2.

Satellite theory

In this section we shall employ the concepts learnt in field theory to understand motion
of satellites and planets. We shall divide the theory into two parts- 1. Circular orbits and
2. Elliptical orbits. Let’s get started!

2.1 Circular orbits

Satellites that humans have sent into space are termed as artificial satellites. Moon is a
natural satellite of Earth. Artificial satellites move on circular orbits. The gravitational
attraction force exerted by Earth serves as the required centripetal force. Consider a
satellite of mass ‘m’ revolving around a planet of mass ‘M’ in an orbit or radius ‘r’ with
some speed ‘V’. This ‘V’ is called the orbital speed.

𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝑚𝑉 2
=
𝑟2 𝑟
𝐺𝑀
⇒𝑉= √
𝑟

Important points regarding satellite motion

• The orbital speed is independent of mass of satellite.

• The plane of orbit must contain the centre of planet.
Carefully observe above figure. Six orbits are shown. 3 out of these 6 are drawn using
dashed lines. Satellite cannot move on such orbit as their plane do not contain centre of
planet while the ones drawn using solid line are the possible ones.

• A satellite is a freely falling object towards the planet. Hence weightlessness is

experienced in a satellite.
• If an object detaches gently from a satellite, then this object will itself become a
satellite revolving around the planet in same orbit.

Other parameters
𝐺𝑀
√ 𝐺𝑀
𝑟
Angular velocity ω of satellite = V/r = = √
𝑟 𝑟3

2𝜋 𝑟3
Time period T = = 2𝜋√
𝜔 𝐺𝑀

𝑚𝑉 2 𝐺𝑀𝑚
K = Kinetic energy of satellite = =
2 2𝑟

𝐺𝑀𝑚
U = gravitational potential energy = − 𝑟

𝐺𝑀𝑚
E = Total mechanical energy = K + U = − 2𝑟

Artificial satellites are of two types 1. Geo-stationary or Geo-synchronous 2. Polar

satellite

1. Geo-synchronous satellites

These are satellites that stay vertically above specific points of Earth. To be able to
achieve this property, following conditions must be satisfied-
 • The satellite must be in an orbit that lies vertically above equator.
• The radius of orbit is fixed. Thus we can say that there is a unique orbit for the
satellite to be geostationary. The radius of orbit is approximately 42000 km
• The time period of satellite must match with time period of rotation of Earth. So
time period is 24 hours.
• The satellite must move from West to East.

These satellites are primarily used for communications and television broadcasting
purposes.

2. Polar satellites

These satellites are low altitude satellites that fly over the poles. They move just above
the layer of atmosphere. Their time period is approximately 100 minutes. They are able
to scan entire Earth in several rounds, hence they are used for surveillance, spying,
weather monitoring etc.

2.2 Elliptical orbits

The motion of natural satellites around planets and of planets around Sun takes place in
elliptical orbits. The principles governing motion in elliptical orbit are stated in Kepler’s
laws. Note that circle is a special case of ellipse, therefore whatever result is valid for an
elliptical orbit, it is bound to be valid for circular orbits also but the converse is not true.

KEPLER’S LAWS

1. Law of elliptical orbit.

The planets revolve around the Sun in elliptical orbits with Sun situated at one of the
foci of ellipse.

2. Law of Area
The rate at which area is swept by the position vector of planet with respect to Sun
remains constant for a planet throughout the elliptical path.
Figure shows planet in three positions P,Q and R. If the time taken by planet to move
from P to Q is same as time taken to move from Q to R, then A1 = A2. In other words, if
dA/dt indicate the rate at which area is swept by position vector, then dA/dt would be a
constant.

NOTE : This law is a direct consequence of the fact that the angular momentum of
planet about Sun remains conserved throughout the motion on planet. In fact, on doing
appropriate math, we can derive that

𝑑𝐴 𝐿
=
𝑑𝑡 2𝑚
Where ‘L’ = angular momentum of planet about Sun.

3. Law of period
This law states that the square of time period of revolution is directly proportional to the
cube of length of semi-major axis of ellipse. The exact relation is given below.

2
4𝜋 2 𝑎3
𝑇 =
𝐺𝑀
Where M is the mass of Sun
2.3 Calculations on elliptical orbit

The position of planet when it is nearest to Sun is called Perihelion or Perigee ( depicted
by subscript 1) and the position of planet when it is farthest from Sun is called Aphelion
or Apogee ( depicted by subscript 2). We wish to find expressions that can tell us the
speed of planet at these positions in terms of masses of planet ( denoted by ‘m’) and
Sun ( denoted by ‘M’) and the distance r1 and r2.

