. They are used to measure velocities less than 600 fpm.

MD0165 4-36
45. The aneroid gauge:

a. Is small, extremely portable, and not as sensitive to vibration and level as gas
liquid filled manometers.

b. May be filled with a variety of media ranging from alcohol to mercury.

c. Is used when great accuracy and in low pressure systems are needed.

d. Is used when extreme accuracy is essential as well as sensitivity to vibration.

46. The manometers:

a. May be filled with a variety of media ranging from alcohol to mercury.

b. Are used when great accuracy in low pressure systems are needed.

c. Are used when extreme accuracy is not essential or in high

pressure systems will suffice.

d. All of the above.

47. What is/are the principle limitations of the aneroid gauge?

a. Reading them.

b. Accuracy and calibration.

c. Turbulence.

d. The nonlinear flow.

48. What is a critical point on any pressure-measuring device?

a. Location of the hole.

b. Type of hole.

c. Taps.

d. Static leg.

MD0165 4-37
49. Which statement is correct concerning fan performance with respect to fan
speed, horsepower, total pressure, and mechanical efficiency?

a. Measurements should agree within 10 percent of the design basis. If not,

modify the fan until it meets design uncriteria.

b. Measurements should agree within 15 percent of the design basis.

c. Prevent excessive exposure to operating personnel.

d. All of the above.

50. Which statement is correct concerning visualization when evaluating the

performance of air flow systems?

a. By generating visual "clouds," they can be observed to evaluate airflow

patterns and air velocities at exhaust entries and supply outlets.

b. It is a technique which can be employed to make a cursory estimate of the

performance of a local exhaust system.

c. Visualization devices are best suited for the evaluation of airflow patterns and
velocities at exhaust entries and supply outlets.

d. All of the above.

Check Your Answers on Next Page

MD0165 4-38
SOLUTIONS TO EXERCISES, LESSON 4

1. a (para 4-1a)

2. b (para 4-1b)

3. c (para 4-1b)

4. Preventing fire and explosions, controlling atmospheric contaminants to healthful

limits, controlling heat and humidity for comfort. (para 4-1c)

5. d (para 4-2)

6. d (para 4-2a(1))

7. c (para 4-2a(2))

8. b (para 4-2b)

9. a (para 4-3)

10. c (para 4-3)

11. d (para 4-3a)

12. d (para 4-3a)

13. b (para 4-3a)

14. d (para 4-3b)

15. a (para 4-3b)

16. b (para 4-3b)

17. a (para 4-3c(b))

18. a (para 4-3c(2))

19. c (para 4-3d(1))

20. d (para 4-4)

MD0165 4-39
21. The source of contamination should be enclosed as completely as possible.
The contaminant should be captured with adequate air velocity.
The contaminant should be kept out of the worker's breathing zone.
Adequate make-up air must be provided, or, exhaust air must be discharged away
from air inlet systems. (para 4-4a)

22. d (para 4-4c)

23. c (para 4-4d(2))

24. b (para 4-5a)

25. c (para 4-5b)

26. b (para 4-5b NOTE)

27. a (para 4-5c(1))

28. b (para 4-6a)

29. d (para 4-6c)

30. c (para 4-6c)

31. a (para 4-5b)

32. b (para 4-5b)

33. a (para 4-7a)

34. a (para 4-8b(1))

35. c (para 4-8b(2))

36. d (para 4-8b(4))

37. d (para 4-8b(3))

38. a (para 4-8b)

39. b (para 4-9)

40. a (para 4-10b, NOTE)

41. b (para 4-10c)

MD0165 4-40
42. d (para 4-10b)

43. a (para 4-10e)

44. c (para 4-10f)

45. a (para 4-10g(1))

46. d (para 4-10g(2))

47. b (para 4-10g(1))

48. b (para 4-10h)

49. a (para 4-11a(2)(d)NOTE)

50. a (para 4-12c)

END OF LESSON 4

MD0165 4-41
 APPENDIX A

REFERENCES

1. AR 40-5, Preventive Medicine, 15 October 1990.

2. AR 200-2, Environmental Effects of Army Actions, 23 December 1988.

3. AR 385-32, Protective Clothing and Equipment, 31 October 1985.

4. AR 385-10, Army Safety Program, 23 May 1988.

5. AR 385-30, Safety Color Code Markings and Signs, 15 September 1983.

6. AR 420-10, Management of Installation Directorate of Engineering and Housing

and Personnel, 15 December 1981.

7. AR 750-25, Army Metrology and Calibration System.

8. DODI 1000.3, Safety and Occupational Health Policy for the Department of
Defense, 29 March 1979.

9. DODI 6055.1, Department of Defense Occupational Safety and Health (OSH)

Program, 26 October 1984.

10. DODI 6055.1, Industrial Hygiene and Occupational Health, 30 April 1980.

11. DHEW Publication No. (NIOSH) 76-189, A Guide to Industrial Respiratory

Protection.

12. Public Law 91-596. Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970.

13. Title 29, Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), 1980 ed., Part 1910, Occupational
Safety and Health Standards.

14. Executive Order 12196, Occupational Safety and Health Programs for Federal
Employees, 26 February 1980.

15. DA Pam 40-501, Hearing Conservation, 27 August 1991.

16. TB MED 501, Hearing Conservation, 15 March 1980.

17. TB MED 502, Respiratory Protection Program, 15 February 1982.

18. TB MED 503, The Army Industrial Hygiene Program, February 1985.

MD0165 A-1
19. TB MED 506, Occupational and Environmental Health Occupational Vision,
15 December 1981.

