Social workers practice in many, diverse contexts and increasingly their
job titles are not ‘social worker’ but ‘child protection officer’, ‘probation officer’ and ‘manager’. So you will find social workers in child welfare and mental health agencies, working with people with disabilities, in juvenile justice, crime prevention and rehabilitation, residential care, aged care, and fostercare and adoption.
Increasingly in South Africa, the dominant approach to social work
practice is ‘developmental social work’, which means social workers focus on issues of poverty and underdevelopment2.
Generally, we talk about social work practice taking place at various or
different levels and by this is meant social workers work with individuals and families (direct practice, which can be therapeutic or clinical, though this is less likely within a developmental social work model), with groups of people, with communities (through groups of people or advocating on behalf of sectional interests) and at the policy level to change unjust policies and practices and achieve a more just and equitable distribution of resources for those whom they serve.
KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS
In exploring the social work practice in the South African context, we introduce the following important terms and concepts:
an integrated or holistic approach
practice contexts problem-solving model indigenous theory and practice relevant social work practice residual & partnership models of welfare
1 NB This is a prepublication version of Chapter 6 in ‘Social Work: A Beginner’s Text’, published by Juta and written by Andrea Bernstein and Mel Gray. The book was intended for beginning students in social work at the time it was written in 1996. A good exercise would be for students to update information on policy and statistics, to compare changes affecting social work practice since 1996. 2 See Gray, M. (2010). Theories of social work practice. In Nicholas, L., Rautenbach, J., & Maistry, M. (ed). Introduction to Social Work (pp. 75-98). Cape Town: Juta. ISBN: 9780702177682. 2
6 Social work practice
Social work always has a dual or balanced commitment,
as is evident in its emphasis on:
the individual and society,
providing services and working towards change, and individual help and community practice.
In this chapter we will examine the need for this balance or tension in the process of problem-solving and the way in which the holistic or integrated approach to social work practice enables us to achieve this.
We will use the idea of three levels of the environment which we
described in the second chapter - the micro-level, the mezzo or mid- level, and the macro-level - to structure our discussion.
You will remember from chapter 2 that we noted that social work's holistic approach entails practice at all of these system levels.
Micro-level practice Working with individuals, families and small groups as the client system is often called micro-level practice. At this level social workers engage directly with the client and may be involved in counselling or therapy, referral, or direct assistance (for example, in the provision of material aid). The helping process is a partnership which involves the social worker in collaborating or working together with the client. The focus is on the client's strengths, abilities and potential competencies.
Still at the micro-level of practice, a groupwork approach can be used in
helping individuals with common problems to meet their needs. The social worker brings together a group of people who may be able to influence one another through sharing their experiences and knowledge and who can provide mutual support and encouragement. The group
is both the context and means through which its
members support and modify their attitudes, interpersonal relationships and abilities to cope effectively with their environments (Northern, 1969: 13).
The focus of the group may be on helping members with their individual problems and on enhancing the level of social functioning of its members — for example, helping teenage drug users to change their 3
lifestyles. Other groups may have an educational goal — for example,
where parents join a social work group in order to improve their parenting skills. When the groupwork method is used at the micro- level, the group becomes the medium through which an individual grows and changes.
Mezzo or mid-level practice
This level of practice focuses on formal groups and complex organisations. These might be associations, clubs, self-help groups, social work agencies, schools, prisons, hospitals, businesses or industries. Complex organisations include public and private bodies. Generally, their purpose is to coordinate people and resources in order to provide products and/or services.
In working at this level, the focus of change is
the group or organisation itself, rather than individual members.
The social worker may act as a facilitator who assists the functioning of the group or organisation. This may involve creating or strengthening links among the members of the organisation, facilitating group decision-making and evaluating programmes.
TASK Consider again the case of the Pavement People described in the reading in Appendix 1.
How could a social worker, employed by the City Council, help council members to identify their priorities in relation to providing services for this community of people?
In general, social workers may provide resources such as consulting
services, information, education, staff development, service planning and evaluation.
Macro-level practice The macro-level refers to communities and societies and macro-level practices are aimed at social development and change in order to improve people's lives. Practice at this level reflects social work's values of social justice and its tradition of social reform. While the philanthropists of the 19th century were concerned with improving and uplifting the lives of the poverty-stricken and the powerless in society, 4
today's social workers emphasise working in partnership with the
oppressed or disenfranchised.