From energy conservation, we get

−𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝑚𝑉12 −𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝑚𝑉22

+ = +
𝑟1 2 𝑟2 2

From conservation of Angular momentum,

𝑚𝑉1 𝑟1 sin 90𝑜 = 𝑚𝑉2 𝑟2 sin 90𝑜

On solving above two equations for V1 and V2, we get

2𝐺𝑀 𝑟2 𝐺𝑀 𝑟2
𝑉1 = √ = √
(𝑟1 + 𝑟2 ) 𝑟1 𝑎 𝑟1

2𝐺𝑀 𝑟1 𝐺𝑀 𝑟1
& 𝑉2 = √ = √
(𝑟1 + 𝑟2 ) 𝑟2 𝑎 𝑟2

We can also frame expressions for energy and angular momentum.

−𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝐸=
2𝑎

2𝐺𝑀𝑟1 𝑟2
& 𝐿 = 𝑚√
(𝑟1 + 𝑟2 )
Example:
Find the minimum and maximum speed with which the planet shown moves. Also find
the time period of oscillation.

Solution :

Minimum speed will be at apogee.

2𝐺𝑀 𝑅 𝐺𝑀
𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 = √ =√
(𝑅 + 2𝑅) 2𝑅 3𝑅

Maximum speed will be at perigee.

2𝐺𝑀 2𝑅 4𝐺𝑀
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √ =√
(𝑅 + 2𝑅) 𝑅 3𝑅

Time period
2
4𝜋 2 𝑎3 2
4𝜋 2 (1.5𝑅)3
𝑇 = = 𝑇 =
𝐺𝑀 𝐺𝑀
3𝑅 3
⇒ 𝑇 = 3𝜋√
2𝐺𝑀

Example:

Find the speed Vo with which the particle should be projected so that it grazes the
planet of mass ‘M’ and radius ‘R’.
Solution:

For the shown situation, rmin = R and rmax = kR

2𝐺𝑀 𝑅 2𝐺𝑀
⇒ 𝑉𝑜 = √ = √
(𝑅 + 𝑘𝑅) 𝑘𝑅 (1 + 𝑘)𝑘𝑅

2.4 Establishing a satellite in an orbit

Suppose we wish to install an artificial satellite in an orbit of radius ‘r’ . To do so, first a
rocket carries the satellite from surface of Earth to desired distance and then it orients
itself in a direction perpendicular to position vector with respect to centre of Earth and
𝐺𝑀
then it fires its boosters to provide orbital speed √ to satellite. The boosters stay
𝑟
switched on for very short span of time. If rocket is able to provide orbital speed
successfully, then the satellite will start its circular motion in the orbit. If some error
occurs, following possibility exists.

Case trajectory Remark

E > 0, Satellite will possess
2𝐺𝑀 Satellite follows a hyperbolic
V>√ some kinetic energy at infinity
𝑟 trajectory and escapes to infinity
also
2𝐺𝑀 Satellite follows a parabolic E = 0 , satellite will possess
V=√ 𝑟 trajectory and escapes to infinity zero kinetic energy at infinity
𝐺𝑀 2𝐺𝑀 Satellite moves on elliptical E < 0 , the point of projection
√ <V<√
𝑟 𝑟 trajectory will become perigee
𝐺𝑀
V=√ Satellite moves on circular orbit E < 0 ,Launch is successful
𝑟
E < 0 , the point of projection
will become apogee. Vc
𝐺𝑀 Satellite moves on an elliptical indicates the speed below
Vc < V < √ 𝑟 orbit which the satellite will hit the
planet. Its calculation is
shown in last example.
In case the rocket errs in setting up its direction appropriately, then circular orbit is out of
question now. If speed is kept less than escape sped, ellipse will be formed, if speed is
equal to escape speed, parabolic trajectory will be formed and if speed is more than
escape, hyperbolic trajectory will be formed.