20. TG 141, USAEHA Industrial Hygiene Air Sampling and Bulk Sampling
Instructions, December 1990.

21. TG 172, USAEHA Cold Injury, December 1989.

22. HSC Pam 40-2, Occupational Health Program.

END OF APPENDIX A

MD0165 A-2
 APPENDIX B

TYPICAL OPERATIONS FOUND AT MILITARY INSTALLATION:

THEIR EXPOSURES AND CONTROLS

Operation Exposures Controls Needed to Control Exposure*

Acetylene- Infrared and intense Mechanical general ventilation, goggles,

welding visible radiation; oxides gloves
of nitrogen; metal and
flux fumes

Arc welding and Ultraviolet, infrared and Local exhausts ventilation (100 feet
inert gas arc intense visible per-minute (fpm) at welding site),
inert gas arc radiation nitrogen; helmets, gloves, aprons, screens (at least
welding metal and flux fumes; 7" high)
ozone

Metalizing Infrared and intense Exhaust-ventilated booth for routine work

visible radiation; oxides (face velocity of 200 fpm) goggles,
of nitrogen; metal and gloves, hearing conservation program,
flux fumes, noise washing facilities

Testing, tuning, Carbon monoxide Powered flexible tailpipe exhaust

and repairing other products of extensions (dimensions and exhaust
vehicle engines combustion, oils, capacities are found in the (USAEHA
greases Ventilation Standards), washing facilities

Charging lead- Sulfuric acid and its Mechanical general ventilation (2 cfm/sq
acid Batteries mist ft of floor space), impervious gloves,
aprons, chemical splash goggles, or face
shield, deluge shower, eyewash fountain

Steaming Steam, alkaline Outdoor operation usually (if performed

cleaning Mists indoors, mechanical general ventilation is
necessary), rubber gloves, rubber boots,
aprons, face shield, washing facilities

* The number and type of controls will

depend on character and length of
exposure. Controls presented here are
considered the optimum.

MD0165 B-1
 TYPICAL OPERATIONS FOUND AT MILITARY INSTALLATION:
THEIR EXPOSURES AND CONTROLS (continued)

Operation Exposures Controls Needed to Control Exposure*

Parts cleaning Various solvents and Mechanical general ventilation,

their vapors washing facilities, minimize skin
including Stoddard contact with solvent, splash goggles
solvent and its vapor

Vapor-degreasing Trichloroethylene or Degreasing machine, with vapor zone

Perchloroethylene thermostat, adequate freeboard, properly
and vapor isolated or baffled to prevent cross-drafts,
mechanical general ventilation, washing
facilities, splash goggles

Leading in vehicle Lead fume Mechanical general ventilation, a

body surfaces temperature flame should be used in lead,
NIOSH approved fume respirators,
medical surveillance for lead absorption

Power-sanding Metal and abrasive Exhaust-ventilated booth having a velocity

painted and/or of 150-fpm, equipped with a collector,
leaded surfaces NIOSH approved toxic-dust or all-dust
respirators, washing facilities, medical
surveillance for lead absorption goggles

Abrasive cleaning Metal and siliceous Enclosed exhaust ventilated abrasive

(small parts and dust blasting cabinet with dust collector,
equipment) NIOSH approved abrasive blasting
helmet, protective clothing, washing
facilities, hearing conservation program

Abrasive cleaning Metal and siliceous Enclosed exhaust ventilated blasting

(vehicles and large dust room with dust collector NIOSH approved
equipment) abrasive blasting helmet, protective
clothing, washing facilities, hearing
conservation program
Machining and Metal and abrasive Natural ventilation, goggles, washing
grinding metals dusts, cutting and facilities
coolant oils, greases

Forging steel Carbon monoxide Exhaust-ventilated enclosing hood forge,

Smoke washing facilities, tinted goggles.

MD0165 B-2
 TYPICAL OPERATIONS FOUND AT MILITARY INSTALLATION:
THEIR EXPOSURES AND CONTROLS (continued)
Operation Exposures Controls Needed to Control Exposure*

Heat-treating Heat, sodium Exhaust-ventilated enclosing

Metal carbonate, oxides of hood(ventilating rate of 200 cubic feet per
nitrogen, carbon minute (cfm)/sq ft of opening area),
monoxide, smoke washing facilities, tinted goggles

Soldering Metal and flux fumes Mechanical general ventilation, washing

including lead fume facilities, tinted goggles

Cutting and Cutting and coolant Natural ventilation, washing facilities,

threading pipe oils goggles

Developing and Standard photographic Mechanical general ventilation of air

processing still and chemicals and conditioning (10 air changes per hour), splash
motion picture film reagents goggles, washing facilities, eye wash

Mixing Standard Mechanical general ventilation of air

photographic photographic conditioning (10 air changes per hour),
chemicals and chemicals and goggles, gloves, aprons, washing
reagents reagents facilities, eye wash

Cleaning film Various solvents and Mechanical general ventilation and/or

their vapors including enclosed exhaust ventilated film cleaning
trichloroethylene and machine, washing facilities
methyl chloroform
Arc-light Ultraviolet, infrared, Mechanical general ventilation, screens
reproduction and intense visible (at least 7' high) or isolation of the
radiations oxides of operation, tinted glasses or goggles
nitrogen ozone

Multilith Inks, various Mechanical general ventilation washing

reproduction off- cleaning solutions facilities, minimize skin contact with
set printing, other and their mists and solutions
printing vapors, including
operations trichloroethylene,
Stoddard solvent and
its vapor, methyl
chloroform, acidic
chromate solutions

"Ozalid" Ammonia Enclosed exhaust ventilated machine,

reproduction washing facilities

MD0165 B-3
 TYPICAL OPERATIONS FOUND AT MILITARY INSTALLATION:
THEIR EXPOSURES AND CONTROLS (continued)
Operation Exposures Controls Needed to Control Exposure*

Powered wood Noise, wood dusts Hearing conservation program, locally

working exhaust ventilated machines, washing
facilities

Stripping paint Paint-stripping Mechanical general ventilation, washing

from furniture compounds usually facilities (if material is sprayed onto the
containing equipment, an exhaust-ventilated booth
methylene chloride having a face velocity of 150-fpm should
be used) splash goggles

Spray-painting Paint mists, thinner Exhaust ventilated spray-paint booth (150

vapors -fpm through the cross section of the
booth), NIOSH approved spray paint
respirators (NIOSH-approved airline
respirator for work in confined spaces),
washing facilities, splash goggles