Social workers might be involved in such issues as planning the
delivery of social services or helping to resolve intergroup conflict in a specific community.
They might also be involved in international concerns such as human
rights, world poverty and the protection of the environment.
The goal of all these activities is the
promotion of social justice through community and societal change.
Often social workers need to work their way through the various levels of intervention, from the micro- to the macro-levels, in addressing the concerns of individuals and groups in society. Remember that at whichever levels they work, whether with individuals, groups and/or communities, problems are defined in relation to the interaction and transactions between people and their environments. Drawing on their holistic approach and awareness of both person and environment, social workers may help clients find solutions to their problems from within themselves or from their environmental contexts, or both.
TASK
Think about how Anna's case (see Chapter 1) could be responded to at
each of the levels of intervention; that is, at the micro-level, mezzo-level and macro-level.
Now read the example given below and note the holistic approach adopted in the problem of domestic violence.
An Example:
A woman who has been battered and seeks a social worker's help may initially need help on an individual level in trying to assess her existing situation and plan her future. This may involve the social worker in working with her to help her develop a sense of self-esteem as well as working with her family or other support networks.
In addition, the social worker may organise groups for battered women to come together and discuss their common problems. Through this group experience, individuals could gain strength and help one another to deal with their particular situations. They may decide to form a mutual-aid or self-help 5
group and could consult with a social worker regarding the focus of an educational programme. Some groups could campaign for women's shelters to be established to protect women and give them a refuge.
The social worker may at the same time also be involved in empowering women generally to campaign for changes in the law, aimed at protecting them from attack by their husbands or partners.
In the example given here, the social worker uses a holistic approach to the problem of wife battering. This approach is summarised in Figure 2 below.
FIGURE 2: HOLISTIC APPROACH TO PROBLEM-
RESOLUTION E x a m p l e : a woman who has been abused seeks social work help
MICRO-LEVEL PRACTICE
Individuals The individual, e.g. a battered woman seeking and receiving help for herself
Families Family counselling could include the woman who is being abused, her spouse, her children and any other members of the household or extended family.
Small groups Using groups to help individuals, e.g., abused women, men who abuse, children who live in situations of domestic violence.
MEZZO-LEVEL PRACTICE
Formal group Consulting with a self-help group established by battered women to develop a programme which will meet their needs
MACRO-LEVEL PRACTICE
Society Changing policies and laws, e.g. laws which affect women
Community Engaging people with common problems as a collective, in struggling for changes in the law and for the allocation of new resources or environmental supports, e.g., women's shelters
When social workers intervene at all these levels, we say that they are using an integrated approach.
The term "client system" is used to show that
the "client" may be an individual, a family, a group or a community. The problem-solving process is used at all client system levels (micro, mezzo and macro). 6
TASK
The Pavement People reading identifies a number of roles which social
workers might take on. Using Figure 2 on the previous page as a guide, categorise these suggestions according to the level of practice which they address. Try to give at least one example of your own in each category.
In the Pavement People reading, it is claimed that social workers could
help through taking the following pro-active steps to bring about change:
Correcting public misconceptions about the people living in Block AK.
Facilitating interaction between the City Council and women of Block AK regarding their needs, specifically their housing needs. Mobilising and creating resources, for example, for cheap raw materials or equipment, and linking the community with existing organisations and services. Intervening at a structural level to ensure that petty bureaucracy does not inhibit the community's potential for trading and the development of informal activity business activities. Advocating and lobbying for a public housing programme. Forming income-generating cooperatives. Conducting skills development programmes. Gaining access to start-up capital, perhaps through the initiation of "people's banks" or developing programmes using funding to provide small loans. Improving the water and sanitation arrangements. Developing health services.
These are all examples of the kinds of services which might be
developed in partnership with this community. All of these activities would make a worthwhile contribution as part of a community development model which Gray and Bernstein (1991) consider to be the most appropriate model for relevant social work in our changing society.