Example :

A satellite of mass ‘m’ is revolving in a circular orbit ‘A’ of radius ‘r’ around a planet of
mass ‘M’ . We wish to transfer the satellite to another orbit ‘B’ of radius ‘2r’. Find the
amount of energy that should be given to satellite to achieve the given objective. The
procedure includes firing up the boosters installed in the satellite for a short span of time
so that the satellite may leave orbit ‘A’ and start moving on the elliptical orbit ‘C’ as
shown in figure. When the satellite reaches apogee ‘Y’, the boosters are once again
fired so that the satellite may change its orbit to ‘B’. The orbit change has thus been
accomplished. Find the energy gain in each booster firing event. Is the sum matching
with answer found previously? If booster firing time is considered negligible, how long
will it take to complete the orbit change procedure?
Solution:

−𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝐸𝐴 = 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡 𝐴 =
2𝑟
−𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝐸𝐵 = 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡 𝐵 =
2(2𝑟)

𝐺𝑀𝑚
∆𝐸 = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝐸𝐵 − 𝐸𝐴 =
4𝑟

𝐺𝑀
𝑉𝐴 = 𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡 𝐴 = √
𝑟

𝐺𝑀
𝑉𝐵 = 𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡 𝐵 = √
2𝑟

2𝐺𝑀 2𝑟 4𝐺𝑀
𝑉1 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡 𝐶 = √ = √
(𝑟 + 2𝑟) 𝑟 3𝑟

2𝐺𝑀 𝑟 𝐺𝑀
𝑉2 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡 𝐶 = √ = √
(𝑟 + 2𝑟) 2𝑟 3𝑟

In first booster firing event, the speed of satellite is changed from V A to V1. Thus Energy
gain in this event is ΔE1 given by
 𝑚𝑉12 𝑚𝑉𝐴2 2𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝐺𝑀𝑚
∆𝐸1 = − = − =
2 2 3𝑟 2𝑟 6𝑟
In second booster firing event, the speed of satellite is changed from V 2 to VB. Thus
Energy gain in this event is ΔE2 given by

𝑚𝑉𝐵2 𝑚𝑉22 𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝐺𝑀𝑚

∆𝐸2 = − = − =
2 2 4𝑟 6𝑟 12𝑟
𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝐺𝑀𝑚
Total energy supplied by boosters = ΔE1 + ΔE2 = + =
6𝑟 12𝑟 4𝑟

The energy matches!

Time taken to execute the orbit change procedure would be half of the time period for
elliptical orbit C.
3
3𝑟
2𝜋[ ]2
2
[ ] 3
3𝑟 2
√𝐺𝑀
𝑇 𝜋[2]
𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = = =
2 2 √𝐺𝑀
Example :

A particle is projected with a speed which is equal to half the escape speed from the
surface of Earth at an angle of 60o from horizontal. Take Me and Re to be mass and
radius of Earth respectively and find the maximum height attained by the particle from
the surface of Earth.

Solution:

Notice that the language of this question is quite similar to questions dealt with in
projectile motion chapter but we cannot apply that theory here. The projection speed is
too large and the height attained will be comparable to radius of Earth so for this motion,
we cannot assume ‘g’ to remain constant for entire trajectory- an assumption that was
integral in theory of projectile motion.

Since the projection speed is less than escape, the particle will move on a bounded
orbit ( elliptical in this case) and the maximum height from surface of Earth will be
attained when particle is at apogee of orbit. We will frame equations of energy
conservation and angular momentum conservation afresh and solve them to get the
desired result.
Use point of projection as initial and the apogee as final point.

Energy conservation gives

−𝐺𝑀𝑒 𝑚 𝑚[𝑉𝑒 /2]2 −𝐺𝑀𝑒 𝑚 𝑚[𝑉]2

+ = +
𝑅𝑒 2 𝑅𝑒 + ℎ 2

Angular momentum conservation gives

0
𝑚[𝑉𝑒 /2]𝑅𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛30 = 𝑚𝑉(𝑅𝑒 + ℎ)𝑠𝑖𝑛900

On solving we get

[√13 − 2]𝑅𝑒
ℎ= = 0.27𝑅𝑒
6

2.5 Double star system

In a double star system two stars revolve around their centre of mass of system.
Situation is shown in figure. Stars of mass m1 and m2 are separated by distance ‘r’.
They are revolving about the CM of system on circular orbits of radius r1 and r2 given by
𝑚2
𝑟1 = 𝑟
𝑚1 + 𝑚2
𝑚1
& 𝑟1 = 𝑟
𝑚1 + 𝑚2

The two stars move in a manner such that they cover equal angles in equal intervals of
time. Thus equation governing the motion of stars is

𝐺𝑚1 𝑚2
2
= 𝑚1 𝜔2 𝑟1
𝑟
On solving, we get

𝐺(𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )
𝜔=√
𝑟3

In a similar manner, we can think about triple star system also.