Brush painting Paint pigments Mechanical general ventilation, washing

thinner vapor facilities, splash goggles

Dry painted Thinner vapors Exhaust-ventilated drying booth

equipment

Mixing and DDT, chlordane Mechanical general ventilation in mixing

dispersing lindane, malathion, area, gloves, splash goggles, washing
insecticides herbicides, facilities, respirators
warafarin

Filling fire Sulfuric acid and its Mechanical general ventilation, aprons,
extinguishers mist, carbon gloves, face shields, washing facilities,
tetrachloride dyed carbon tetrachloride solution

Proof-testing small Lead fume, Local-exhaust ventilation (300-fpm at

arms and combustion firing area and 200 fpm at target end of
ammunition in products, noise range), hearing conservation program,
indoor range medical surveillance for lead absorption

Chemical analyses Standard laboratory Laboratory fume hood (100-fpm face

in laboratory reagents and velocity with hood door fully open),
chemical washing facilities, splash goggles

END OF APPENDIX B

MD0165 B-4
 APPENDIX C

COMMON INDUSTRIAL HAZARDS FOUND IN THE ARMY

Gases TLV (ppm) STEL Typical Operations

Carbon monoxide 50 400 Engine operations

Welding and cutting
Combustion

Nitrogen dioxide 3 5 Metalizing Carbon arc

reproduction

Aldehydes (1, A2)* (2, A2) Diesel engines Map

(Formaldehyde) sorting and storage

Sulfur dioxide 2 5 Diesel engines Heating

plants

Thinner vapors 100 150 Painting

Toluene 100 150
Xylene

Ozone C 0.1 C 0.2 Inert gas welding Carbon

arc reproduction
Metalizing

Ammonia 25 35 Ozalid reproduction

Chlorine 0.5 11 Chlorinating water and

sewage

Methyl bromide 5 (skin) -- Fumigation work

Methyl ethyl ketone 200 300 Spraying strippable

(MEK) coating, paint
removing
Mercury 0.05 mg/M3 -- Filling mercury gauges
(skin) and instruments
Calibration of mercury
instruments

Trichloroethylene 50 200 Vapor degreasing

Cleaning metal parts by
hand with cold solution
* A2 indicates suspected carcinogen.

MD0165 C-1
 COMMON INDUSTRIAL HAZARDS FOUND IN THE ARMY (continued)

Solvents TLV (ppm) STEL Typical Operations

Perchloroethylene 50 200 Vapor degreasing

Multilith reproduction

Benzene 10 -- Cleaning metal parts

(suspected Inner tube repair
carcinogen)

Methylene chloride 50 -- Cleaning metal parts

Stoddard solvent 100 -- Cleaning metal parts

Chloroform 10 -- Cleaning metal parts

(suspected Laboratory work
carcinogen)

Cresylic acid 5 -- Carburetor cleaning

(Cresol) (skin)

Methyl chloroform 350 450 Cleaning typewriters and

office equipment

Formaldehyde (1,A2) (2,A2) Tissue processing

Map storage

Acetone 750 1000 Cleaning optics, silk

screening

Ethyl alcohol 1000 -- Cleaning optics, silk

screening

MD0165 C-2
 COMMON INDUSTRIAL HAZARDS FOUND IN THE ARMY (continued)

Mists TLV in mg/m3 STEL Typical Operations

Paint mists dependent on -- Paint spraying

(solvent mists or solvent and
vapors and pigments
pigment particles)

Phosphoric acid 1.0 3.0 Aluminum bright dip

De-rusting

Chromic acid (Recognized -- Chrome plating

carcinogen) Anodizing aluminum
Acid dipping zinc and
magnesium

Sulfuric acid 1 3.0 Surface treatment of

metals
Charging lead batteries

Sodium hydroxide 2C -- Alkaline cleaning of

metals.
Some paint removers

Cyanides (as CN) 5 -- Electroplating and

(skin) stripping

Oil mists 5 10 Coolant for machining

MD0165 C-3
 COMMON INDUSTRIAL HAZARDS FOUND IN THE ARMY (continued)

Fumes TLV in mg/m3 STEL Typical Operations

Iron oxide fume 5 10 Arc and acetylene

welding

Cadmium oxide 0.05C -- Silver brazing

fume Welding and cutting on
cadmium plated surfaces

Copper fume 0.2 -- Silver brazing

Welding or cutting on
brass or bronze

Silver (soluble) 0.1 -- Silver brazing

Lead 0.15 -- Leading-in work on

vehicle bodies,
communications
equipment, battery
terminals, and pipes.
Welding and cutting on
leaded steel..
Welding and cutting on
lead painted surfaces..
Weapons firing
Ammunition popping
Lead melting and casting

Zinc oxide fume 5.0 10 Silver brazing

Welding and cutting on
galvanized metals

Chromium and 05 to .5 -- Welding and cutting on

chromium oxides (many recognized stainless steel
as carcinogens)

MD0165 C-4
 COMMON INDUSTRIAL HAZARDS FOUND IN THE ARMY (continued)

Dusts TLV in mg/m3 STEL Typical Operations

Iron oxide 5 10 Power sanding or

grinding on oxidized
iron or steel

Lead 0.15 -- Power sanding or

grinding lead base
painted surfaces. Power
sanding on leaded-in
vehicle body work

Various insecticide Mixing and dispersing

dusts such as:
Chlordane, 0.5 skin --
Lindane, 0.5 skin --
Dieldrin, 0.25 skin --
DDT, 1.0 3
Malathion 10 skin --

Silicon dioxide consult -- Sandblasting

(free silica) TLV Table Foundry operations

Fluoride dusts 2.5 -- Fluoridation of water

supplies

END OF APPENDIX C

MD0165 C-5
 APPENDIX D

INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE SAMPLING GUIDE INSTRUCTION FOR

SUBMISSION OF INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE AIR SAMPLES

1. Fill out the Sample Data Sheet completely.

2. Requestor is to fill in columns b, c, d (optional), e or f, g, h, and i.

3. Number all samples and blanks using consecutive numbers.

4. A "blank" MUST accompany ALL air samples. The "blank" is to be numbered and
the word "BLANK" written on the tube, filter, bottle, passive monitor or impinger.
Indicate on the form the "blank" sample number.