In our discussion of the historical development of social welfare (Chapter 3), we
pointed out that ‘community development’ has the same overall goals as ‘social development’ but takes place at the local level and emphasises self-help and individual empowerment. Its focus is on achieving economic and social progress for the whole community through the active participation and initiative of community members. Social development, on the other hand, is much broader than this. It embraces social policies and programmes which link "social welfare directly to economic development policies and programs" (Midgley, 1995: 1). 7
How do social workers actually go about helping people?
The helping process used in social work is guided by a
problem-solving model. This model provides a systematic, sequential or step-by-step framework to guide the helping process.
The first step in the problem-solving model involves identifying and
defining the problem (a troubling situation or event) in order to develop an understanding of it. Often the troubling situation which prompts the client to come for help (referred to as the precipitating problem or event) is not the real problem and the real or underlying problem situation is only revealed as the situation is explored more fully. While exploring the problem with the client, the social worker needs to develop a warm, accepting relationship within which potential solutions are considered, possible outcomes and their anticipated consequences are weighed against one another, and a decision is made as to the best course of action to follow in order to reach a resolution of the problem.
TASK
Thinking back again to Anna's story, the precipitating problem or event
which led Anna to the social worker was her pregnancy. Suppose that, on further exploration of the problem, the social worker finds that Anna has been taking drugs. How would this change the way in which the social worker would intervene with Anna?
P roblem-solving is a method which flows from social work's central
values described in the previous chapter. It is designed to enable clients to be self-determining or autonomous, as discussed in Chapter 5.
It empowers them to solve their own problems. Social workers should
not impose their values or solutions on clients. Rather, the client should be involved in the whole process since the more the client is involved in solving her/his problems, the more likely it is that the solution arrived at will be a workable solution. By following this approach, the social worker is not only helping the client to resolve the particular problem which has been presented, but is also teaching the client a model for problem- solving in the future.
The role of the social worker is to recognise that individuals
have strengths and competencies or abilities which enable them to direct or take control of their own lives. The social worker's aim is to help people become responsible and this aim is achieved, not by 8
exercising power or by being manipulative, but by gently yet firmly
discussing expectations and goals. The aim is to enable clients to develop their potential competencies so that, as individuals, they are able to interact positively with their environment. It is important that, rather than adopting an attitude of knowing what is best for the client, the social worker focus on assisting the client to participate in developing alternatives, to make decisions from alternatives and to implement these decisions. By using a problem-solving approach to helping social workers aim to ensure that clients are respected and given maximum freedom and autonomy in directing the helping process.
A problem-solving model
1. Identify, define and assess the problem
In this first step of the problem-solving process, the social worker enables clients to tell their story (Egan, 1994).
This involves helping clients to describe their
problems in terms of their current experiences, feelings and thoughts.
It helps to clarify all aspects of the problem situation
including who else is involved and which aspects of the social environment are important.
It is also important at this stage to be clear about who
specifically is involved in any particular aspect of the problem situation (i.e. who "owns" the problem).
Both the person and the broader social context of the problem must be considered and the problem should be defined in terms of the interaction between the person and the social environment. The focus of the problem identification should be the client system's strengths and competencies and the social worker and client need to arrive at a mutually agreed-upon definition of the problem.
The social worker needs to use skills of attentive listening, clarification
and reflection of feelings to help the client develop a clear definition or understanding of her/his situation. The following is an example of an interaction between a social worker and a client (let us call her Susanna) as they work towards identifying and defining the client's problem: 9
Susanna bursts into tears as she tells the worker that her husband has left her and she has no money to buy food for her children. The social worker responds by saying, "you're feeling heartbroken and lost because your husband has left you and you don't know who to turn to for help".
This kind of response shows the client that the social worker is trying to understand the problem situation from the client's point of view. The social worker's ability to perceive and communicate — accurately and with sensitivity — the feelings of the client and the meaning of those feelings, is termed "accurate empathy". Together with warmth (acceptance, liking, commitment and unconditional regard), and genuineness (openness, spontaneity and sincerity), these are the skills necessary for developing helping relationships (Fischer, 1978: 329).
Successful relationship building helps
to establish mutual trust and confidence and an environment that is conducive to change.
It is important that the client and social worker work together to
understand the nature of the problem and how best to reduce its impact. This aspect of the helping process is often referred to as assessment. It consists of
an appraisal of the situation,
an evaluation of the client's ability to deal with the situation, and
a definition of the problem.