5. All samples are to be forwarded to:

Commander
U.S. Army Environmental Hygiene Agency
ATTN: HSHB─ML-A, Bldg E-2100
Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD 21010-5422

NOTE: Bulk Sample Data (AEHA Form 8) or Air Sample Data (AEHA Form 9) is to
accompany all industrial hygiene samples submitted for analysis.

NOTE: Request for additional forms should be submitted to:

Commander
U.S. Army Environmental Hygiene Agency
ATTN: HSHB─ML-A
Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD 21010-5422

or

Locally reproduce

6. Refer to the following table for specific sampling instructions.

MD0165 D-1
 Air Sampling Procedures For Chemicals Contaminants

Chemical Sampling Method and Sampling Rate* Sample Volume in

Contaminant Collecting Medium Per Minute Liters**
Minimum Maximum

Acetic acid ChromosorbR*** tube for 100─500 ml 15 60

acids (see page D-9)

Acetone 200/400 mg charcoal 20─100 ml 1 6

tube or passive monitor

Acid mists See Specific Acid

Alkali mists See Specific Compound

(such as
NaOH,KOH)

Ammonia Preferred: 100-500 ml 3 24

100/200-mg
ammonia
adsorption tube
(ORBOR-77) R (see
page D-9)

Alternate: 1-2 liters 10 40

Midget impinger
(15 ml of 0.5%
sulfuric acid)

Asbestos 25 um filter cassette, 0.5-2.5 400 --

open face shrouded liters
(CE 0.8 um filter) w/50
mm extension cowl

*Use the flow rate that will give the recommended air volume. Minimum liters generally
refer to the least number of liters that are required to see 0.1 to 0.2 TLV (TWA).
Maximum liters refer to largest number of liters, which may be collected without
significant breakthrough for a compound if present at approximately two times TLV
(TWA) levels. The recommended volumes should be collected even if very low or very
high levels are suspected.

**Contact USAEHA for information regarding temporary loan of equipment.

MD0165 D-2
 Air Sampling Procedures For Chemicals Contaminants (continued)

Chemical Sampling Method and Sampling Rate* Sample Volume in

Contaminant Collecting Medium Per Minute Liters**
Minimum Maximum

Benzene 200/400 mg charcoal 50-500 ml 25 40

tube
or passive monitor 2-8 hr -- --

Beryllium Filter cassette, closed 1-4 liters 250 1000

face with spacer
(CE 0.8 micrometer
(um) filter)

Cadmium Filter cassette, closed 1-3 liters 100 1500

face with spacer
(CE 0.8 um filter

Carbon tetra- 200/400 mg charcoal 50-500 ml 25 40

chloride tube

Chlordane 33/66 mg Chromosorb 1-2 liters 300 500

102 tube

Chlorpyrifos Specially constructed 1 liter 480 --

(DursbanR) glass sampling tube only
containing a glass fiber
filter and 2 sections of
XAD-2R resin

Chlorine Midget fritted glass 1.5 liters 20 30

bubbler (100 ml of
methyl orange
reagent)

MD0165 D-3
 Air Sampling Procedures For Chemicals Contaminants (continued)

Chemical Sampling Method and Sampling Rate* Sample Volume in

Contaminant Collecting Medium Per Minute Liters**
Minimum Maximum

Chloroform 200/400-mg charcoal 50-500 ml 25 40

tube

Chromic acid Filter cassette, closed 1-4 liters -- 500

mist face with spacer (PVC
5.0 um filter) submit
three blank filters

Chromium Filter cassette, closed 1-3 liters 100 1000

(as dust or face with spacer
fume) (CE 0.8 um filter)

Copper Filter cassette, closed 1-3 liters 60 1500

face with spacer
(CE 0.8 um filter)

Cresols 260/250 mg Silica Gel 50─500 ml 25 40

(cresylic
acid)
Cyanide Midget impinger (10 ml 1.5 liters 20 90
(dust or of 0.2N sodium
fume) hydroxide (Transfer to a
plastic bottle after
collection)
Diazinon Specially constructed 1 liter 480 --
glass sampling tubes
containing a glass fiber
filter and 2 sections of
XAD-2 resin

Dieldrin Filter cassette, closed 1.5 liters 160 200

face (GF 37 mm)

Dioxane 200/400 mg charcoal 50-500 ml 7.5 40

tube OR or
passive monitor 90 min-8 hr

MD0165 D-4
 Air Sampling Procedures For Chemicals Contaminants (continued)

Chemical Sampling Method and Sampling Rate* Sample Volume in

Contaminant Collecting Medium Per Minute Liters**
Minimum Maximum

Dust (total) Filter cassette, pre- 1-2 liters 400 1000

weighed, closed
(PVC 5.0 um filter)

Dust Filter cassette, pre─ 1.7 liters 500 816

(Respirable) weighed, with spacer only
and cyclone (PVC
5.0 um filter)

Ethyl alcohol 200/400 mg charcoal 20-50 ml 0.5 2

tube OR
passive monitor 15 min-1.0 hr

Ethylene oxide ORBO-78 ETD tube 20-200 ml 9.6 20

OR
passive monitor 8 hrs

Ethyl ether 200/400 mg charcoal 50-100 ml 1 6

tube

Fluorides Filter, closed face with 1-2 liters 20 800

(dust) spacer (PVC 5.0 um
filter)

Fluorides CE 0.8 um filter 1-2 liters 20 800

(fume) same as fluorides
dust

Formaldehyde ORBO-23 100 ml 24 --

formaldehyde tube

Hydrochloric Silica gel tube 200 ml only 3.0 only

acid OR (ceiling)
ORBO-70 acid tube 500 ml only 7.5 only --
(ceiling)

Iron Filter, closed face with 1-2 liters 15 500

spacer (CE 0.8 um
filter)

MD0165 D-5
 Air Sampling Procedures For Chemicals Contaminants (continued)
Chemical Sampling Method and Sampling Rate* Sample Volume in
Contaminant Collecting Medium Per Minute Liters**
Minimum Maximum

Fluorides CE 0.8 um filter 1-2 liters 20 800

(fume) same as fluorides
dust

Formaldehyde ORBO-23 formaldehyde 100 ml 24 --

tube

Hydrochloric Silica gel tube 200-ml only 3.0 only

acid OR (ceiling)
ORBO-70 acid tube 500-ml only 7.5 only --
(ceiling)

Iron Filter, closed face with 1-2 liters 15 500

spacer (CE 0.8 um
filter)

Lead, Filter cassette, closed 1-4 liters 200 1200

inorganic face with spacer
(fumes and (CE 0.8 um filter)
dust)
Lead See lead, inorganic
Chromate

Manganese Filter cassette, closed 1-2 liters 50 1000

face with spacer
(CE 0.8 um filter)

Mercury vapor Mercury vapor

detector

Methyl alcohol 260/520-mg Silica gel 20-200 ml 1 5

tube

Methyl 200/400-mg charcoal 50-200 ml 9 20

bromide tube two tubes in series
OR passive monitor 4 hr -- --

Methyl chloro- 200/400-mg charcoal 20-500 ml 1 20

form (1, 1, tube OR or
1-Trichloroe- passive monitor 1-4 hr -- --
thane)

MD0165 D-6
 Air Sampling Procedures For Chemicals Contaminants (continued)

Chemical Sampling Method and Sampling Rate* Sample Volume in

Contaminant Collecting Medium Per Minute Liters**
Minimum Maximum

Methylene 200/400 mg charcoal 20-200 ml 1 12

chloride tube OR or
passive monitor 30 min-1 hr ── ──

Nitrogen Preferred: -- -- --
dioxide Direct reading NO2
meter OR
400/600/400 nitrogen 20-50 ml 2 (TWA) 4
dioxide tube (ORBO-76)

Alternate: 0.4 liter Sample

Fritted glass bubbler until a
(10 ml of Saltzman medium
Reagent) shade of
purple
develops
but not to
exceed 10
minutes.
Either way, immediate
analysis is preferred.
Color fades
approximately
3 percent each day

Nitroglycerin 50/100 mg TenaxR tube 0.2-1 liter 15 50

Nitrous oxide Portable infrared

analyzer
(that is, MIRANR)
Nuisance Filter cassette, closed 1-2 liters 400 1000
Particulates face with spacer, (PVC,
micrometer filter
pre-weighed)

Oil mist Filter cassette, closed 1-2 liters 400 1000

face with spacer, pre-
weighed (PVC 5.0 um
filter)

MD0165 D-7
 Air Sampling Procedures For Chemicals Contaminants (continued)

Chemical Sampling Method and Sampling Sample Volume in

Contaminant Collecting Medium Rate* Per Liters**
Minute
Minimum Maximum

Ozone Preferred: -- -- --
Ozone meter (direct
reading)

Alternate: 1-2 liters 60 120

All glass midget
impinger
(10 ml of alkaline KI)

Pentachlor- Filter, closed face with 1-2 liters 50 --

phenol spacer glass fiber filter
Midget impinger (15 ml 1.5 liter 90 120
of ethylene glycol***)

Petroleum 200/400 mg charcoal 50-500 ml 5 40

solvent vapors tube

Phenol 260/520 Silica gel tube 50 ml 3 20

Phosphoric 200/400 mg high purity 200-500 ml 30 120

acid Silica gel tube

Polychlorinate 50/100 mg FlorisilR tube 50-200 ml 12 48

d biphenyls preceded by 13 um
(PCBs) glass fiber filter

Potassium Filter cassette, closed 1-2 liters 60 960

hydroxide face with spacer
(CE 0.8 um filter)
submitt three blank
filters

*** Do not use antifreeze in place of ethylene glycol.

MD0165 D-8
 Air Sampling Procedures For Chemicals Contaminants (continued)

Chemical Sampling Method and Sampling Sample Volume in

Contaminant Collecting Medium Rate* Per Liters**
Minute
Minimum Maximum
Quartz
(crystalline
silica)
a. Total**** Filter cassette, closed 1-4 liters 250 1000
face with spacer pre-
weighed (PVC, 5.0 um
filter)
b. Respirable Filter, closed face with 1.7 liters 500 816
spacer, pre-weighed only
and10 mm cyclone
(PVC, 5.0 um filter, 37
mn diameter)*****

Sodium Filter cassette, closed 1-2 liters 60 960

hydroxide face with spacer (CE 0.8
um filter) submit three
blank filters

Stoddard 200/400 mg charcoal 50-500 ml 5 40

solvent tube

Styrene 200/400 mg charcoal 50-500 ml 5 40

tube OR or
passive monitor 1-8 hr -- --

Sulfur dioxide 200/400 mg high purity 200-500 ml 24 48

Silica gel tube

Sulfuric acid 200/400 mg high purity 200-500 ml 24 48

Silica gel tube

Toluene 200/400 charcoal tube 50-500 ml 5 40

****Total quartz sampling not generally recommended. Sample for respirable dust.

*****A bulk air sample should be submitted for determination of percent respirable
quartz.

MD0165 D-9
 Air Sampling Procedures For Chemicals Contaminants (continued)

Chemical Sampling Method and Sampling Sample Volume in

Contaminant Collecting Medium Rate* Per Liters**
Minute
Minimum Maximum

Toluene ORBO-80 tube 1 liter 15

disocyanate
(TDI)

Trichloroe- 200/400-mg charcoal 50-500 ml 5 40

ethylene tube OR or
passive monitor 1-8 hr -- --

Trinitrotoluene 50/100 mg TenaxR ****** 1 liter 15 50

(TNT) tube (For extremely
dusty operations use a
37 mm glass fiber
prefilter)