This then becomes the basis for later developing a course of action and specific goals for the client and worker.
2. Consider possible solutions
As the social worker and client continue to explore the problem, and as their understanding of the problem deepens, possible solutions to the problem become apparent. The client and the social worker try to generate as many solutions to the problem as possible. The aim of this part of the problem-solving process is to generate a whole range of possibilities. Some of the suggestions may conflict with values held by the client, the worker or the organisation which the worker represents. However it is important at this stage that neither the social worker nor the client censors any of the solutions which come to mind. 10
TASK
Think of as many possible solutions as you can for Susanna's problem.
3. Choose an alternative The social worker and the client discuss each of the alternatives generated in Stage 2. They discuss, particularly, the advantages and disadvantages of each possibility and then choose the alternative that the client prefers; that is, the solution most suited to the needs, abilities and values of the client system.
TASK
Which do you think is the best alternative for Susanna's problem?
(Remember in an actual case, the client has to decide for herself).
4. Identify a solution and develop a plan of action
This is the stage of the problem-solving process at which the social worker and the client set goals to enable the client to work towards a resolution of the problem. Goals establish who will do what by when and how the specific tasks will be accomplished. The proposed solution may be directed at individual change (micro-level intervention), organisational or group change (mezzo-level intervention) and/or community or social change (macro-level intervention). The plan of action may draw on the resources of the formal social welfare system, and/or the client's own social network, including the immediate and extended family, neighbours or other community members, teachers, religious leaders and friends. In considering solutions it is also important that cultural factors and values be considered. The social worker needs to be sensitive to and take into account the client's traditions and cultural practices.
TASK
Outline a possible plan of action towards solving Susanna's problem.
11
5. Implement the plan of action
The plan which has been agreed upon is implemented. It may involve change in terms of the individual and/or the environment. During this phase activities need to be monitored regularly, results assessed and, if necessary, modifications made. The involvement of the social worker and the client in this stage of the process consists of the social worker providing regular feedback, support and an honest assessment of the progress of the problem-solving efforts. The social worker works at enabling the client to use available resources, supporting the client's efforts at improved social functioning. The social worker may also work on behalf of the client to coordinate services, plan and develop programmes, negotiate change in the environment and advocate (or lobby for) social change.
6. Evaluate the process and the outcome
It is crucial to evaluate both the process and the outcome of the problem-solving which has taken place. Social workers have to be accountable for what they do and it is obviously important to assess whether the outcome has been helpful — that is, whether the problem- solving process has helped to resolve or change the client's problem situation. However, even if the outcome goals were not achieved, it is important to evaluate why the goals were not accomplished and how to avoid similar mistakes in the future. This evaluation of the problem- solving process helps the social worker to assess the experience from the client's perspective and occurs continuously throughout the process.
TASK
Think about the holistic, integrated approach of social work — and its method of problem-solving — and apply these to the problem of street children: How would you define the problem of street children? What possible solutions could there be to this problem? How would you offer individual services to street children? What types of groups could you run? What kinds of services or programmes do they need? How should private organisations and the local authorities respond to this problem? What should be done nationally in terms of appropriate government policy to deal with the problem of street children? How would you evaluate your work with the street children? 12
Summary
This chapter has dealt with the various levels of practice at which social workers intervene and the problem-solving approach which social workers use at these levels of the environment.
This text is concerned with presenting a beginning understanding of
social work. We have established what the discipline is about by defining and describing it, we have acknowledged its history and noted shifts in the means of concepts and methods used, and have focused on some of the central issues and topics with which it is concerned and the methods it uses in approaching these topics. These views have been structured through:
1. The nature of social work and its diverse purposes, the subject of Chapter 1. 2. Social work in context, dealt with in Chapter 2. 3. The historical development of social welfare, outlined in Chapter 3. 4. The historical development of the discipline and the profession of social work, discussed in Chapter 4. 5. Professional values which respect people’s dignity, diversity and right to make their own choices, and which further social work’s pursuit of social justice, covered in Chapter 5. 6. The practice methods used in empowering clients to participate in the problem-solving process, described in Chapter 6.
We have emphasised in this text that social work is a contextually
based profession. The final chapter of this text outlines some of the particular features of the South African social, political and economic context and the impact of these features on social welfare policy and social work practice.