Welding Filter, closed face with 1-2 liters 400 1000

Fumes spacer, pre-weighed
(total fume) (PVC 5.0 um filter)

Welding For metal analysis

fumes see specific metal
(metals)
Xylene 200/400 mg charcoal 50-500 ml 5 40
tube OR or
passive monitor 1-8 hr -- --

Zinc Filter cassette, closed 1-3 liters 15 400

Compounds face with spacer (CE
0.8 um filter) submit
three blank filters

******Chromos orb is a registered trademark of Johns-Manville Products Corp.,

Denver, CO.
Dursban is a registered trademark of Dow Chemical Co, Midland, MI.
ORBOR is a registered trademark of Sup Alco, Inc., Supelco Park, Bellefole, PA.
XAD-2 is a registered trademark of Rohn & Haas, Philadelphia, PA.
MIRAN is a registered trademark of Foxboro Analytical, South Norwalk, CT.
Tenax is a registered trademark of Gic-Enka N.V., The Netherlands.

END OF APPENDIX D

MD0165 D-10
 APPENDIX E

THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUES FOR SELECTED SUBSTANCES, 1990-1991

TWA . STEL .
3 3
Substance ppm mg/m ppm mg/m

Acetic acid 10 25 15 37

Ammonia 25 18 35 27

Cadmium oxide -- (C 0.05) -- --

fume (as Cd)
Carbon disulfide 10 31 -- --
(Skin)
Carbon monoxide 50 55 400 440

Chlorine 0.5 1.5 1 2.9

Copper fume -- 0.2 -- --

Diazinon (Skin) -- 0.1 -- --

Diethyl ether 400 1200 500 1500

Formaldehyde (1,A2) (1.2A2) (2,A2) (2.5,A2)

Nitrogen dioxide 3 5.6 5 9.4

Ozone C 0.l C 0.2 0.3 0.6

Phosgene 0.10 0.4 -- --

Perchloroethylene 50 339 200 1357

Stoddard solvent 100 525 -- --

Trichloroethylene 50 269 200 1070

NOTE: Threshold limit values (TLVs) are subject to change annually. Check
latest edition of TLV booklet. Time weighted average (TWA).

END OF APPENDIX E

MD0165 E-1
 APPENDIX F

GUIDE FOR SELECTION OF RESPIRATORS

Hazard Respirator

Oxygen deficiency. Self-contained breathing apparatus.

Hose mask with blower (Type A).

Combination airline respirator (Type C) with auxiliary

self-contained air supply or an air storage receiver
with alarm.

Gas and vapor Self-contained breathing apparatus.

contaminants immediately
dangerous to life or health. Hose mask with blower (Type A).

Air-purifying, full face-piece respirator with chemical

canister (gas mask for escape only).*

Self rescue mouthpiece respirator (for escape only).*

Combination air line respirator (Type C) with auxiliary
self contained air supply or an air storage receiver
with alarm.

Not immediately dangerous Air-line respirator (Type C).

to life or health.
Hose mask without blower (Type B).

Air purifying, gas mask or chemical cartridge

respirator with appropriate canister or cartridge.

*Not for use against gases or vapors with poor warning properties or that generate high
heat or reaction with sorbent materials in the canister or cartridge.

MD0165 F-1
 GUIDE FOR SELECTION OF RESPIRATORS (continued)
Hazard Respirator

Particulate contaminants Self-contained breathing apparatus.

immediately dangerous to
life or health. Hose mask with blower (Type A).

Air-purifying, full-face piece respirator (gas mask)

with appropriate filter (for escape only).*

Self-rescue mouthpiece respirator (for escape only).*

Combination air-line respirator (Type C) with auxiliary

self-contained air supply or air storage receiver with
alarm.

Not immediately dangerous Air purifying, half-mask or mouthpiece respirator with

to life or health. filter pad or cartridge.

Air-line respirator (Type C).

Air-line abrasive blasting respirator (Type CE).

Hose mask without blower (Type B or BE).

Combination gas, vapor, Self-contained breathing apparatus.

and particulate
contaminants immediately Hose mask with blower (Type A or AE).
dangerous to life or health.
Air purifying, full-face piece respirator with chemical
canister and appropriate filter (gas mask with filter).

Self-rescue mouthpiece respirator (for escape only).

Combination air-line respirator (Type C or CE) with

auxiliary self contained air supply or an air storage
receiver with alarm.

* Not for use against gases or vapors with poor warning properties or that generate
high heats or reaction with sorbent materials in the canister or cartridge.
END OF APPENDIX F

MD0165 F-2
 APPENDIX G

USE OF GR 1565, SOUND LEVEL METERS

1. Activation of instrument.

a. Slide power switch to "on" position.

b. Check batteries by depressing "BAT Check" button.

c. Replace batteries if needle does not go past the "BAT" mark on the meter
scale.

2. Calibration.

a. GR 1562 calibrator.

(1) Set the GR 1565 sound level meter to the 110-120 dB scale using the
range selector knob on the right side of the meter.

(2) Depress the A-weighting button.

(3) Insert the microphone adaptor into the calibrator.

(4) Check the calibrator battery.

(a) Turn the dial face counterclockwise to the start position and hold in
place.

(b) The light indicates the battery is good.

(5) Set the calibrator to 1000 Hz.

(a) Dial must be held in start position for at least 3 seconds prior to
turning to the desired frequency.

(b) Do not stop at the off position.

(6) Place the calibrator onto the sound level meter.

(7) Adjust the sound level meter to 114 dB(A) + 0.5.

(a) Use a jeweler's screwdriver to make adjustments.

(b) Adjust screw to the left of the weighting selector

buttons, inside a small hole.

MD0165 G-1
 b. GR 1987 calibrator.

(1) Set the GR 1565 sound lever meter to the desired range.

(a) 90-100 dB or 110-120 dB.

(b) Use the range that is closest to the expected readings.

(2) Depress the A weighting button.

(3) Turn the calibrator onto either 94 or 114 dB.

(4) Place the calibrator onto the sound level meter.

(5) Adjust sound level meter to the appropriate dB level.

3. Measurement.

a. Set the sound level meter to the highest dB range using the selector knob on
the right side of the instrument.

b. Depress the A weighting bottom (should already be depressed).

c. Depress the SLOW button.

d. Stand with the instrument extended in front of you with the sound coming from
the side.

e. Turn the range selector knob until the needle registers on the scale.

f. Record the reading.

(1) If the reading is steady, record as ________dB(A).

(2) If the reading is not steady, record as _____/_____dB(A).

END OF APPENDIX G

MD0165 G-2
 APPENDIX H

COMPLETION OF DD FORM 2214, NOISE SURVEY

1. Enter date of survey (A preliminary survey form is at page H-3).

2. Type of survey initial, resurvey, or other (special requests, and so forth).

3. Sound level meter, microphone, and calibrator date manufacturer, model, serial
number (if unable to get serial number from microphone, omit) calibration date (from
sticker).

4. Windscreen-used or not used-if measurements are taken both ways; place an

asterisk (*) in front of the "used" block and in the appropriate dB (A) or dB(C) block
of "sound level data."

5. Measurements obtained indoors or outdoors if both, place a cross (+) after outdoors
and in the appropriate location block of "sound level data."

6. Description of areas/duties.

a. Building number.

b. Map of area/building.

(1) ID location of measurements.

(2) 85 DB(A) or 140 dB(P) contours, if appropriate.

(3) ID location of sound sources.

(4) Location of warning signs.

c. Performance conditions of equipment.

(1) RPM.

(2) Load.

7. Primary noise source--loudest.

8. Secondary noise source--any other source of noise, hazardous or not.

MD0165 H-1
9. Sound level data.

a. Location--specific equipment and/or worker location relative to the sound

source, you may reference the map.

b. Meter action--"S" slow, "F" fast.

c. DB(C)--optional.

d. dB(A)--required except for impulse noise.

e. Risk assessment code--as appropriate.

10. Protection required--place a check mark in column that corresponds to appropriate

dB(A) level.

11. Remarks.

a. Type(s) of ear protection in use.

b. Posting of signs, decals.

c. Other deficiencies noted at time of survey.

12. More detailed evaluation requires yes or no. If yes, identify type required.

13. Persons identified for audiometric monitoring.

a. List by name all those persons exposed to sound levels above the standards.

b. Identify those persons not previously given audiometric testing.

14. Name, phone, and organization of supervisor of noise hazardous area--first line
supervisor.

15. Survey performed by--name and signature.

16. Hearing conservation monitor--usually Pvnt Med officer of audiologist, name and
signature.

MD0165 H-2
 Page___of___

PRELIMINARY INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE SURVEY FORM

Date ________ Installation/Directorate___________________Surveyed by______

Location Operation/Exposure # # Controls/

Bldg/Rm Exp Hrs Comments OK

END OF APPENDIX H

MD0165 H-3
 APPENDIX I

INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE FIELD NOTES

_____________________________________________________________________
LOCATION: Directorate, Branch, Building Number, Bay, Room, and so forth.
_____________________________________________________________________
OPERATION IDENTITY
_____________________________________________________________________
TYPE OF OPERATION:
SPACE: Describe room, Size in 3D, Operations isolated or not, and so forth.
_________________________________________________________________
PROCEDURES: How done, Continuous, Intermittent, Permanent, Temporary,
and so forth
_________________________________________________________________
PERSONNEL: No. of operators, helpers, others, male-female, and so forth.
_____________________________________________________________________
EXPOSURE AGENTS: Identify, explain source, no. of units, physical form, how
produced, at what temp, and so forth.
_____________________________________________________________________
PERSONNEL: Who, where, when, how many, how long.
_________________________________________________________________
MODE: Explain how exposure occurs, atmospheric contamination, direct contact,
ingestion, and so forth.
_________________________________________________________________
SAMPLING: What test made or samples collected, how many, where taken,
when, how long, conditions, instruments used, results, TLV or OSHA standard.
_________________________________________________________________
REMARKS: Trade name data, if no sample-why, adverse health effect
experienced or reported, by whom.
_____________________________________________________________________
ENGINEERING CONTROLS: Ventilation natural, mechanical, general, local exhaust
and supply-rates, enclosed, remote control, and so forth.
_________________________________________________________________
PERSONAL PROTECTION: Measures and equipment-effectiveness,
maintenance, supervision, and so forth.
_________________________________________________________________
OTHER: Wet method for dust, limited quantities, medical control, and so forth.
_____________________________________________________________________

INADEQUACY: ________________________________________________________

RECOMMENDATION: __________________________________________________

END OF APPENDIX I

MD0165 I-1
 APPENDIX J

EXAMPLE OF AN EVALUATION OF POTENTIAL HEALTH HAZARDS

Industrial Hygiene Survey--Motor Pool

AFZZ-DEH-T 14 July 200X

MEMORANDUM TO: C, Transportation Division.

1. References: AR 40-5; TB MED 251; Title 29 Code of Federal Regulations Part

1910; DF, AFZZ-DEH-T, Directorate of Industrial Operations, dated 30 June 1992,
subject: Request for Survey.

2. Purpose: The purpose of this survey was to evaluate the transportation motor
pool for the presence of actual or potential health hazards, and provide
recommendation for their control or elimination.

3. General: This survey was performed by SP5 Ernie Staph, of the Preventive
Medicine Division on 2 July 1992. He contacted Mr. Mack Truck, C, Transportation Div,
and briefed him on findings and recommendations. Equipment used during the survey
was a General Radio Sound Level Meter,
SN: 4732, calibrated 2 Apr 1992 and an Anemotherm air velocity meter, SN: 21,
calibrated 1 Feb 92.

4. Findings and Discussion: Areas surveyed and comments are listed below:

a. Grinding--five grinders are used in the shops, but protective goggles were
available on only three.

b. Engine tuning.

(1) In Building 743, no powered exhaust ventilation was present, but tight
fitting flexible tubing was being used and vented outside. This is adequate.

(2) In Building744, a powered exhaust system was present, but exhaust

volume was only 100-cfm (cubic feet per minute) per outlet. Since M-35A2 multi-fuel
trucks were the largest vehicles maintained, at least 168 cfm is required to control
exhaust emissions.

c. Solvent and carburetor cleaning--covered solvent tanks were used for

solvent cleaning and Stoddard Solvent was used as a solvent. Speedclene was the
carburetor cleaner and it was also in a covered tank. Gloves and washing facilities
were available.

MD0165 J-1
 d. Spray painting--Touch-up painting was done in Building 742 by one man, about
2 hours per day. He had three spray paint respirators, BM 23B-19, and all were coated
with paint on the inside and had missing or hardened seals. The paint booth was not
operating due to a broken fan. This poses a significant hazard to the health of the
painter. Unless 75 fpm (feet per minute) of airflow is maintained in the booth, an airline
respirator with suitable air supply is required. Even with the airflow, a new respirator
with suitable air supply is required. Even with the airflow, new respirators must be
procured.

e. Welding--Arc an oxyacetylene welding was performed in the motor pool and

necessary protective equipment was present.

f. Noise--Several exposures to excessive noise (90 dB(A) during engine tuning)

were observed. No protection was used and no hearing tests were being done on the
personnel.

5. Recommendations: The following recommendations are made to eliminate

hazards found during this survey:

a. Provide goggles for the two grinders in Building 743.

b. Increase airflow in the powered exhaust system for Building 744 to the required
168 cfm at each outlet.

c. Repair the paint booth fan to provide 75 fpm of airflow through the booth.
Procure new paint spray respirators, NSN 4240-00-022-2524, and maintain them
properly. In the interim, spray outside or with the painter wearing an approved air line
respirator.

d. Enroll personnel in the post hearing conservation program and require the
use of either earplugs or earmuffs while tuning M 35-A2 trucks.

6. Any further assistance may be obtained by contacting this office at 221-2646.

FOR THE CHIEF, PREVENTIVE MEDICINE DIVISION:

JOHN SNIFFER
2LT, MSC
SANITARY ENGINEER

END OF APPENDIX J

MD0165 J-2
 APPENDIX K

INSTRUCTIONS FOR COMPLETING AEHA FORM 8-R, BULK SAMPLE DATA

1. Return address. Self-explanatory.

2. Point of contact. Name and telephone number/DSN of person in charge of

sampling/project.

3. Sampled installation. Self-explanatory.

4. Project number. For USAEHA and DSA use only.

5. ARLOC. Army location code - reference DA Pams 525-12 (CONUS) and 525-13
(Foreign).

6. Samples collected by. Self-explanatory.

7. Data collected. Self-explanatory.

8. Date shipped. Date samples sent for analysis.

9. Description of operation. Brief description of the industrial operation (for example:

degreasing metal parts, spray painting vehicles, and so forth).

10. Location (building/area). Self-explanatory.

11. Associated complaints. Worker complaints about exposure problems arising from
operation (for example: dizziness, nausea, skin irritation, and so forth).

12. Associated air samples. If air samples corresponding to these bulks are submitted
for analysis, indicate and list the sample numbers that identify these air samples.
Ship air samples separately from bulk samples.

13. Label information.

a. Trade name. Self-explanatory; if unknown, so indicate.

b. NSN. If available, so indicate.

c. Manufacturer. Self-explanatory; if unknown, so indicate.

d. Address. Self-explanatory; if unknown, so indicate.

e. MSDS. Attach the MSDS, whenever possible, and so indicate.

MD0165 K-1
14. Analysis desired. List specific parameters when they are known or suspected to
be present otherwise, indicate general type of analysis desired (for example:
unknown solvents, and so forth).

15. Lab use only. Leave blank.

16. Sample number. Number that field personnel assigns to the sample number.
Use a consecutive numbering system so there is no duplication of numbers from
batch-to batch of samples.

17. Constituents. Leave blank.

18. Results. Leave blank.

19. Remarks. Leave blank.

20. Comments to lab. Use for any general information or remarks you wish to include.

21. Lab use only. Leave blank.

MD0165 K-2
MD0165 K-3
MD0165 K-4
 END OF APPENDIX K

MD0165 K-5
 COMMENT SHEET

SUBCOURSE MD0165 Occupational Health And Industrial Hygiene EDITION 100

Your comments about this subcourse are valuable and aid the writers in refining the subcourse and making it more
usable. Please enter your comments in the space provided. ENCLOSE THIS FORM (OR A COPY) WITH YOUR
ANSWER SHEET ONLY IF YOU HAVE COMMENTS ABOUT THIS SUBCOURSE..

FOR A WRITTEN REPLY, WRITE A SEPARATE LETTER AND INCLUDE SOCIAL SECURITY NUMBER,
RETURN ADDRESS (and e-mail address, if possible), SUBCOURSE NUMBER AND EDITION, AND
PARAGRAPH/EXERCISE/EXAMINATION ITEM NUMBER.

PLEASE COMPLETE THE FOLLOWING ITEMS:

(Use the reverse side of this sheet, if necessary.)

1. List any terms that were not defined properly.

2. List any errors.

paragraph error correction

3. List any suggestions you have to improve this subcourse.

4. Student Information (optional) PRIVACY ACT STATEMENT (AUTHORITY:

10USC3012(B) AND (G))
Name/Rank PURPOSE: To provide Army Correspondence Course Program
SSN students a means to submit inquiries and comments.
Address
USES: To locate and make necessary change to student records.

E-mail Address DISCLOSURE: VOLUNTARY. Failure to submit SSN will prevent

Telephone number (DSN) subcourse authors at service school from accessing
student records and responding to inquiries requiring
MOS/AOC such follow-ups.

U.S. ARMY MEDICAL DEPARTMENT CENTER AND SCHOOL Fort Sam Houston, Texas 78234-6130